DOCSLIB.ORG

Jeffrey Eli Pearson

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Jeffrey Eli Pearson UC Berkeley UC Berkeley Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of their History and Material Culture Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4dx9g1rj Author Pearson, Jeffrey Eli Publication Date 2011 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of their History and Material Culture By Jeffrey Eli Pearson A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in Charge: Erich Gruen, Chair Chris Hallett Andrew Stewart Benjamin Porter Spring 2011 Abstract Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of their History and Material Culture by Jeffrey Eli Pearson Doctor of Philosophy in Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology University of California, Berkeley Erich Gruen, Chair The Nabataeans, best known today for the spectacular remains of their capital at Petra in southern Jordan, continue to defy easy characterization. Since they lack a surviving narrative history of their own, in approaching the Nabataeans one necessarily relies heavily upon the commentaries of outside observers, such as the Greeks, Romans, and Jews, as well as upon comparisons of Nabataean material culture with Classical and Near Eastern models. These approaches have elucidated much about this enigmatic civilization but have not always fully succeeded in locating specifically Nabataean motivations and perspectives within and behind the sources. To address this lacuna, my dissertation provides a critical re-reading and analysis of the ancient evidence, including literary, documentary, numismatic, epigraphic, art historical, and archaeological material, in order to explore the Nabataeans’ reaction to, effect upon, and engagement with, historical events and cultural movements during the period from 312 BCE, when the Nabataeans first appear in the historical record in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great, to the annexation of their territory by the Romans in 106 CE. I seek to properly acknowledge the ways in which the Nabataeans self-consciously shaped their own political and cultural destinies while interacting with the broader Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds. While identification, analysis, and articulation of the Nabataean viewpoint guides the dissertation, the project also broadly challenges or qualifies several important assumptions about the Nabataean civilization. In treating the period from 312 BCE to the eastern settlement of Pompey in 63 BCE, I argue that the Nabataeans played a more important role in the Hellenistic world than has generally been acknowledged— especially for the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE—and I articulate the nature and significance of their position vis-à-vis their neighbors and rivals, both regional and further a-field, specifically from the Nabataean point of view. This analysis makes an important contribution to current discussions of the development of Nabataean identity and culture, and it can serve as a model for viewing other under-explored Hellenistic civilizations in the Near East. Events in the ensuing period, after 63 BCE, take place under the broad shadow of the extension of Roman power in the eastern Mediterranean, but by analyzing internationally important events of this period, such as the Roman expedition to Arabia ordered by Augustus, from a specifically Nabataean vantage point, I am able to show that 1 the Nabataeans’ self-interest often did not align with Roman objectives, and that their foreign policy flourished on its own merits. These conclusions appropriately acknowledge Nabataean individuality and autonomy, challenging the widely asserted notion that Nabataea fits a prescribed model of a client—or dependent—state of Rome. In examining the last generations of Nabataean independence, I argue against the traditional characterization that sees during these years a gradual political, economic, and cultural decline for the Nabataeans, culminating in their annexation by the Romans in 106 CE. I demonstrate that the period instead represents a time of increasing sophistication and self- confidence on the part of the Nabataeans, not one of resignation or submission to the inevitability of Roman domination. 2 Meis Parentibus i TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements . iii List of Figures . iv Introduction . 