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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86220-2 - The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy Edited by David R. Olson and Nancy Torrance Index More information

Index

Abjads, 28–30, 33, 35–36 relationship among participants, awareness Abugidas, 30–31, 35–36 of, 124 Academic language revision, effect of, 128–129 abstract concepts, use of, 121 rewriting, effect of, 128–129 Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skill self, teaching role of language in (BICS), 113–114 representation of, 129 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency sharing of expectations, importance of, 118 (CALP), 113–114 explicit marking of text structures, 120 conceptual framework, lack of, 113, 115 genre mastery, 121 defined, 112–113 grammatical complexity of, 127 disciplinary knowledge, 121 grammatical metaphor, use of, 120–121 education in information load, 118 academic skills to be taught, 127–128 interpersonal stance, 118 difficulty of, 114–115 lexical requirements, 120 early precursors, 125–126 nominalization, 121 effective pedagogical approaches, 128 organization of information, 118–120 goal of, 127 overview, 112, 115, 130 important genres, 130 pragmatics-based approach, 121–124 informational context, 130 reasoning/argumentative strategies, 121 intervention for students falling behind, representational congruence, 120–121 129 research agenda, 124–125 metapragmatic awareness, role of, 126 research examples, 115–118 metasociolinguistic awareness, 129–130 self, representation of method of communication, understanding accommodation with representation of of, 124 message, 122 mode, effect of, 126–127 audience, relationship with, 123, 124 normative developmental course, 127 authoritativeness, establishing, 123–124 planning, effect of, 128–129 complexity of message and, 122–123

577

578 INDEX

Academic language (cont.) age-related differences, 96 generally, 122 data, 96 teaching role of language in, 129 generally, 96 summary of features, 118, 121 written language as core of literacy, 92 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), 114 Adult Literacy and Lifeskills (ALL) survey, Academy for Educational Development, 526–527 542–544 Accountability in adult literacy education Adult literacy education Canada, in, 543–544 accountability in United Kingdom, in, 544 Canada, in, 543–544 United States, in, 543–544 United Kingdom, in, 544 Adams, M., 330–331 United States, in, 543–544 Adelperga, 371 ALL survey, 542–544 Adolescence, oral and written text construction curriculum standards during abstract skills versus content knowledge, 542 adjectives per clause, 100 Canada, in, 541–542 clause-linking connectivity, 101–102 United Kingdom, in, 542 information density, 94 United States, in, 542 interface of modality and genre, 93, 102, 106 determining scale of need language-specific factors, 100–101 generally, 536–537 later language development, 93 performance scales, 536 length of text self-perceived literary skills, 536 age-related differences, 95 dropout rates generally, 94 Canada, in, 540–541 number of clauses, 95 United Kingdom, in, 541 number of words, 94–95 United States, in, 541 lexical density IALS and, 536–537 age-related differences, 98 industrialized nations, in, 535, 545–546 data, 98 measuring learning gains generally, 98 Canada, in, 545 lexical diversity United Kingdom, in, 544 age-related differences, 99–100 United States, in, 544–545 context-sensitive analysis, 99 participation in data, 100 Canada, in, 537, 540 generally, 98–99 dispositional barriers, 540 linguistic literacy, 92 institutional barriers, 540 linguistic richness, 95–96 overview, 537, 540 methodology of research, 93–94 situational barriers, 540 narrative versus expository text United Kingdom, in, 537–538, 540 deontic modes, 104 United States, in, 538, 540 epistemic modes, 104–105 professional development, expansion of, external generalizations, 103 545–546 formality of language, 103 professionalism of teaching staff modal expressions, 103–105 Canada, in, 541 overview, 102, 106 generally, 541 temporal organization, 102–103 United Kingdom, in, 541 noun abstractness, 100 United States, in, 541 noun phrase complexity, 101 quality of, 540 overview, 105–106 systems of provision reflection on language, centrality of writing in, Canada, in, 538–539 92–93 central control over, 539–540 text production, significance of, 93 overview, 538 word length United Kingdom, in, 539 data, 97–98 United States, in, 539 generally, 96–97 Africa. See also specific nation words per clause education reform efforts, failure of, 521–522

