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THE RELATIONSHIP กลายเปนเทวดาในความเชื่อทางพุทธศาสนา และ BETWEEN AND การกําหนดใหโลกบาลดังกลาวเปนหัวหนาของ INDIGENOUS BELIEFS AND เหลาคนธรรพ กุมภัณฑ นาค เพื่อแสดงการยอมรับ PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN ความเชื่อดั้งเดิมในการนับถือนาค ความเชื่อเรื่อง THE NAMES OF LOKAPĀLAS IN EARLY BUDDHIST วิญญาณบรรพบุรุษ ความเชื่อเกี่ยวกับความตายและ LITERATURE1 การกลับฟนคืนชีพ ความเชื่อดั้งเดิมของชาวอารยัน หรือกลุมชนพื้นเมืองดั้งเดิมที่เปนเผานาค 2 Natchapol Sirisawad Abstract บทคัดยอ The purpose of this article is to analyze aspects of the relationship between บทความนี้มุงศึกษาวิเคราะหความสัมพันธระหวาง Buddhism, indigenous beliefs and พุทธศาสนากับความเชื่อดั้งเดิมและชนพื้นเมือง people through the names of lokapālas ดั้งเดิม ที่สะทอนผานชื่อของโลกบาลในวรรณคดี in early Buddhist literature, and especially the names of the three great พุทธศาสนา โดยเฉพาะอยางยิ่งทาวธตรฐ ทาว kings, Dhataraṭṭha, Virūḷha (or วิรุฬหก และทาววิรูปกข ผลการศึกษาพบวา พุทธ Virūḷhaka), and Virūpakkha. The study revealed that the name of the three ศาสนามีความความพยายามในการรวมความเชื่อ great kings, Dhataraṭṭha, Virūḷha (or ดั้งเดิมหรือชนพื้นเมืองดั้งเดิมซึ่งปรากฏมาแลว Virūḷhaka), and Virūpakkha, may reflect ตั้งแตกอนหรือรวมสมัยกับพุทธกาลใหเขามาอยู traces of earlier or contemporaneous indigenous beliefs and people who had ภายใตพุทธศาสนาดังจะเห็นจากรายนามของ cultural encounters with Buddhism. The โลกบาลที่อาจสะทอนรองรอยของความเชื่อดั้งเดิม indigenous beliefs consist of the nāga และชนพื้นเมืองดั้งเดิมที่ไดเปลี่ยนฐานะให cult, belief in spirits, early practice of urn-burials and belief in the soul or

1 spirit of the dead rising from the grave, ความสัมพันธระหวางพุทธศาสนากับความเชื่อดั้งเดิมและชน primitive beliefs of people and, พื้นเมืองดั้งเดิมที่สะทอนผานรายนามของโลกบาลในวรรณคดี nāga as a tribe. Buddhism shows an พุทธศาสนายุคตน attempt to incorporate these beliefs and 2 (ณัชพล ศิริสวัสดิ์) Lecturer from the Department people into the by of Eastern Languages (South Asian Languages) elevating some local gods, indigenous Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University and beliefs and tribal people to divine status, Ph.D. Candidate in the Doctoral Program in such as lokapālas, who become at the Ludwig-Maximilians- Universität, Germany, E-mail: [email protected] chieftains of the gandhabbas, the

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nāgas, and the kumbhaṇḍas, in order 2. The Buddhist Lokapālas: an to show acceptance of earlier or Overview contemporaneous indigenous beliefs and tribes. These findings may help to The “lokapālas” (Guardians of the World) or improve understanding more of the “Mahārājas” (Great Kings) of Buddhist sociology of early Buddhism. mythology are four in number: Dhataraṭṭha (Skt. Dhṛtarāṣṭra), Virūḷha or Virūḷhaka (Skt. Virūḍhaka), Virūpakkha (Skt. 1. Introduction Virūpākṣa), and Kuvera or Vessavaṇa (Skt. or Vāiśravaṇa). The four kings Scholars disagree about the nature of the feature frequently in the early texts, lokapālas in early Buddhist literature. particularly in the Dīgha-nikāya, but seem According to T.W. Rhys Davids and to recede into the distance in the later William Stede (1921-5: 568-569), the Four canonical literature. They are individually, Great Kings are classified in a smaller, and anthropomorphically, described with autocratic state, a chieftain, prince, ruler, some frequency in several suttas of the usually (collectively) as a group; in Dīgha-nikāya. The Āṭānāṭiya Sutta (D. III, addition, G.P. Malalasekera ([1938], Reprint. pp. 203 f.) and the Mahāsamaya Sutta (D. 2007: 958) states that the assembly between II, pp. 257 f.), for instance, give vivid the Four Regent Devas with their followers accounts of each of them, the former and Sakka in the Sudhammā-sabhā are similar giving a commentary on the four. Both to the assembly of the tribal community, these suttas depict them as non-human especially the Kosala-clan. M.M.J. Marasinghe beings (amanussa), paying homage to the (1974: 71) suggests that the tribal leader is Buddha Gotama. They give the classes of already quite similar to the tribal god. The non-human beings over whom the four norms of conduct required for elevation to hold sway: Dhataraṭṭha, ruler of the east, is celestial status in early tribal societies lord (adhipati) of the gandhabbas; Virūḷha, would naturally have helped in the ruler of the south, where they whom men deification of the tribal leaders themselves. call peta-folk reside, is lord of the The transition from human to divine status kumbhaṇḍas; Virūpakkha, ruler of the would hardly have been difficult or west, is lord of the nāgas and Kuvera, distinct, as in these early tribal stages the whose identity with Vessavaṇa is line of demarcation between tribal leader established in the Āṭānāṭiya Sutta (D. III, and tribal god would not have been very p. 201), is ruler of the north and lord of the distinct. According to various scholars, the yakkhas. The Āṭānāṭiya Sutta, which along names of the Four Great Kings may reflect with the other suttas mentioned, states that indigenous beliefs and social groups in the four Great Kings were devotees of early Buddhism since the names of these Gotama and of the seven Buddhas, also gods, except Kuvera, are not found in has a very curious and interesting passage, literature, but are found in which the four Great Kings are particularly in early and Buddhist described as great yakkhas who are Sanskrit scriptures. protectors of the followers of the Buddha

