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Chapter 16 Improving Your Memory + 2 Tips for Selecting Passwords
Use a transformation of some memorable cue involving a mix of letters and symbols
Keep a record of all passwords in a place to which only you have access (e.g. a safe deposit box) It is easier to recall the location of a hidden object when the location is likely than when it is unexpected + 3 Popular Mnemonic Aids
Harris (1980) surveyed housewives and students on their mnemonic use: Both groups used largely similar techniques; however, Students were more likely to write on their hands Housewives were more likely to write on calendars External aids (e.g. diaries, calendars, lists, and timers) were especially popular …Today we have laptops, PDAs, and mobile telephones Very few internal mnemonics were reported These are especially useful in situations that ban external aids + 4 Memory Experts Shereshevskii The Mind of a Mnemonist by Luria
A Russian with an amazing memory A former journalist who never took notes but could repeat back quotes verbatim
Had seemingly limitless memory for: Digits (100+) Nonsense syllables Foreign-language poetry Complex figures Complex scientific formulae
His memory relied heavily on imagery and synesthesia: The tendency for one sense modality to evoke another
His apparent inability to forget, and his synesthesia, caused great complications and struggle for him + Wilding and Valentine (1994) 5 Naturals vs. Strategists
Naturals Strategists Innately gifted Highly practiced in certain mnemonic techniques Possess a close relative who exhibits a comparable level of memory ability
Tested both kinds of mnemonists at the World Memory Championships on two types of tasks: Strategic Tasks e.g. recalling the names of faces Nonstrategic Tasks e.g. recognition of snow crystals
Based on data in Wilding and Valentine (1994). + 6 Spatial Navigation and Memory Maguire et al.’s (2003) Neuroimaging Experiment
During learning, superior memorizers: Tended to have more activity in areas of the brain involved in spatial memorization and navigation This was likely related to their use of the method of loci Involves visualizing to-be-remembered information at various points along a known route Uses spatial memory + 7 Ranjan Mahadevan A Natural Mnemonist?
Held the world record for memorizing the most digits of pi Various strategies contributed to this ability
Thompson et al. (1991) found that he had a digit span: 59 visually presented digits 63 for heard digits
Chunked digits into strings of 10–15 digits, not the typical 3–4 This initially indicated a natural enhancement of his basic memory capacity Arguing against his natural superiority, he has an average: Symbol span Ability to remember the position and orientation of various objects Memory for word lists and stories It turns out that he uses various associations and patterns to group digits + Mnemonics
Method of Loci – place items in a location, then take a mental walk.
Peg-word System – use peg words as a structure and associate a list of items with them using visualization.
Story telling – a series of unrelated words is linked together within the context of a story. Requires training to do. + “This Old Man” Song
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCZoEqJbizo
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3cYf9vkW_xU
http://www.totlol.com/watch/5d-6Q5V79CM/This-Old-Man/0/ + Pegword System
1 – bun
2 – shoe
3 – tree
4 – door
5 – hive
6 – sticks
7 – heaven
8 – gate
9 – wine
10 -- hen + 11 Visual Mnemonic Techniques Method of Loci
Goes back to classical times Limitations of the technique: Difficult to remember an item To-be-remembered items are out of order associated with the locations (e.g. places along a walk) Harder to deal with abstract words or ideas Effectiveness can be diminished by introducing an Makes it less useful in the interfering spatial task real world Works better for orally than Kondo et al. (2004) found that visually presented material learning with this method Likely because visual differentially activates: presentation interferes with Right inferior frontal gyrus visual imagery Middle frontal gyrus + 12 Visual Mnemonic Techniques Pegword System
Memorize a list of words that Limitations of the technique: rhyme with digits one to ten Requires extensive training One = Bun Easier to use with concrete Two = Shoe materials Three = Tree … It may not be very useful in everyday life Now imagine each to-be- remembered item interacting with one pegword e.g. for “battleship,” imagine a battleship sailing into a floating bun + 13 Visual Mnemonic Techniques Remembering Names
Imagery Technique: Expanded Retrieval Practice: Come up with an imageable Retrieve the name at substitute for the name increasing intervals after first e.g. Eysenck = “ice sink” hearing them Come up with a prominent Morris et al. (2005) found that in facial feature of the person a naturalistic setting: e.g. a nose Expanded retrieval practice Link the two procedure led to 50% better e.g. The nose could be the recall than no strategy sink’s faucet Having no strategy was Unfortunately, this can be too actually better than using the time-consuming for real life imagery technique! + 14 Verbal Mnemonics Reverend Brayshaw’s (1849) Metrical Mnemonics