1 Chapter 1: The Nabataeans and the Early Hellenistic Context . 5 Chapter 2: The Nabataeans and the Late Hellenistic Context . 24 Chapter 3: Aretas IV and the Nabataean Kingdom, 9 BCE to 40 CE . 42 Chapter 4: The Last Decades of Nabataean Independence, 40 to 106 CE . 64 Conclusion . 83 Bibliography . 85 Appendix: Map and Figures . 95 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I could not have completed a project of this scope without the considerable support, guidance, and encouragement I received along the way. I have been very fortunate in having so many outstanding teachers during the course of my academic studies. I begin by acknowledging my professors at Villanova University, especially Daniel Doyle, Ed Jaworowski, John Hunt, and the late Effie Coughanowr, and those at St. Andrews and Cambridge Universities, especially Christopher Smith, John Patterson, and Christopher Kelly. During my doctoral studies at Berkeley, I have studied and worked with many incredible professors, but I would like to particularly thank several for sharing some of the depth and breadth of their knowledge, for their infectious enthusiasm, and for their advice and counsel to me as an aspiring scholar: Sonia Shiri, Mark Griffith, Todd Hickey, Andrew Stewart, Chris Hallett, and Benjamin Porter. These latter three also served as members of my dissertation committee and provided me with invaluable feedback on various drafts of the project. All chapters in this dissertation also at some stage received careful scrutiny from a working group consisting of fellow PhD candidates in AHMA and Classics. During our colloquia, Nandini Pandey, Noah Kaye, Ryan Boehm, Tim Doran, Carolynn Roncaglia, Amy Russell, David Rosenberg-Wohl, Greg Smay, and Jason Schlude all helped to improve my arguments and to clarify my thinking with their careful readings, critiques, and insightful suggestions. I am extremely appreciative. My dissertation chair, Erich Gruen, presided over these meetings, generously opening up his house for the occasions and sharing his wisdom, experience, and great knowledge of the ancient world. He has been for me, as for so many others, both an exacting critic and a fierce advocate. I could not have wished for a better teacher and mentor. I also thank the Graduate Group in Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology for its financial assistance, especially in the form of grants for archaeological work, language study, and travel in the Near East. The tireless members of the departmental staff, especially Janet Yonan and Nancy Lichtenstein, also have my fond appreciation for all the help, kind words, and advice they have provided over the years. Finally and most importantly, I am extremely grateful to my close friends and family. I give special mention here to Jason Schlude, Jordan Bulger, Ginelle Hustrulid, Nicole Robinson, to my brother Tommy, and to my parents, who know me best, who understand the true value of a good education, and who have always believed in me. iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Coin of Aretas III Philhellenos 96 Figure 2: Coin of Alexander Jannaeus 96 Figure 3: Coin of M. Scaurus with Aretas III 96 Figure 4: Coin of Obodas II 97 Figure 5: Coin of Aretas IV and Syllaios 97 Figure 6: Coin of Aretas IV with Laurel Wreath 97 Figure 7: Coin of Rabbel II 98 Figure 8: The Khazneh (the “Treasury”), Petra 98 Figure 9: Al-Dayr (the “Monastery”), Petra 99 Figure 10: Crenellated Tombs, Petra 99 Figure 11: Nabataean Painted Bowl from Phase 3b 100 iv INTRODUCTION For at least four centuries, from the days of the Successors of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE until the last meaningful eastern expansion of the Roman empire under the emperor Trajan at the beginning of the 2nd century CE, a partially nomadic and highly prosperous civilization governed a capacious territory stretching at its height from the Hawran in southern Syria to the Arabian Hejaz and including large parts of the Negev, Sinai, and eastern Jordanian desert, while consistently occupying an important place in the ancient Mediterranean political, cultural, and economic landscapes. With such a resume, this people ought to be well known, understood, and appreciated, but replying “the Nabataeans” to a query about the subject of one’s dissertation will, more than likely, elicit a quizzical look from the interlocutor. Numerous