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from fear of the yakkhas. (Bandula the quarters, for each of the divine regents, Jayawardhana,1971: 707) They rule over another supernatural being is invoked as four horizontal direction of the world as the warder or protector of the region. viewed from Meru mount at the center. Their habitation is Cātummahārājikā, the samīcī nāmāsi prācī diktasyāste’ heavenly realm of the Four Great Kings, gniradhipatirasito rakṣitā classified in the world of sense-desire yaścādhipatiryaśca goptā tābhyāṃ (Kāmabhūmi). Consequently, the hosts of namastāu no mṛḍayatāṃ te yaṃ these Great Kings who also dwell in this dviṣmo yaśca no dveṣṭi taṃ vāṃ realm are called cātummahārājikā , or jambhe dadhāmi devas of the Cātummahārājika. ojasvinī nāmāsi dakṣiṇā diktasyāsta indró ’dhipatiḥ 3. Traces of Indigenous Beliefs and pṛdākuḥ Social Groups as Reflected in the prācī nāmāsi pratīcī díktasyāste somo ’dhipatiḥ svajo’ Names of Lokapālas: Virūpakkha, vasthāvā nāmāsyudīcī diktasyāste Dhataraṭṭha and Virūḷhaka varuṇo’ dhipatis tiraścirājir adhipatnī nāmāsi bṛhatī diktasyāste J.P. Vogel ([1926], Reprint. 1972: 9) bṛhaspatiradhipatiḥ śvitro surmised that the idea of four or six vaśinī nāmāsīyaṃ diktasyāste yamo’ dragons guarding the corners of the world dhipatiḥ kalmāṣagrīvo rakṣitā is more primitive than that of the yaścādhipatiryaśca goptā tābhyāṃ anthropomorphic lokapālas. Quite possibly namastāu no mṛḍayatām te yaṃ both the system of the guardian-gods and dviṣmo yaśca no dveṣṭi taṃ vāṃ that of the elephants of the quarters (diṅ- jambhe dadhāmi ||1-2|| nāga) are ultimately derived from the notion of the dragons of the sky which Thou art the eastern quarter, must have still been alive in the early the favorable by name; of period when the hymns of the Atharva- thee as such is the veda were composed. This idea can be , the black (snake) applied to concepts of lokapālas in the guardian; the overlord Buddhist literature because not only are and the guardian, to them mighty mentioned as lord (adhipati) homage; may they be gentle of the directions, but poisonous serpents to us; him whom we hate are also mentioned as warders or and who hate us I place guardians in the Vedic period as seen in within the jaws of you two. the Black or Tāittirīya Saṃhitā Thou art the southern (TS. 5.5.10.1-2) and Atharva-veda (AV. quarter, the mighty by 3.27.1-6) name; of thee as such is the overlord, the In a hymn of the Black Yajurveda (TS. scorpion the guardian; the 5.5.10.1-2), paying homage to the gods of overlord and the guardian,

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to them homage; may they to us; him whom we hate be gentle to us; him whom and who hate us I place we hate and who hate us I within the jaws of you two. place within the jaws of you (A. B. Keith, 1914) two. Thou art the western In this connection we may also quote the quarter, the forward by Atharva-veda hymns (AV. 3.27.1-6), a name; of thee as such charm consigning an enemy to the is the overlord, the viper serpents for punishment, in which likewise the guardian; the overlord the six regions are associated with six and the guardian, to them divine regents and with an equal number homage; may they be gentle of dragons, the names of which are to us; him whom we hate identical with those of Tāittirīya Saṃhitā and who hate us I place within the jaws of you two. prācī dig agnir adhipatir asito Thou art the northern rakṣitādityā iṣavaḥ | quarter, the stable by name; tebhyo namo 'dhipatibhyo namo of thee as such Varuṇa is rakṣitṛbhyo nama iṣubhyo nama overlord, the striped snake ebhyo astu | the guardian; the overlord yo 'smān dveṣṭi yaṃ vayaṃ and the guardian, to them dviṣmas taṃ vo jambhe dadhmaḥ homage; may they be gentle ||1|| to us; him whom we hate dakṣiṇā dig indro 'dhipatis and who hate us I place tiraścirājī rakṣitā pitara iṣavaḥ | within the jaws of you two. tebhyo namo 'dhipatibhyo namo Thou art the great quarter, the rakṣitṛbhyo nama iṣubhyo nama lady paramount by name; of ebhyo astu | thee as such Bṛhaspati is yo 'smān dveṣṭi yaṃ vayaṃ overlord, the white the dviṣmas taṃ vo jambhe dadhmaḥ guardian; the overlord and the ||2|| guardian, to them homage; pratīcī dig varuṇo 'dhipatiḥ may they be gentle to us; pṛdākū rakṣitānnam iṣavaḥ | him whom we hate and who tebhyo namo 'dhipatibhyo namo hate us I place within the rakṣitṛbhyo nama iṣubhyo nama jaws of you two. ebhyo astu | Thou art this quarter, the yo 'smān dveṣṭi yaṃ vayaṃ powerful by name; of thee as dviṣmas taṃ vo jambhe dadhmaḥ such is the overlord, ||3|| the spotted necked (snake) udīcī dik somo 'dhipatiḥ svajo the guardian; the overlord and rakṣitāśanir iṣavaḥ | the guardian, to them tebhyo namo 'dhipatibhyo namo homage; may they be gentle rakṣitṛbhyo nama iṣubhyo nama