INDEX 579

ALA (American Library Association), Anti-Slavery Society of Canada, 208–209 300 Arab Human Development Reports, 418, 419, Alexander, Bryan, 301 425–428, 429 Algorithms. See Mathematics and literacy Arabic language ALL (Adult Literacy and Lifeskills) survey, Classical Arabic 542–544 criticisms of, 426–427, 428–429 Alphabets education, in, 421–422 Aramaic alphabet, 29–30, 33 overview, 419–420 Bible, in, 33 simplification of, 422–423 Coptic alphabets, 28 Qur’an [Qur’an]¯ and, 374–375, 419–420 Cyrillic alphabet, 28 reform proposals, problems with, 427 defined, 28 script, effect on reading, 424 English language simplification of, 419–420, 422–423 function, 25 vernacular Arabic, 425 historical background, 25 writing, 33 Glagolitic alphabets, 28 Arab world, literacy in Gothic languages, 28 Classical Arabic, dominance of, 426–427, Greek alphabet 428–429 development of, 346–347 communities of participation, 424–425 generally, 28–30 communities of practice, 424–425 literacy, effect on, 347 education in vowels, introduction of, 346–347 antiquated nature of, 421 historical background, 35 Classical Arabic and, 421–422 Qur’an [Qur’an],¯ in, 33, 374–375 grammar, 421–422 Roman alphabet, 27–28 overview, 420–421 Alternative education programs poor quality of, 421 Bangladesh (Non-formal Primary Education Qur’an [Qur’an],¯ use of, 421–422 Program), 524–525, 526–529, 531–532 unpopularity with students, 422 bureaucracy and, 532 family structure, effect of, 426 Colombia (Escuela Nueva), 524, 526–527, lack of knowledge regarding, 418 528–529, 531–532 levels of literacy, 425–426 comparative analysis of, 525–527 Morocco, 427–428 Egypt (Community Schools Program), 525, national anthems and, 425 526–527, 528 native languages, lack of instruction in, Ghana (School for Life), 525, 526–527, 528 426–427, 428–429 institutionalization question, 531–532 newspapers and, 425 measuring results of, 527 overview, 418–419, 429 methods in, 528 publishing, low level of, 424 overview, 530–531, 532 reading in pedagogical models, 528–529 Arabic script, effect of, 424 pedagogical question, 531 difficulty of, 423 success of, 528 low level of, 424 teacher learning question, 531 relationship with language, 422–423 teachers in, 530 religion and, 424–425 American Library Association (ALA), 300 social class and, 420 American spelling, 26 vernacular Arabic, use of, 425 American Standard Code for Information writing, low level of, 423–424 Interchange (ASCII), 297 Aramaic alphabet, 29–30, 33 Amusement, literacy as, 3 Aristotle Analysis and control framework, 489–490 convention, role in language, 51 Anderson, C. W., 272–273 education, on, 50 Anglo-Saxon languages, Christianity and, scientific teachings, 440 371–372 semiology of, 50 Anthony, J. L., 137 symbols, on, 14, 50–52 Anthony of Egypt, 367 writing, definition of, 8