Offered up rhymes to help remember 2000+ dates and facts
Presented a system for converting a number sequence into a word to help remember dates and the likes Vowels were inserted where needed Could be useful for remembering PIN numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 00 B D G J L M P R T W St C F H K N Q V X S Z
e.g. 1914 (World War I begins) = CTBS CAT BASE + 15 Other Verbal Mnemonics
Take the first letter of each word you want to remember in sequence and construct a sentence with those initial letters Helpful for recalling the order of items, assuming that the words themselves can be reliably recalled when cued with the first letters e.g. the colors of the rainbow
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet R O Y G B I V Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain
Story Method: Links together a series of unrelated words in the correct order within the context of a story Limitations: Takes a while to construct Hard to retrieve items out of order + 16 Mnemonics and Existing Knowledge
Mnemonics work when they make use of our current knowledge
Kalakoski and Saariluoma (2001) Participants: Helsinki taxi drivers Students Task: Remember 15 Helsinki street names, either Connected streets presented in their real, spatial ordering Connected streets presented in random order Unconnected streets presented in random order Results: The drivers outperformed students when connected streets were used When unconnected streets were used, the groups performed equally Conclusion: The drivers’ existing spatial knowledge was an asset only when the materials fit neatly into that structure + 17 Principles for a Better Memory Ericsson (1988)
Requirement Description Encoding Principle Information should be processed meaningfully, relating it to preexisting knowledge Retrieval Structure Principle Cues should be stored with the information to aid subsequent retrieval Speed-Up Principle Extensive practice increases the speed of encoding and retrieval + 18 From Normal to Mnemonist Ericsson and Chase (1982)
Had a university student (SF) practice the digit span task for 1 hour per day for 2 years Over this time, his span increased from about 7 items to 80 items Encoding and retrieval principles in action: He increased his span to 18 items by relating numbers to known running times (e.g. 3594 = “Bannister’s time for the mile”) He further increased his span by organizing those chunks into a hierarchical structure Speed-up principle in action: He became much faster at chunking and organizing the numbers with extensive practice However, his newfound ability did NOT generalize to other memory tasks He maintained average letter and word spans + 19 Learning Styles Biggs’ (1987) Study Process Questionnaire
The questionnaire assesses students’ dominant approach to learning
Learning Style Emphasis Predicts Surface • Rote learning of ideas and facts Poor examination • Little focus on content performance • Little motivation to study • Similar to shallow level of processing Deep • Learning to understand Good examination • Relating ideas to evidence and performance integrating information • High motivation to understand • Similar to deep level of processing Strategic • Seeking the study techniques to get Great examination the best grades performance • Motivated to be efficient + 20 Morris’s (1979) SQ3R Approach Five Stages of Effective Reading
Stage Goals S Survey • Figuring out how the reading is organized • Read the summary or scan the piece Q Question • Thinking of relevant questions to which each section should answer • Do this for chunks of text of 3000 words or less R1 Read • Reading through each chunk in order to: • Answer the questions formulated above • Integrate information to pre-existing knowledge R2 Recite • Trying to remember the key ideas of each chunk • If forgotten, repeat the Read stage R3 Review • Remembering the key ideas from the chapter and combining the chunks after finishing the entire piece • Return to Read stage, if necessary + 21 Morris’s (1979) SQ3R Approach Five Stages of Effective Reading
Benefits of the SQ3R approach: Avoids the student’s illusion The false confidence students get as they skim through a chapter, finding that the material seems familiar (i.e. they’d be able to recognize it) However, the actual test is likely to be: More anxiety-provoking Asking them to recall (rather than recognize) the information + 22 Testing Effect Karpicke and Roediger (2006a)
Testing Effect: Results: The finding that long-term retention is Repeated study is most effective at best when the information is the short retention interval repeatedly tested during learning At learning, this group expected Task: the best long-term memory Students were asked to memorize a Considered the least prose passage through either effortful/demanding condition Repeated Study (SSSS): Repeated testing is most effective Passage was read four times at the long retention interval without a test i.e. the testing effect Single Test (SSST): Passage was read three times, followed be a recall test Repeated Test (STTT): Passage was read once, followed by three recall tests + 23 Explaining the Testing Effect Bjork and Bjork (1992)