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ebhyo astu | to the arrows, yea, to these be yo 'smān dveṣṭi yaṃ vayaṃ worship! Within your jaws we lay dviṣmas taṃ vo jambhe dadhmaḥ the one who hates us and whom ||4|| we hate. dhruvā dig viṣṇur adhipatiḥ Soma is ruler of the Northern region, kalmāṣagrīvo rakṣitā vīrudha Svaja the warder, lightning's flash the iṣavaḥ | arrows.Worship to these the regents, tebhyo namo 'dhipatibhyo namo these the warders, and to the arrows, rakṣitṛbhyo nama iṣubhyo nama yea, to these be worship! Within your ebhyo astu | jaws we lay the one who hates us and yo 'smān dveṣṭi yaṃ vayam whom we hate. dviṣmas taṃ vo jambhe dadhmaḥ Viṣṇus is ruler of the firm-set ||5|| region, Kalmāṣagrīva warder, Plants ūrdhvā dig bṛhaspatir adhipatiḥ the arrows. Worship to these the śvitro rakṣitā varṣam iṣavaḥ | regents, these the warders, and to tebhyo namo 'dhipatibhyo namo the arrows, yea, to these be worship! rakṣitṛbhyo nama iṣubhyo nama Within your jaws we lay the one who ebhyo astu | hates us and whom we hate. yo 'smān dveṣṭi yaṃ vayaṃ Bṛhaspati controls the topmost dviṣmas taṃ vo jambhe dadhmaḥ region, Śvitra is warder, and the ||6|| Rain the arrows. Worship to these the regents, these the warders, and to Agni is regent of the East, its the arrows, yea, to these be warder is , the Ādityas are worship! Within your jaws we lay the the arrows. Worship to these the one who hates us and whom we regents, these the warders, and to hate the arrows, yea, to these be worship! Within your jaws we lay the one who hates us and whom we hate. Indra is regent of the South, its warder Tiraścirāji, and the shafts the Fathers. Worship to these the regents, these the warders, and to the arrows, yea, to these be worship! Within your jaws we lay the one who hates us and whom we hate. Of the West region Varuṇa is ruler, Pṛdāku warder, Nourish- ment the arrows. Worship to these the regents, these the warders, and

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Direction Tāittirīya Saṃhitā Atharva-veda (TS. 5.5.10.1-2) (AV. 3.27.1-6) serpents gods serpents gods

East the black snake Agni Asita Agni (Asita) South the scorpion Indra Tiraścirāji Indra (Pṛdāku) West the viper (Svaja) Soma Pṛdāku Varuṇa  North the striped snake Varuṇa Svaja Soma (Tiraścirāji) Upward the white Bṛhaspati Śvitra Bṛhaspati Quarter (Śvitra) Fixed the spotted Yama Kalmāṣagrīva Viṣṇu Quarter necked snake † (Kalmāṣagrīva)

The order in which they are given differs Repr. 1972: 9-10) suggests that the various slightly, and Viṣṇu as regent of the “fixed” quarters of the sky mentioned in the quarter has been replaced by Yama, the Tāittirīya Saṃhitā are denoted as the abodes King of the Dead. There are only three of certain classes of spirits which bear quarters including eastern, upward and fixed obscure names similar to those used in the quarter that have the same warders while the Atharva-veda. They indicate the tribes of others are different in the position of the serpents, of which the dragons of the sky are quarter’s protectors but there are similarities the overlords. in the names of serpents. J.P. Vogel ([1926], Although the above charm does not indicate the guardians of directions as divine serpents, they are evident from their names, which to some extent agree with that group of four serpents met with in various passages  an adder, viper, snake (M. Monier William, of the Atharva-veda, such as AV.6.56.1-3, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 647) which mention the word ‘ahi’ meaning “a  the brown svaja (Maurice Bloomfield, 1897: snake, the of the sky, the ” (M. 647); a viper; a snake that has heads at both Monier William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 125) ends (M. Monier William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 1275) mā no devā  striped across (Maurice Bloomfield, 1897: ahirvadhītsatokāntsahapuruṣān | 647); striped across (a serpent) (M. Monier samyataṃ na vi ṣparadvyāttaṃ na saṃ William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 447) yaman namo devajanebhyaḥ ||1|| † having a variegated neck (M. Monier William, namo’ stvasitāya namas tiraścirājaye | [1872], Reprint. 2002: 263)