recent museum exhibitions, cameo appearances of their monuments in modern cinema, increased access for archaeologists and tourists to remains of their culture in previously off-limits or politically fraught areas of Jordan, Syria, and even Saudi Arabia, and—not least—the recent designation of their ancient capital of Petra as one of the new seven wonders of the world, have certainly helped in raising the Nabataean profile. Still, while a serious academic discussion of ancient trade, water management, Semitic linguistics, or Alexandrian-inspired architecture might now be expected to include the Nabataeans, this fascinating civilization remains, even to the general scholar
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Integrated Data Capture, Processing, and Dissemination in the Al- Ula Valley, Saudi Arabia
    UC San Diego UC San Diego Previously Published Works Title Drones in archaeology: Integrated data capture, processing, and dissemination in the al- ula valley, Saudi Arabia Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8d67642f Journal Near Eastern Archaeology, 77(3) ISSN 1094-2076 Authors Smith, NG Passone, L Al-Said, S et al. Publication Date 2014 DOI 10.5615/neareastarch.77.3.0176 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Drones in Archaeology: Integrated Data Capture, Processing, and Dissemination in the al-Ula Valley, Saudi Arabia Neil G. Smith, Luca Passone, Said al-Said, Mohamed al-Farhan, and Tomas E. Levy n late 2013, a joint archaeological and computer vision initial results and methodology including the use of UAVs and project was initiated to digitally capture the archaeological modern advances in remote sensing computational techniques. remains in the al-Ula valley, Saudi Arabia. The goal of our Iteam of archeologists and computer scientists is to integrate Dedan – A City on the Crossroads of Ancient 3D scanning technologies to produce 3D reconstructions of Arabia and Modern Technology archaeological sites. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) serve Once an integral part of the North-South trade artery of the Ara- as the vehicle which makes this scanning possible. UAVs allow bian Peninsula, ancient Dedan was one of the most impressive the acquisition of 3D data as easily from the air as from the and extensive eighth century b.c.e.–frst century c.e. trade cen- ground. This project focuses on the recent excavations carried ters in Saudi Arabia (fg.
    [Show full text]
  • 900 History, Geography, and Auxiliary Disciplines
    900 900 History, geography, and auxiliary disciplines Class here social situations and conditions; general political history; military, diplomatic, political, economic, social, welfare aspects of specific wars Class interdisciplinary works on ancient world, on specific continents, countries, localities in 930–990. Class history and geographic treatment of a specific subject with the subject, plus notation 09 from Table 1, e.g., history and geographic treatment of natural sciences 509, of economic situations and conditions 330.9, of purely political situations and conditions 320.9, history of military science 355.009 See also 303.49 for future history (projected events other than travel) See Manual at 900 SUMMARY 900.1–.9 Standard subdivisions of history and geography 901–909 Standard subdivisions of history, collected accounts of events, world history 910 Geography and travel 920 Biography, genealogy, insignia 930 History of ancient world to ca. 499 940 History of Europe 950 History of Asia 960 History of Africa 970 History of North America 980 History of South America 990 History of Australasia, Pacific Ocean islands, Atlantic Ocean islands, Arctic islands, Antarctica, extraterrestrial worlds .1–.9 Standard subdivisions of history and geography 901 Philosophy and theory of history 902 Miscellany of history .2 Illustrations, models, miniatures Do not use for maps, plans, diagrams; class in 911 903 Dictionaries, encyclopedias, concordances of history 901 904 Dewey Decimal Classification 904 904 Collected accounts of events Including events of natural origin; events induced by human activity Class here adventure Class collections limited to a specific period, collections limited to a specific area or region but not limited by continent, country, locality in 909; class travel in 910; class collections limited to a specific continent, country, locality in 930–990.