Storage Strength: Relative permanence of a memory trace
Retrieval Strength: The accessibility of a given memory trace
Easy retrieval does not increase storage strength
Difficult retrieval increases storage strength and leads to long- term memory performance Working hard to give yourself recall tests during studying is highly beneficial to long-term retention + 24 Testing with Feedback Pashler et al. (2005)
Task: Learn Luganda–English translations Some participants got corrective feedback on incorrect test trials during study Others did not receive feedback Tested 1 week later on the vocabulary
Results: Recall for the words they had gotten wrong a week before was about five times better if they had received feedback then
Conclusion: Testing yourself with feedback is best for long-term retention Tip: Use flashcards; don’t just re-read your notes! + 25 Mind Maps Buzan and Buzan (1993)
Mind Map: A note-taking/brainstorming strategy consisting of a diagram, including: A central idea Related ideas More closely related concepts are located closer to the central concept Links connecting them + 26 Benefits of Mind Maps
Presumed Benefits Empirical Benefits
Encourage active learning Farrand, Hussaine, and Hennessy (2002) Task: More natural than linear note taking Learn the material by:
Ideas are distilled to their core, Mind mapping leaving out unimportant details Usual study techniques Tested 1 week later Visual images may be easier to Results: remember Mind-mapping group recalled 10% more Color coding can be used to indicate Even though mind mappers category relations had less motivation for their technique
Budd (2004) suggested that students favoring a “doing” learning style are more motivated to use mind maps than people with a “thinking” learning style + 27 Vocabulary Learning Keyword Technique
Keyword Technique Form an association between the new word and an English word/phrase sounding like it The sound-alike word becomes the keyword Create a mental image with the keyword linking the two Example: Word: zvonok (pronounced zvah-oak; means “bell” in Russian) Keyword: “Oak” Image: An oak tree covered with bells + Keyword Technique 28 Ellis and Beaton (1993)
Receptive Vocabulary Learning Results: e.g. producing the appropriate Providing noun keywords yields English word to a foreign word better memory than other strategies in receptive learning
Productive Vocabulary Learning Productive learning does not seem to benefit from keywords e.g. producing the right foreign word to an English word Conclusion: In productive learning, retrieving the keyword when presented with the English word didn’t provide enough information to recall the foreign word
Follow-Ups: Keywords can benefit productive learning with enough practice
Adapted from Ellis and Beaton (1993). + 29 Learning Verbatim Actors Learning Lines
Noice and Noice (1996) Actors start the process of memorizing lines by focusing on the needs and motivations of the characters This lays down the structure for and helps deeply encode the material Allows them to understand why certain words were chosen for a particular character This is associated with better gist recall; however, actors are surprisingly good in their verbatim recall as well Actors use contextual information (e.g. gestures, stage moves, and facial expressions of other actors, as well as their own physical positions) to facilitate recall of the lines + 30 Attention, Interest, and Knowledge
Information on any given topic will be remembered better by individuals who have great interest in it than those who don’t e.g. the Swazi’s of South Africa superior memory for information about cows (Bartlett, 1932)
Interest in a topic is positively associated with pre-existing knowledge and schemas into which new information can be integrated e.g. existing soccer knowledge correlates highly with the ability to remember made-up soccer scores (Morris et al., 1981) + 31 Motivation Locke’s (1968) Goal-Setting Theory
Assumptions: Goals should be SMART: Conscious goals have a Specific major impact on people’s Measurable motivation and behavior Attainable Self-assigning more difficult Relevant goals is associated with better performance Time-framed It is important to be fully The theory holds up when there committed to the goal is a single, specific task without distraction However, real-life goals are much more complicated … + 32 Motivation Gollwitzer’s (1999) Implementation Intentions
Implementation Intentions: Implementation instructions Objectives explicitly Can reduce susceptibility to specifying in detail how, distraction when, and where individuals Especially if they aim to are going to achieve the ignore distractions rather goals they have set than increase focus on the task of interest themselves e.g. saying, “Whenever Creates an “instant habit” the distraction arises, I Reliably triggered by will ignore it!” relevant cues Can enhance the chances of Offer an improvement over people achieving their goals goal-setting theory for real- e.g. Gollwitzer and world intentions Brandstätter’s (1997) Christmas homework