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svajāya babhrave namo namo first the names Kairāta, Pṛishṇa, Upatṛiṇya, devajanebhyaḥ ||2|| and Babhru, and subsequently Asita, saṃ te hanmi datā dataḥ samu te Taimāta, Babhru, and Apodaka4. AV. hanvā hanū | 10.4.13, gives four similar names, saṃ te jihvayā jihvāṃ samvāsnāha Tiraśchirāji, Pṛidāku, Śvitra, and Asita5, but āsyam ||3|| here they are used in the plural. The four “Let not the snake, O terms Vāsuki, Takṣaka, Śaṅkha and Jatin gods, slay us with our also appear in the Rāmāyaṇa. (B.C. Sinha, offspring, with our men ; 1978: 46) Thus, the four serpents mentioned what is shut together may under somewhat varying names in the verses it not unclose; what is quoted were apparently associated with the open may it not shut four quarters of the sky as concluded from together; homage to the the hymns, AV. 3.27.1-6. We can clearly see god-people. that the names of beings mentioned in Homage be to Asita, magical spells are snakes. It is especially in homage to Tiraśchirāji, the Atharva-veda -where numerous homage to Svaja (and) interesting references to snakes occur. Babhru, homage to the god-people. I smite thy teeth together J.P. Vogel ([1926], Reprint. 1972: 9) finds with tooth, thy (two) jaws the well-known conception of a group of together with jaw, thy divinities, here six in number, which are tongue together with regarded as Dikpālas or guardians of the tongue, thy mouth, O quarters of the universe. But it will be noted snake, with mouth.” (J.P. that these Dikpālas have not yet been Vogel, [1926], Reprint. 1972: 8) tat kaṅkaparvaṇo viṣam iyaṃ vīrud anīnaśat ||1|| The four terms Asita (“black”), Tiraśchirāji 4 AV. 5.13.5-6 (“cross-lined”), Svaja (“adder”), and Babhru kāirāta pṛśna upatṛṇya babhra (“brown”) mentioned in the hymns are ā me śṛṇutāsitā alīkāḥ | commonly explained as denoting certain mā me sakhyuḥ stāmānam api extant species of snakes. In the Atharva- ṣṭhātāśrāvayanto ni viṣe veda such a group of four is often invoked, ramadhvam ||5|| although under different names. In AV. asitasya tāimātasya babhrorapodakasya ca | 7.56.1, we read of four serpents called sātrāsāhasyāhaṃ manyorava Tiraśchirāji, Asita, Pṛidāku, and 3 jyāmiva dhanvano vi muñcāmi Kaṅkaparvan , In AV. 5.13.5-6, we have rathāṃiva ||6|| 5 AV. 10.4.13 hatās tiraścirājayo nipiṣṭāsaḥ 3 AV. 7.56.1 pṛdākavaḥ | tiraścirājer asitāt pṛdākoḥ pari darviṃ karikrataṃ śvitraṃ saṃbhṛtam | darbheṣv asitaṃ jahi ||13||

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stereotyped into the fixed group of four or Mucalinda, the Nāga king, who sheltered eight lokapālas of later . Buddha for seven days against rain and It can be assumed that animals, especially winds by spreading his hood over the serpents, have been used as protectors of Master’s head. Many nāgas came from four directions since the Vedic period, while gods quarters and helped to shelter the newly are the lords of directions. This is evident awakened Buddha as mentioned in from the word “rakṣitā” meaning “guarded, Lalitavistara (B.C. Sinha, 1979: 30).Thus, protected, saved, preserved, maintained” it can be assumed that the personal names of (M. Monier William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: snake- are associated with the four 125). Serpents also have correlative quarters of the sky. functions together with gods in “protecting” the devotees and “destroying” the one who Another interesting parallel is afforded by does not pay homage to the gods and the two later , the Lalitavistara warders or the enemy of Brahmin as seen in (LV. 282-284) and the Mahāvastu (Mvu. most of the magical spells in the Atharva- 3.306-309), both composed in Buddhist veda. Several of them are charms resorted to Sanskrit. The twenty-fourth chapter of the in order to avert the danger of snakes. The former work is devoted to the meeting of the method followed is twofold. On the one Buddha with the two merchants, Trapuṣa hand, the object is to propitiate the snake- and Bhallika, who offer him his first meal demons and to solicit their protection against after the enlightenment. The chapter their own tribe. On the other hand, charms concludes with a benedictory hymn, in are wielded against the snakes in order to which the protection of the four quarters is counteract their magical power, and, if invoked upon travelling traders. Each possible, to destroy them. (J.P. Vogel, quarter is represented by a group of seven ([1926], Reprint. 1972: 8) nakṣatras, by one of the Buddhist lokapālas side by side with one of the following four Brahmanical lokapālas: Sūrya, Yama, In Buddhist literature, we meet with a snake- Varuṇa, and Maṇibhadra, as we can see in charm or called Khandaparitta or a the following table: Ahirājasutta of a very early date. When the lord Buddha knew that a monk bitten by a snake had passed away, he said that this monk would not have died, even if bitten by a snake, if he had been suffused with loving- kindness of mind for the four tribes of serpent-kings (ahirāja-kulāni) as follows: Virūpakkhehi me mettaṃ, mettaṃ Erāpathehi me, Chabyāputtehi me mettaṃ, mettaṃ Kaṇhāgotamakehi ca, “My friendly should be unto the Virūpakkhas, the Erāpathas, Chabyāputtas, and the Kaṇhāgotamakas.”(Cullavagga, V, 6; A. ii. 72; Jd. ii. 144-7). There is another story of

