+ Chapter 16 Improving Your Memory + 2 Tips for Selecting Passwords Use a transformation of some memorable cue involving a mix of letters and symbols Keep a record of all passwords in a place to which only you have access (e.g. a safe deposit box) It is easier to recall the location of a hidden object when the location is likely than when it is unexpected + 3 Popular Mnemonic Aids Harris (1980) surveyed housewives and students on their mnemonic use: Both groups used largely similar techniques; however, Students were more likely to write on their hands Housewives were more likely to write on calendars External aids (e.g. diaries, calendars, lists, and timers) were especially popular …Today we have laptops, PDAs, and mobile telephones Very few internal mnemonics were reported These are especially useful in situations that ban external aids + 4 Memory Experts Shereshevskii The Mind of a Mnemonist by Luria A Russian with an amazing memory A former journalist who never took notes but could repeat back quotes verbatim Had seemingly limitless memory for: Digits (100+) Nonsense syllables Foreign-language poetry Complex figures Complex scientific formulae His memory relied heavily on imagery and synesthesia: The tendency for one sense modality to evoke another His apparent inability to forget, and his synesthesia, caused great complications and struggle for him + Wilding and Valentine (1994) 5 Naturals vs. Strategists Naturals Strategists Innately gifted Highly practiced in certain mnemonic techniques Possess a close relative who exhibits a comparable level of memory ability Tested both kinds of mnemonists at the World Memory Championships on two types of tasks: Strategic Tasks e.g. recalling the names of faces Nonstrategic Tasks e.g. recognition of snow crystals Based on data in Wilding and Valentine (1994). + 6 Spatial Navigation and Memory Maguire et al.’s (2003) Neuroimaging Experiment During learning, superior memorizers: Tended to have more activity in areas of the brain involved in spatial memorization and navigation This was likely related to their use of the method of loci Involves visualizing to-be-remembered information at various points along a known route Uses spatial memory + 7 Ranjan Mahadevan A Natural Mnemonist? Held the world record for memorizing the most digits of pi Various strategies contributed to this ability Thompson et al. (1991) found that he had a digit span: 59 visually presented digits 63 for heard digits Chunked digits into strings of 10–15 digits, not the typical 3–4 This initially indicated a natural enhancement of his basic memory capacity Arguing against his natural superiority, he has an average: Symbol span Ability to remember the position and orientation of various objects Memory for word lists and stories It turns out that he uses various associations and patterns to group digits + Mnemonics Method of Loci – place items in a location, then take a mental walk. Peg-word System – use peg words as a structure and associate a list of items with them using visualization. Story telling – a series of unrelated words is linked together within the context of a story. Requires training to do. + “This Old Man” Song http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCZoEqJbizo http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3cYf9vkW_xU http://www.totlol.com/watch/5d-6Q5V79CM/This-Old-Man/0/ + Pegword System 1 – bun 2 – shoe 3 – tree 4 – door 5 – hive 6 – sticks 7 – heaven 8 – gate 9 – wine 10 -- hen + 11 Visual Mnemonic Techniques Method of Loci Goes back to classical times Limitations of the technique: Difficult to remember an item To-be-remembered items are out of order associated with the locations (e.g. places along a walk) Harder to deal with abstract words or ideas Effectiveness can be diminished by introducing an Makes it less useful in the interfering spatial task real world Works better for orally than Kondo et al. (2004) found that visually presented material learning with this method Likely because visual differentially activates: presentation interferes with Right inferior frontal gyrus visual imagery Middle frontal gyrus + 12 Visual Mnemonic Techniques Pegword System Memorize a list of words that Limitations of the technique: rhyme with digits one to ten Requires extensive training One = Bun Easier to use with concrete Two = Shoe materials Three = Tree … It may not be very useful in everyday life Now imagine each to-be- remembered item interacting with one pegword e.g. for “battleship,” imagine a battleship sailing into a floating bun + 13 Visual Mnemonic Techniques Remembering Names Imagery Technique: Expanded Retrieval Practice: Come up with an imageable Retrieve the name at substitute for the name increasing intervals after first e.g. Eysenck = “ice sink” hearing them Come up with a prominent Morris et al. (2005) found that in facial feature of the person a naturalistic setting: e.g. a nose Expanded retrieval practice Link the two procedure led to 50% better e.g. The nose could be the recall than no strategy sink’s faucet Having no strategy was Unfortunately, this can be too