    [Show full text]
  • The Roman Province of Judea: a Historical Overview
    BYU Studies Quarterly Volume 36 Issue 3 Article 23 7-1-1996 The Roman Province of Judea: A Historical Overview John F. Hall Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/byusq Part of the Mormon Studies Commons, and the Religious Education Commons Recommended Citation Hall, John F. (1996) "The Roman Province of Judea: A Historical Overview," BYU Studies Quarterly: Vol. 36 : Iss. 3 , Article 23. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/byusq/vol36/iss3/23 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in BYU Studies Quarterly by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Hall: The Roman Province of Judea: A Historical Overview p d tffieffiAinelixnealxAIX romansixulalealliki glnfin ns i u1uaihiihlanilni judeatairstfsuuctfa Published by BYU ScholarsArchive, 1996 1 BYU Studies Quarterly, Vol. 36, Iss. 3 [1996], Art. 23 the roman province judeaofiudeaofofjudea A historical overview john E hall the comingcoining of rome to judea romes acquisition ofofjudeajudea and subsequent involvement in the affairs of that long troubled area came about in largely indirect fashion for centuries judea had been under the control of the hel- lenilenisticstic greek monarchy centered in syria and known as the seleu- cid empire one of the successor states to the far greater empire of alexander the great who conquered the vast reaches of the persian empire toward the end of the fourth century
    [Show full text]
  • Josephus As Political Philosopher: His Concept of Kingship
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2017 Josephus As Political Philosopher: His Concept Of Kingship Jacob Douglas Feeley University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, and the Jewish Studies Commons Recommended Citation Feeley, Jacob Douglas, "Josephus As Political Philosopher: His Concept Of Kingship" (2017). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 2276. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2276 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2276 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Josephus As Political Philosopher: His Concept Of Kingship Abstract Scholars who have discussed Josephus’ political philosophy have largely focused on his concepts of aristokratia or theokratia. In general, they have ignored his concept of kingship. Those that have commented on it tend to dismiss Josephus as anti-monarchical and ascribe this to the biblical anti- monarchical tradition. To date, Josephus’ concept of kingship has not been treated as a significant component of his political philosophy. Through a close reading of Josephus’ longest text, the Jewish Antiquities, a historical work that provides extensive accounts of kings and kingship, I show that Josephus had a fully developed theory of monarchical government that drew on biblical and Greco- Roman models of kingship. Josephus held that ideal kingship was the responsible use of the personal power of one individual to advance the interests of the governed and maintain his and his subjects’ loyalty to Yahweh. The king relied primarily on a standard array of classical virtues to preserve social order in the kingdom, protect it from external threats, maintain his subjects’ quality of life, and provide them with a model for proper moral conduct.
    [Show full text]
  • Hadrian and the Greek East
    HADRIAN AND THE GREEK EAST: IMPERIAL POLICY AND COMMUNICATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Demetrios Kritsotakis, B.A, M.A. * * * * * The Ohio State University 2008 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Fritz Graf, Adviser Professor Tom Hawkins ____________________________ Professor Anthony Kaldellis Adviser Greek and Latin Graduate Program Copyright by Demetrios Kritsotakis 2008 ABSTRACT The Roman Emperor Hadrian pursued a policy of unification of the vast Empire. After his accession, he abandoned the expansionist policy of his predecessor Trajan and focused on securing the frontiers of the empire and on maintaining its stability. Of the utmost importance was the further integration and participation in his program of the peoples of the Greek East, especially of the Greek mainland and Asia Minor. Hadrian now invited them to become active members of the empire. By his lengthy travels and benefactions to the people of the region and by the creation of the Panhellenion, Hadrian attempted to create a second center of the Empire. Rome, in the West, was the first center; now a second one, in the East, would draw together the Greek people on both sides of the Aegean Sea. Thus he could accelerate the unification of the empire by focusing on its two most important elements, Romans and Greeks. Hadrian channeled his intentions in a number of ways, including the use of specific iconographical types on the coinage of his reign and religious language and themes in his interactions with the Greeks. In both cases it becomes evident that the Greeks not only understood his messages, but they also reacted in a positive way.