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Mahāvastu Lalitavistara jayantī vijayantī ca siddhārthā aparājitā | teṣāṃ cādhipatī rājā dhṛtarāṣṭreti viśrutaḥ | teṣām adhipatī rājā dhṛtarāṣṭro ti nāmataḥ || sa sarvagandharvapatiḥ sūryeṇa saha rakṣatu gaṃdharvādhipatī rājā devehi sa ca rakṣitaḥ | || LV. 282|| so pi vo abhipāletu bhūmīye bhavanena ca || Mvu. 3.306|| tāsām adhipatī rājā virūḍhako ti nāmataḥ | teṣāṃ cādhipatī rājā virūḍhaka iti smṛtaḥ | kumbhāṇḍādhipatī rājā yamena saha rakṣatu || sarvakumbhāṇḍādhipatiryamena saha rakṣatu Mvu. 3.307|| || LV. 283|| tāsām adhipatī rājā virūpākṣo ti nāmataḥ | teṣāṃ cādhipatī rājā virūpākṣeti taṃ viduḥ | sa vo nāgādhipo rājā varuṇena saha rakṣatu || sa sarvanāgādhipatirvarūṇena saha rakṣatu || Mvu. 3.308|| LV. 283|| tāsām adhipatī rājā kuvera iti nāmataḥ | teṣāṃ cādhipatī rājā kubero naravāhanaḥ | sarvayakṣādhipo rājā rākṣasīhi saha rakṣatu || sarvayakṣāṇāmadhipatirmāṇibhadreṇa saha Mvu. 3.309 || rakṣatu || LV. 284||

J.P. Vogel ([1926], Reprint. 1972: 10) states 1977: 81) In terms of its etymology, that the most remarkable point certainly is Virūpakkha in Pali consists of two words: that the ancient dragons of the quarters have virūpa (< vi-rūpa) meaning “deformed, been replaced by the four Mahārājas. Two unsightly, ugly” (T.W. Rhys Davids and of the latter, moreover, are designated by William Stede, 1921-5: 635) and akkha names which were originally borne by means “having eyes” (T.W. Rhys Davids serpent-kings, as appears in the ancient and William Stede, 1921-5: 2). As a paritta preserved in the Pali Canon as compound word it means “having deformed “Virūpakkha and Erāpatha are not only the eyes”, while Virūpakṣa in Sanskrit consists names of two Nāgarājas, but in Buddhist of two words: virūpa (< vi-rūpa), meaning mythology they figure also as the lokapālas “many coloured, variegated, multiform, of the Western and Eastern region manifold various; deformed, misshapen, respectively.” ugly, unnatural” (M. Monier William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 984), and akṣa, Virūpakkha is the Cātummahārājikadeva meaning “the eyes” (M. Monier William, who rules the western quarter and becomes [1872], Reprint. 2002: 3). So, Virūpākṣa the lord of the Nāgas, and as such he is means “diverse eyes; having deformed waited on by the Nāgas regularly and any eyes” (M. Monier William, [1872], Reprint. question of dispute arising among them is 2002: 984). According to “Lokapaññatti” composed by Pra Saddhammaghosa, a referred to him for solution. In the assembly th of the devas he sits facing east. Goddess Burmese monk around the 11 century CE, Kālakaṇṇī is his daughter. (J.R. Haldar, Virūpakkha Nāgarāja is the lord of serpents and is called “diṭṭhavisa” which means

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releasing poison from vision or eyes. It Dhataraṭṭha is the regent who rules the means that when Virūpakkha stares at eastern quarter with his followers, the someone, the poison of the serpent can cause Gandhabhas. His sons are numerous and are the being’s . Making friends with called Inda. He has a daughter named Sirī. serpents mentioned in Khandaparitta or (J.R. Haldar, 1977: 81). In terms of its Ahirājasutta is the process of making friends etymology, Dhataraṭṭha in Pali consists of with the serpent worshippers or Nāga tribes two words: dhata (cf. Skt dhṛta) which is the of ancient India. In order to propagate the past participle form of dharati meaning Buddha’s , the monk needs “firm, prepared, ready, resolved” (T.W. friendship with local people and should not Rhys Davids and William Stede, 1921-5: look down on local beliefs. We can assume 335) and raṭṭha (cf. Skt rāṣṭra) meaning that there are various Indian ophiologies “reign, kingdom, empire; country, realm” among people in the four quarters suggested (T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, by the four names of serpents. Therefore, the 1921-5: 562). Dhṛtarāṣṭra in Sanskrit name of the western lokapāla may represent consists of two words: dhṛta meaning “held, prior or contemporary indigenous belief in borne, maintained, supported kept, serpent worship or serpent worshippers or possessed” (M. Monier William, [1872], Nāga tribes. Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett Reprint. 2002: 519) and rāṣṭra. Therefore, (2003: 147) suggest that “the connection Dhataraṭṭha or Dhṛtarāṣṭra means “whose between the wandering monk and the empire is firm, a powerful king (M. Monier ambiguous powers of the forest remains William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 519). integral to the image and style of the holy man’s career.” J.P. Vogel ([1926], Reprint. 1972: 9)