actually better than using the time-consuming for real life imagery technique! + 14 Verbal Mnemonics Reverend Brayshaw’s (1849) Metrical Mnemonics Offered up rhymes to help remember 2000+ dates and facts Presented a system for converting a number sequence into a word to help remember dates and the likes Vowels were inserted where needed Could be useful for remembering PIN numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 00 B D G J L M P R T W St C F H K N Q V X S Z e.g. 1914 (World War I begins) = CTBS CAT BASE + 15 Other Verbal Mnemonics Take the first letter of each word you want to remember in sequence and construct a sentence with those initial letters Helpful for recalling the order of items, assuming that the words themselves can be reliably recalled when cued with the first letters e.g. the colors of the rainbow Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet R O Y G B I V Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain Story Method: Links together a series of unrelated words in the correct order within the context of a story Limitations: Takes a while to construct Hard to retrieve items out of order + 16 Mnemonics and Existing Knowledge Mnemonics work when they make use of our current knowledge Kalakoski and Saariluoma (2001) Participants: Helsinki taxi drivers Students Task: Remember 15 Helsinki street names, either Connected streets presented in their real, spatial ordering Connected streets presented in random order Unconnected streets presented in random order Results: The drivers outperformed students when connected streets were used When unconnected streets were used, the groups performed equally Conclusion: The drivers’ existing spatial knowledge was an asset only when the materials fit neatly into that structure + 17 Principles for a Better Memory Ericsson (1988) Requirement Description Encoding Principle Information should be processed meaningfully, relating it to preexisting knowledge Retrieval Structure Principle Cues should be stored with the information to aid subsequent retrieval Speed-Up Principle Extensive practice increases the speed of encoding and retrieval + 18 From Normal to Mnemonist Ericsson and Chase (1982) Had a university student (SF) practice the digit span task for 1 hour per day for 2 years Over this time, his span increased from about 7 items to 80 items Encoding and retrieval principles in action: He increased his span to 18 items by relating numbers to known running times (e.g. 3594 = “Bannister’s time for the mile”) He further increased his span by organizing those chunks into a hierarchical structure Speed-up principle in action: He became much faster at chunking and organizing the numbers with extensive practice However, his newfound ability did NOT generalize to other memory tasks He maintained average letter and word spans + 19 Learning Styles Biggs’ (1987) Study Process Questionnaire The questionnaire assesses students’ dominant approach to learning Learning Style Emphasis Predicts Surface • Rote learning of ideas and facts Poor examination • Little focus on content performance • Little motivation to study • Similar to shallow level of processing Deep • Learning to understand Good examination • Relating ideas to evidence and performance integrating information • High motivation to understand • Similar to deep level of processing Strategic • Seeking the study techniques to get Great examination the best grades performance • Motivated to be efficient + 20 Morris’s (1979) SQ3R Approach Five Stages of Effective Reading Stage Goals S Survey • Figuring out how the reading is organized • Read the summary or scan the piece Q Question • Thinking of relevant questions to which each section should answer • Do this for chunks of text of 3000 words or less R1 Read • Reading through each chunk in order to: • Answer the questions formulated above • Integrate information to pre-existing knowledge R2 Recite • Trying to remember the key ideas of each chunk • If forgotten, repeat the Read stage R3 Review • Remembering the key ideas from the chapter and combining the chunks after finishing the entire piece • Return to Read stage, if necessary + 21 Morris’s (1979) SQ3R Approach Five Stages of Effective Reading Benefits of the SQ3R approach: Avoids the student’s illusion The false confidence students get as they skim through a chapter, finding that the material seems familiar (i.e. they’d be able to recognize it) However, the actual test is likely to be: More anxiety-provoking Asking them to recall (rather than recognize) the information + 22 Testing Effect Karpicke and Roediger (2006a) Testing Effect: Results: The finding that long-term retention is Repeated study is most effective at best when the information is the short retention interval repeatedly tested during learning At learning, this group expected Task: the best long-term memory Students were asked to memorize a Considered the least prose passage through either effortful/demanding condition Repeated Study (SSSS): Repeated testing is most effective Passage was read four times at the long retention interval without a test i.e.