    [Show full text]
  • Visual Storytelling: Iconography and Manipulation of History on the Scaurus-Aretas Coins
    Visual Storytelling: Iconography and Manipulation of History on the Scaurus-Aretas Coins In 58 BCE, aedile Marcus Aemilius Scaurus minted a coin which named “Rex Aretas” and depicted him in a submissive posture. The intent of this iconography was to illustrate the victory of Pompey and Scaurus over the Nabataean King, Aretas III, during their campaigns in the Near East in the late 60s BCE. The image was completed with a camel standing in the background, confirming the foreign and exotic nature of King Aretas and his Nabataean Arabs (Figure 1). However, this posture of submission seems to be nothing more than creative storytelling. The historical record of Pompey and Scaurus’ victories over Nabataea is not clear and arguments can convincingly be made that Nabataea was never defeated by the Romans up to this point (Schmid 2009). While Pompey return to Rome to celebrate his third triumph, his general, Scaurus, was left behind with two legions as the governor of Syria and intended to ensure peace in the region after Pompey’s reorganization. In same year (62 BCE), Scaurus led his forces into Nabataean territory and attempted to seize the capital of Petra. He was largely unsuccessful, failing entirely to take the famous red-rock city. Aretas III was persuaded by Hyrcanus of Judea to pay Scaurus to withdraw – agreeing to give the Roman 300 talents of silver to leave the land unmolested further. Scaurus accepted the payment (or bribe) and withdrew. No evidence of any official surrender or subjugation exists. Scaurus went on to move up the cursus honorum and became aedile (58 BCE), praetor (56 BCE), and eventually propraetor (55 BCE).
    [Show full text]
  • The Transformation of Calligraphy from Spirituality to Materialism in Contemporary Saudi Arabian Mosques
    The Transformation of Calligraphy from Spirituality to Materialism in Contemporary Saudi Arabian Mosques A dissertation submitted to Birmingham City University in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Art and Design By: Ahmad Saleh A. Almontasheri Director of the study: Professor Mohsen Aboutorabi 2017 1 Dedication My great mother, your constant wishes and prayers were accepted. Sadly, you will not hear of this success. Happily, you are always in the scene; in the depth of my heart. May Allah have mercy on your soul. Your faithful son: Ahmad 2 Acknowledgments I especially would like to express my appreciation of my supervisors, the director of this study, Professor Mohsen Aboutorabi, and the second supervisor Dr. Mohsen Keiany. As mentors, you have been invaluable to me. I would like to extend my gratitude to you all for encouraging me to conduct this research and give your valuable time, recommendations and support. The advice you have given me, both in my research and personal life, has been priceless. I am also thankful to the external and internal examiners for their acceptance and for their feedback, which made my defence a truly enjoyable moment, and also for their comments and suggestions. Prayers and wishes would go to the soul of my great mother, Fatimah Almontasheri, and my brother, Abdul Rahman, who were the first supporters from the outset of my study. May Allah have mercy on them. I would like to extend my thanks to my teachers Saad Saleh Almontasheri and Sulaiman Yahya Alhifdhi who supported me financially and emotionally during the research.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople1
    STEFANOS ATHANASIOU The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople1 A Religious Minority and a Global Player Introduction In the extended family of the Orthodox Church of the Byzantine rite, it is well known that the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople takes honorary prece- dence over all other Orthodox autocephalous and autonomous churches.2 The story of its origins is well known. From a small church on the bay of the Bos- porus in the fishing village of Byzantium, to the centre of Eastern Christianity then through the transfer of the Roman imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople in the fourth century, and later its struggle for survival in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. Nevertheless, a discussion of the development of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is required to address the newly- kindled discussion between the 14 official Orthodox autocephalous churches on the role of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in today’s Orthodox world. A recalling of apposite historical events is relevant to this discussion. As Karl Löwith remarks, “[H]istorical consciousness can only begin with itself, although its intention is to visualise the thinking of other times and other people. History must continually be recalled, reconsidered and re-explored by each current living generation” (Löwith 2004: 12). This article should also be understood with this in mind. It is intended to awaken old memories for reconsideration and reinterpretation. Since the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ecumenical Patriarchate has taken up the role of custodian of the Byzantine tradition and culture and has lived out this tradition in its liturgical life in the region of old Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) and then of the Ottoman Empire and beyond.