surmised that the name Dhataraṭṭha or Virūpakkha is not only mentioned in Dhṛtarāṣṭra has been considered the same as Buddhist literature as the name of the Elāpattra, a tribe of serpent-kings mentioned western lokapāla or tribe of serpent-kings, it in paritta, because Elāpattra is known by the is also commonly known in Sanskrit name of Dhṛtarāṣṭra Airāvata. In a hymn of literature and a number of narratives as a the Atharva-veda (AV. 8.10.29), Dhṛtarāṣṭra name of Lord Śiva (Virūpākṣa cf. Virūpa- Airāvata are mentioned together with cakṣus) (M. Monier William, [1872], Takṣaka Vaiṣāleya side by side as the chief Reprint. 2002: 984); the elephants of the representatives of the serpent race. The eastern quarters (diṅ-nāga) in the Rāmāyaṇa name Elāpattra has been recognized as a (Ralph T. H. Griffith, 1870: 52); a Rākṣasa Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Airāvata (B.C. who fought on the side of Rāvana against Sinha, 1979: 47). Hence, it is clearly Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa; the Dānavas born to possible that Dhṛtarāṣṭra and Airāvata, or Prajāpati Kaśyapa by his wife ; an Elāpattra, are the same serpents, or that who was the follower of Narakāsura; a Dhṛtarāṣṭra descends from the Nāga’s Rākṣasa who was the friend of Ghaṭotkaca; a progenitor named Airāvata. giant who was the friend of a stork called

Rājadharma; and one of the eleven It is worthy of note that “Dhṛtarāṣṭra (Vettam Mani, 1998: 862-863). Airāvata” never takes any active part in the

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numerous Nāga stories collected in the Elāpattra was worshipped as a regent of the Mahābhārata. His name does occur in the water and as the giver of rain. From his Great Epic but he seems to be regarded as a account it is clear that the tank of the Nāga remote ancestor of the Nāga race. B.C. Elāpattra was situated at some distance to Sinha (1979: 47) assumes that the compilers the north-west of Taxilā (B.C. Sinha, (1979: of the Mahābhārata were not aware of the 47-48). Dhataraṭṭha is also mentioned as the identity of the two names since Dhṛtarāṣṭra Nāga king in the Mahāsamaya sutta. It can and Airāvata, or Elāpattra, are mentioned as be assumed that this name is the name of a a separate Nāga in the list born to the serpent significant serpent. If we agree with J.P. mother Kadrū. Dhṛtrāṣṭra mentioned in the Vogel, there is some relationship between Mahābhārata is a serpent born to Kaśyapa Dhataraṭṭha Nāgarāja and Erāpatha (or Prajāpati by his wife Kadrū. Dhṛtarāṣṭra is Elāpattra) as the same serpent family which also the name of one of the famous sons of are elevated to be the eastern lokapāla, so Vāsuki and the keeper of jewels the name of the eastern lokapāla may Mṛtasañjīvinī (Vettam Mani, 1998: 862- represent serpent worshippers or Nāga tribes 863), while Elāpattra figures here as the in early Buddhism. most wise Nāga, who knows what will happen in the future after the serpent mother J.P. Vogel ([1926], Reprint. 1972: 10) states Kadrū has pronounced her curse. It is an that the most remarkable point certainly is interesting point to observe that Elāpattra that here the ancient dragons of the quarters does not play a prominent part in the have been replaced by the four Mahārājas. Brāhmaṇical tradition but he has a Two of the latter, Virūpakkha and remarkable career in the Buddhist tradition. Dhataraṭṭha, moreover, are designated by It is said that Elāpattra had been born as a names which were originally borne by Nāga because in a previous birth he had serpent-kings, Virūpakkha and Erāpatha, as destroyed an elā tree. The legend further appears from the ancient paritta preserved in relates that Elāpattra came from Taxilā to the Pali Canon. I agree with Vogel’s idea in the Deer Park to pay respects to the Buddha part but there are some specific arguments to according to the Mahāvastu (B.C. Sinha, be taken in to account. Firstly, the serpents 1979: 102-104). The Chinese pilgrim mentioned in the paritta are not specified mentions Elāpattra among the clearly as serpents of the directions; three great Nāga kings who obtained a share nonetheless, serpents have played an of the Buddha’s relics. On his way to Taxilā important role as protectors of the directions he saw that place which was supposed to be since the Vedic period. The ancient dragons the abode of the Nāga. Alexander of the quarters have been replaced by Cunningham identified the sacred lands of popular gods worshipped by Aryan people Elāpattra as a small reservoir of clear water as we can see in early magical spells in not far from Hasan-Abdāl, about ten miles to which serpents were mentioned with lords of the north-west of Shah Dheri. Although no direction as protectors. This expresses an longer associated with the Nāga king, the Aryan acceptance of indigenous beliefs but tank is still held in reverence by Sikhs and later gods were mentioned independently as Muslims. From Xuanzang we learn that

