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The Neuroscience of Learning e uing duc in a t ti n o o n c • • c Vol. 39 No. 5 October 2007 o 305 n n o i t t i n a u c i u n d g e The Neuroscience of Learning John W. Collins Abstract: Significant advances have been made in understanding the neurophysiological basis of learn- ing, including the discovery of mirror neurons and the role of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) responsive element binding (CREB) protein in learning. Mirror neurons help us visually compare an observed activity with a remembered action in our memory, an ability that helps us imitate and learn through watching. Long-term potentiation, the Hebb rule, and CREB protein are associated with the for- mation of long-term memories. Conversely, protein phosphatase 1 and glucocorticoids are neurophysi- ological phenomena that limit what can be learned and cause forgetfulness. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences contends that different areas of the brain are responsible for different competencies that we all possess to varying degrees. These multiple intelligences can be used as strategies for improved learning. Repeating material, using mnemonics, and avoiding overwhelming stress are other strategies for improving learning. Imaging studies have shown that practice with resultant learning results in signifi- cantly less use of brain areas, indicating that the brain becomes more efficient. Experts have advantages over novices, including increased cognitive processing efficiency. Nurses are in a unique position to use their understanding of neurophysiological principles to implement better educational strategies to provide quality education to patients and others. In 1986, Boss wrote about the neuroanatomical and Memory processing is categorized into three stag- neurophysiological basis of learning. Since then, es: acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval (Lupien significant advances have been made in our under- & McEwen, 1997). Acquisition is the time when the standing of these phenomena. Long-term poten- individual acquires the information to be remem- tiation (LTP) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate bered. Consolidation is the conversion of declarative (cAMP) responsive element binding (CREB) protein memory into long-term memory. Retrieval is the activation are two aspects of long-term memory for- process of recalling a memory. mation. In addition, mirror neurons have been iden- Both semantic and episodic memories are con- tified; they are implicated in learning new tasks. solidated in the hippocampus, which is located in This article describes these and other advances in the medial temporal lobe (Miyashita, 2004; Squire, the neuroscience of learning—including Gardner’s 2004). Semantic memories formed over time do not theory of multiple intelligences—that are appli- require the hippocampus for retrieval because these cable to patient and nurse education. Nursing memories are retrieved from the cortex (Miyashita). implications are also presented. It is unclear whether the hippocampus is required for the retrieval of episodic memory. Classification of Memory Nondeclarative memory, also known as implicit There are several ways to classify memory (Table 1). long-term memory, involves procedural memory, per- Short-term (working) memory and long-term memo- ceptual representation (e.g., recalling remembered ry constitute the most basic classification (Miyashita, sensory phenomena), and simple classical condi- 2004). Long-term memory is divided into declarative tioning. Nondeclarative memory is an unconscious, and nondeclarative forms. Declarative memory, also nonintentional form of memory that is expressed called explicit long-term memory, is subdivided into through performance rather than recollection (Kolb semantic memory and episodic memory (Miyashita; & Whishaw, 2003; Squire, 2004). Procedural memory Squire, 2004). Declarative memory is the conscious, intentional recognition of previous experiences, Questions or comments about this article may be directed to John W. Collins including facts (Kolb & Whishaw, 2003). Semantic at [email protected]. He is a PhD student in the School of Nursing at the memory involves remembering factual knowledge, University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City, MO. His area of study is including learning text, phone numbers, or trivia. learning with a neuropsychological foundation. Episodic memory is memory associated with events, Copyright © 2007 American Association of Neuroscience Nurses 0047- locations, or circumstances. 2606/07/3905/0305$5.00 306 Journal of Neuroscience Nursing Classification of Long-Term Memory Table 1. meant that he had no declarative memory of any events after the operation. In other words, HM lost Memory Type Item Remembered the ability to commit to long-term memory any Declarative or explicit facts and events that occurred after the operation. Semantic Facts He retained implicit (nondeclarative) memory, such Episodic Events as procedural memory, so he had the ability to learn new and remember previously learned skills Nondeclarative or implicit and procedures; however, he could not learn any Procedural Skills new facts. This example illustrates that declara- Perceptual representation Sensory tive memory and nondeclarative memory are two Simple classical conditioning Emotional or skeletal responses separate memory systems. Though separate, some activities, such as performing a neurological exam Note. Information from “Cognitive Memory: Cellular and Network and recognizing an abnormality by name, engage Machineries and Their Top-Down Control,” by Y. Miyashita, 2004, Science, both memory systems. 306, 435–440 and “Memory Systems of the Brain: A Brief History and Current Perspective,” by L. R. Squire, 2004, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82, 171–177. Theory of Multiple Intelligences Gardner (1983) recognized that different areas of the is the memory of knowing how to do something and brain are responsible for different competencies. He includes the memory of motor events and skills, such labeled these competencies as different intelligences as riding a bike or giving an injection (Squire). The that we all possess to varying degrees. Gardner striatum, a subcortical motor area, is responsible (1999) updated and slightly expanded the original for procedural memory. The striatum consists of the list of multiple intelligences. He derived his theory caudate, putamen, and ventral striatum (Gazzaniga, from multiple sources, including personal musical 2004). Perceptual representation is the recalling experience, observations of gifted individuals, and of sensory memories (e.g., the way a bird looks or evidence from experimental psychology and neuro- sounds when singing). Perceptual learning occurs in science. These intelligences are linguistic, logical- the neocortex. Simple classical conditioning consists mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, of an emotional component, which is stored in the interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist (Table 2). amygdala, and skeletal responses, which are stored Gardner noted that traditional IQ tests measure in the cerebellum (Squire). These memory classifica- only a limited amount of our human potential, tions have different neuroanatomical locations in primarily logical-mathematical intelligence, with the brain yet operate in parallel with each other some testing of spatial and linguistic intelligences. (Miyashita, 2004; Squire). Musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and intrapersonal intel- Learning and long-term memory are intricately ligences are not measured on traditional IQ tests. related. Kandel and Hawkins (1995) noted that Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has learning is the process by which one acquires been criticized because research has not docu- new knowledge. Memory is the process by which mented specific evidence of intelligences located knowledge is retained. For long-term memory to in specific areas of the brain. Klein (1997) felt that occur, changes in the neurons must occur (Kolb & some of Gardner’s intelligences overlap in the cog- Whishaw, 2003). Specific changes are addressed nitive areas of the brain. In contrast, Kornhaber later in this article. (2004) noted that the theory of multiple intelli- In one of the most publicized neuropsychological gences has been associated with improvement in case studies, HM illustrates the difference between both standardized test scores and the behaviors of the declarative and nondeclarative memory systems elementary students, including students with dis- (Parkin, 1996). Subsequent to head trauma from a abilities. In addition, the theory of multiple intel- bicycle accident when he was 7 years old, HM devel- ligences has also been associated with increased oped petit mal and grand mal epilepsy, which signifi- parental participation, suggesting that it is being cantly interfered with his activities of daily living. In used selectively in schools. the 1950s, as a treatment for seizures, he underwent a medial temporal lobectomy, including removal Mirror Neurons and Their Role in of the hippocampus. The hippocampus, which is Learning part of the medial temporal lobe, is essential It is natural when learning to do a new task to for consolidating long-term memories (Miyashita, mimic and copy this new task. Specific brain neu- 2004). After surgery, the quantity and severity of rons, called mirror neurons, help us learn action the seizures were reduced, but HM was left with tasks (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004). These mir- antegrade amnesia. In HM’s case, antegrade amnesia ror neurons help us visually compare an observed Vol.
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