    [Show full text]
  • Aaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch
    Syracuse University SURFACE Religion College of Arts and Sciences Fall 2011 Aaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch James W. Watts Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/rel Part of the Biblical Studies Commons, and the Rhetoric Commons Recommended Citation Watts, James W. "Aaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch." Journal of Biblical Literature 130 (2011), 417-430. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts and Sciences at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Religion by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. JBL 130, no. 3 (2011): 417–430 Aaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch james w. watts [email protected] Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1170 In the Pentateuch, the contrast between legal or instructional material, on the one hand, and stories, on the other, is nowhere more stark than in the relationship between the story of the golden calf (Exodus 32–34) and the instructions and nar- ratives (Exodus 25–31; 35–40) that surround it. The story tells of ritual failure with disastrous consequences, while the ritual instructions and narratives around it recount fulfilling those divine instructions to the letter. The contrast becomes most excruciating in each section’s characterization of the high priest: the golden calf story seems to vilify Aaron by placing him at the center of the idolatrous event, while the ritual texts celebrate Aaron and his sons as divinely consecrated priests.
    [Show full text]
  • The Regional Geopolitics of Saudi-Yemeni Relations
    1 MORE THAN JUST A BOUNDARY DISPUTE: THE REGIONAL GEOPOLITICS OF SAUDI-YEMENI RELATIONS Fadhl Al-Maghafi Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2012 Faculty of Law and Social Science School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Figures (Vol. 2/3) 1 Table of Figures 2 Table of Figures Figures ........................................................................................................ ............................................ Table of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Congratulating President Saleh on his return from Jeddah .......................................................... 5 1.1.1. Taḥrir Square, Sana’a ............................................................................................................ 6 .............................................................................................................................................................. 6 1.1.2. The General Public Party Area (GPC) .................................................................................... 7 1.1.3. Chamber of Commerce Area, Sana’a .................................................................................. 8 1.2. A map showing the position of the Arabian Peninsula in the global network of trade routes in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries .................................................................................................... 9 1.3. Arabia in Early Maps
    [Show full text]
  • Durham E-Theses
    Durham E-Theses A study of the client kings in the early Roman period Everatt, J. D. How to cite: Everatt, J. D. (1972) A study of the client kings in the early Roman period, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/10140/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk .UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM Department of Classics .A STUDY OF THE CLIENT KINSS IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE J_. D. EVERATT M.A. Thesis, 1972. M.A. Thesis Abstract. J. D. Everatt, B.A. Hatfield College. A Study of the Client Kings in the early Roman Empire When the city-state of Rome began to exert her influence throughout the Mediterranean, the ruling classes developed friendships and alliances with the rulers of the various kingdoms with whom contact was made.
    [Show full text]
  • Arabian Peninsula from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Jump to Navigationjump to Search "Arabia" and "Arabian" Redirect Here
    Arabian Peninsula From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "Arabia" and "Arabian" redirect here. For other uses, see Arabia (disambiguation) and Arabian (disambiguation). Arabian Peninsula Area 3.2 million km2 (1.25 million mi²) Population 77,983,936 Demonym Arabian Countries Saudi Arabia Yemen Oman United Arab Emirates Kuwait Qatar Bahrain -shibhu l-jazīrati l ِش ْبهُ ا ْل َج ِزي َرةِ ا ْلعَ َربِيَّة :The Arabian Peninsula, or simply Arabia[1] (/əˈreɪbiə/; Arabic jazīratu l-ʿarab, 'Island of the Arabs'),[2] is َج ِزي َرةُ ا ْلعَ َرب ʿarabiyyah, 'Arabian peninsula' or a peninsula of Western Asia situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian plate. From a geographical perspective, it is considered a subcontinent of Asia.[3] It is the largest peninsula in the world, at 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 sq mi).[4][5][6][7][8] The peninsula consists of the countries Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[9] The peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and southwest, the Persian Gulf to the northeast, the Levant to the north and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. The peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Arab world due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas. The most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are Riyadh, Dubai, Jeddah, Abu Dhabi, Doha, Kuwait City, Sanaʽa, and Mecca. Before the modern era, it was divided into four distinct regions: Red Sea Coast (Tihamah), Central Plateau (Al-Yamama), Indian Ocean Coast (Hadhramaut) and Persian Gulf Coast (Al-Bahrain).
    [Show full text]