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Digadhipati which shows indigenous beliefs to have Varuṇa (Āditya) as their ruler and had already been integrated. Soma becomes the ruling over the apsarās. The Mahābhārata represents Varuṇa However, Bandula Jayawardhana (1979- as a deva-. This is not surprising 1989: 566) states that Dhataraṭṭha of the as Varuṇa is given the overlordship of the cātummahārājika is not to be confused with waters in the Ṛgveda (RV. 7. 64. 2)7 itself, the king of that name who was ruler of the and as the Atharva-veda (AV. 11.7.27, 9.16; Nāga world. In the Mahāsamaya sutta this is 14.2.9)8 clearly shows, the and made clear by the latter’s separate arrival at the apsarās are only the male and female the great concourse. That nāga king arrives aspects of a single concept that relates to much later, in the company of the nāgas of water. Dhṛta-vrata occurring in the Ṛgveda Yamunā. If the eastern lokapāla has its half a dozen times as an epithet of Varuṇa origin in serpent worship or the Nāga tribes, can easily be the antecedent of the Pali there is some question as to why Dhataraṭṭha Dhataraṭṭha (Dhṛtarāṣṭra),Varuṇa being in is the lord of the gandhabbas. the Ṛgveda described as ‘universal monarch’ (samrāj) with the attribute of sovereign According to O. H. de A. Wijesekera (kṣatra) preeminently bestowed on him. (1994: 191-192), Dhataraṭṭha (D, II.257), Both “rāṣṭra” and “samrāj” are derived from is a name which undoubtedly echoes √raj meaning ‘rule,’ which may Varuṇa’s accredited rulership over the semantically approximate to vrata, law or gandharvas in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa ordinance (O. H. de A. Wijesekera 1994: 6 208). I agree with O. H. de A. Wijesekera (ŚBr. 13.4.3.7-8) . The gandharvas are said that Varuṇa has some connection with Gandhabbas, but the name “Dhataraṭṭha” 6 ŚBr. 13.4.3.7-8 atha tṛtīye'han evamevaitāsviṣṭiṣu vaiṣṇavo rājetyāha saṃsthitāsveṣaivāvṛdadhvarya tasyāpsaraso viśastā imā āsata viti havai iti hotarityevādhvaryurvaruṇa yuvatayaḥ śobhanāḥ upasametā ādityo rājetyāha tasya bhavanti tā upadiśatyaṅgiraso gandharvā viśasta ima āsata iti vedaḥ so yuvānaḥ śobhanā upasametā yamityaṅgirasāmekam parva bhavanti vyācakṣāṇa ivānudra tānupadiśatyatharvāṇo vedaḥ 7 RV. 7. 64. 2 so'yamityatharvaṇāmekam ā rājānā maha ṛtasya gopā parva vyācakṣāṇa sindhupatī kṣatriyā yātam ivānudravedevamevādhvaryuḥ arvāk | sampreṣyati na iḷāṃ no mitrāvaruṇota vṛṣṭim prakramānjuhoti ava diva invataṃ jīradānū || atha caturthe'han 8 AV. 11.7.27 evamevaitāsviṣṭiṣu devāḥ pitaro manuṣyā saṃsthitāsveṣaivāvṛdadhvarya gandharvāpsarasaś ca ye | viti havai ucchiṣṭāj jajñire sarve divi hotarityevādhvaryuḥ somo devā diviśritaḥ ||27||

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being derived from an epithet of Varuṇa is connects with the indigenous belief of unreliable because “Dhṛta-vrata meaning serpent worship, the name of gods, “maintaining law or order” has a different gandhabba and the characters in the meaning from the Pali Dhataraṭṭha Mahābhārata as the name of the ruler of the (Dhṛtarāṣṭra). Another possible theory is that eastern quarter and the King of Gandhabbas Dhataraṭṭha and Indra, or Sakka, in Buddhist in Buddhist literature. literature may be the same person. In the Vidhurapaṇḍita Jātaka (J.V. p. 260), Sakka Virūḷha, or Virūḷhaka, is one of the is referred to as Gandhabba-rāja, king of Regents who rules the southern quarter, and, Gandhabba; moreover, the relationship in the assembly of the devas, sits facing between Indra and the gandhabbas such as north. His followers are the Kumbhaṇḍas. Mātali, or Pañcasikha is often mentioned in (J.R. Haldar, 1977: 80-81) This name Buddhist texts. appears particularly in Buddhist literature. According to M. Monier-William ([1872], Dhataraṭṭha is not only mentioned as the Reprint. 2002: 984), Virūḍhaka means name of the eastern lokapāla or tribe of “grain that has begun to sprout; a prince of serpent-kings in Buddhist literature, this the kumbhaṇḍas; a lokapala in Buddhist name has also been commonly recognized in literature; a son of Prasenajit”. All given Sanskrit literature as the name of a deva meanings were found only in Buddhist gandharva (Semi-god) who was the son of contexts and not in mainstream Sanskrit the hermit Kaśyapa and Muni, took part in literature. In terms of etymology, viruh the birth-celebration of Arjuna and went to (vi-ruh) means “to grow out, shoot forth, the presence of King Marutta as a messenger sprout sprouted” and virūḍha means of Indra. This Gandarva was born as “sprouted, come forth, born, arisen” (M. Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the father of ; a Monier-William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: king who was the son of Janamejaya and the 984) while virūḷha in Pali is the past grandson of Kuru, a king of the Lunar participle form of the virūḷhati meaning dynasty (Vettam Mani, 1998: 237); a son of “having grown, growing” (S. ii.65; T.W. the Bali; a king of kāśī (M. Monier Rhys Davids and William Stede, 1921-5: William, [1872], Reprint. 2002: 519). 635).

As we can see, Dhṛtarāṣṭra has been Kumbhaṇḍas are the retinue of Virūḷhaka, mentioned in Sanskrit literature since the for which both Pāli and Sanskrit sources Vedic period and appeared more frequently offer an inadequate explanation of the in the Itihāsa-Purāṇa. It has also been derivation. It is quite possible that this term recognized in Buddhist literature. Both “Kumbhaṇḍa” was borrowed from either the literary works use this name for people, Dravidian or the Munḍa languages, as these animals, and places. Buddhism adopts this were the two other major linguistic groups earlier well-known name as the name of the besides the Indo-Aryan group that could lord of the eastern direction particularly. have been known to the Gangetic peoples. This may show an acceptance of indigenous M.M.J. Marasinghe (1974: 235) states that beliefs, by using an earlier name which although in the Dravidian languages the

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word is not found in its present form, the composition of the word is components of the word in most Dravidian not too fanciful a languages seem to suggest some associations suggestion, it could have with the origins of spirit belief itself. meant at an early stage of its usage, ‘rotten in the pot, “Kumbu in Kannada is, decayed in the pot, etc.’ ‘decay (of dry trees or The word Kumbu-nāṭṭaṃ is bamboos)’; in Koḍagu, explained by the Madras Kumbī, is, ‘dry rot’,; ‘rust’; Tamil Lexicon as ‘the in Tulu, Kumbu, smell of the decayed’, thus ‘rottenness,rotten, showing the associations of decayed,’; and in Tamil, the word in this sense” Kumbu is, ‘charred, burnt’, (M.M.J. Marasinghe, 1974: etc.’ Anḍā in Tamil is used 235). to denote, “a big pot, large vessel, etc.” (In Urdu also In a non-advanced cultural atmosphere, anḍā is a pot). The two where urn-burials were quite common, with words when combined would the idea of , such an idea of the spirit stand as Kumbu+anḍā and by of the dead person rising out of the urn in ordinary elision it would which his/her last remains had been become, Kumbanḍā. The deposited is not impossible. Fairly recent occlusive changing into an archaeological excavations demonstrate that aspirate is of common urn-burials were common in most parts of occurrence in loan words India, at one stage or the other in their from the Dravidian to the cultural histories. Of special interest to us Indo-Aryan as well as the are the megalithic findings in the Deccan, Middle-Indo Aryan languages, and Orissan regions, and more particularly as for example in the case of the evidence collected by Davids Roy on the the Tamil word, potti, megalithic monuments among the Khāsīs becoming potthaka, in Pāli. almost in the very heart of the area which On the other hand, within received Buddhist influence (M.M.J. languages of the Dravidian Marasinghe, 1974: 237). family of languages itself, the occlusive and the aspirate Thus, it is possible that the meaning of the seem to interchange without name Virūḷha, or Virūḷhaka, “to grow out, affecting the meaning of the shoot forth, sprout, sprouted,” may be a word at all, as for example trace of earlier or contemporaneous in the case of Kannada, indigenous beliefs, as seen in the word where Kumbagāra, Kumbāra, kumbhaṇḍa which might stem from the as well as Kumbhakāra, are ancient practice of urn-burial and the belief found in use to denote the that the soul or spirit of the dead could rise potter. If such a from its grave (in this case the urn). The

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word Kumbhaṇḍa originally used to describe English Dictionary, London: the Pali the dead person could have come to be used Text Society. for the spirit of the dead in course of time (M.M.J. Marasinghe, 1974: 237). Moreover, Haldar, J. R. 1977. Early Buddhist the concept of death also connects with the Mythology. New Delhi: Manohar. Hymns southern quarter of which Virūḷha is the lord of the Atharva-Veda (The Sacred Books according to Buddhist literature, and Yama of the East, Vol. 42). 1897. Translated by is the lord in Sanskrit literature. Thus, the Maurice Bloomfield. Delhi: Motilal name of the Southern lokapāla may reflect Banarsidass. the Buddhist acceptance of indigenous beliefs, as well. Jayawardhana, Bandula. Cātummahārājika. 1971. Encyclopedia of Buddhism 3: 707- 4. Conclusion 708.

The study suggests that the names of three Jayawardhana, Bandula. Dhataraṭṭha. 1979- of the Great Kings - Dhataraṭṭha, Virūḷha or 1989. Encyclopedia of Buddhism 4 : 565- Virūḷhaka, and Virūpakkha - may be relics 566 or indications of earlier or contemporaneous indigenous beliefs and peoples who had Malalasekera, G. P. [1938], Reprint. 2007. cultural encounters with Buddhism. The Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names. 2 vols. indigenous beliefs and social groups consist Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. of the nāga cult, belief in spirits, the early practice of urn-burials, and belief in the soul Mani, Vettam. 1998. The Purāṇic or spirit of the dead rising out of the grave, Encyclopaedia: a comprehensive and nāga as a tribal people. Buddhism tried dictionary with special reference to the to incorporate these beliefs from some of epic and Purāṇic literature. Delhi: these social groups into its cosmology by Motilal Banarsidass. elevating some local gods, indigenous beliefs and tribal peoples to divine status, Marasinghe, M. M. J. 1974. Gods in Early such as the lokapālas, who become Buddhism: a study in their social and chieftains of the gandhabbas, the nāgas and mythological milieu as depicted in the the kumbhaṇḍas in order to exploit earlier or Nikāyas of the Pāli Canon. Kelaniya: contemporaneous indigenous beliefs. University of Sir , Vidyalankara Campus References Monier-Williams, M. [1872], Reprint. 2002. Bailey, Greg and Ian Mabbett. 2003. The A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: sociology of early Buddhism. Cambridge: Motilal Banarsidass. Cambridge University Press. Sinha, B. C. c1978. Serpent Worship in Davids, T. W. Rhys and Stede, William. Ancient India New Delhi : Books Today. 1921-5. The Pali Text Society’s Pali-

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The Artharvaveda: Sanskrit text with English translation. 1997. Translated by Chand. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, The Yajurveda (Tāittirīya Saṃhitā). Translated by A. B. Keith (1914) October 1, 2014 .

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