580 INDEX

Arithmetic and literacy. See Mathematics and Books literacy good books, 461 Armenian languages, Christianity and, 373–374 primers (See Primers) ARPANET, 293–294 privatization of, 193 Asoka, 353–354 shared book experiences, 510–511 Augustine of Hippo, 363–364, 367, 369 social status of, 192–193 Autobiography and concepts of self, 222 story books, 513 Autonomy hypothesis, 489 textbooks Aztecs, evolution of numeracy among, 68–69 Chinese literacy and (See Chinese literacy) linguistic variation research and, 78–79 Bacon, Francis, 440–441 Boone, E. H., 61–62 Baden-Powell, Robert, 531 Boring, Edwin G., 546 Bailey, A., 113, 114, 126 Bourdieu, P., 507 Bailey, N., 230–231 Bradley, L., 491 Bai script, 409–410 Brahm¯ ı-derived¯ script, 31 Bakhtin, Mikhail M., 128 Brain Bangert-Drowns, R., 288 functional specialization of, 154 Bangladesh, Non-formal Primary Education hierarchically connected network, as, 154 Program in, 524–525, 526–529, 531–532 membrane potential, 154–156 Bardaisan, 373 regions utilized in language, 160–161 Baron, N. S., 293, 294 structure of, 153–154 Barthes, R., 248, 568–569 Brandt, Deborah, 339 Barton, D., xvii, 424–425 Bremer, Fredrika, 243–244 Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skill Brewer, John, 221–222 (BICS), 113–114 Bridges to the Future Initiative, 561–562 Basic literacy skills, technology supporting. See Broader vision of literacy, technology providing. Technology and literacy See Technology and literacy Basic versus specialized literacy skills, xiv–xv Broca, Paul, 160 Baudonivia, 371 Bronfenbrenner, U., 509–510 Baynham, Mike, 340–342 Brooks, G., 544 Beard, Mary, 358 Bryant, P. E., 491 Beccaria, Cesare, 442–444 Buddhism, 402 Beckett, K., 321–323 Burns, Robert, 205–206 Bede (The “Venerable”), 369–370, 371–372 Bush, Vannevar, 288–289 Bell, Alexander Melville, 54 Butterfield, H., 440–441 Benkler, Yochia, 286–287 Berber language, 427–428 CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Berezan letter, 351 Proficiency), 113–114 Berman, Harold J., 440, 441, 443–444 Calvinism and literacy, 434, 437 Berman, Ruth A., 570–571 Canada Beyond 2000, 273 adult literacy education in (See Adult literacy Bialystok, E., 489–490, 494 education) Biber, Douglas, 127, 570–571 Advisory Committee on Literacy and Bible Essential Skills, 539 alphabets in, 33 case studies on reading in (See Conventions of grammar in, 367–368 reading) punctuation in, 367–368 education in, 437 uncial script in, 368–369 1850 School Act, 208 BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Human Resources and Skills Development Skill), 113–114 Canada, 541–542 Bloomfield, Leonard, 55 Movement for Canadian Literacy, 541 Blum-Kulka, S., 125–126 National Adult Literacy Database, 545–546 Bolter, Jay, 288, 289 National Literacy Secretariat, 538–539 Boniface, 371 Ontario Educational Association, 212 Bookkeeping, emergence of writing from, 70 Ontario Literacy Coalition, 541

INDEX 581

Provincial Union Association, 207–208 United Nations Special Session on Children, Toronto Mechanics’ Institute, 204–206 518–519 Canticles, 456 writing and Capitalism additive process, not deemed to be, 479–481 concepts of self and, 221–222 differences across forms of writing, 471 literacy and, 437–438 deﬁnitely discursive constraints, role of, Capital punishment, 442–443 479–480 Case studies drawing differentiated, 471 Canada, case studies on reading in (See formal constraints, 474, 477–478 Conventions of reading) graphic differences, introduction of, 475–476 cognitive neuroscience, in (See Cognitive interpretation, role of, 481–482, 483 neuroscience perspective on literacy) mapping of sounds to symbols, 476–477 conventions of reading, in (See Conventions negation, concept of, 480 of reading) notation, role of, 479 Portugal, cognitive neuroscience case study in numerals differentiated, 471–472 (See Cognitive neuroscience perspective) phonetic principle and, 476–477 Cassell, J., 294 phonetization of writing, 478 Cassiodorus, 369–370 phonological structure and, 478–479 Castro-Caldas, A., 496–497 reading differentiated, 471 Catechisms, 455–456, 457 referential-communicative function, 474, Catholicism and literacy, 434, 439–440 475–476, 477, 478 Cattell, J., xvi transgression technique, studies using, Cavalcanti, M. C., 340–341 472–473, 477 Caxton, William, 27 undifferentiated writing, 474–475, 478 Celano, D., 323–324 universal features, 479 Central America. See Mesoamerica Chinese literacy Chamberlin, Edward, 6 accommodation of non-Han languages, 410 Chan, L., 475–476 Bai script, 409–410 Charlemagne, 374–375 bilingualism and, 410 Cherokee script, 35 civil service and, 401 Children. See also Education and literacy colloquial speech and, 401 dyslexia in cultural development, role in, 386 Chinese language studies, 146–147 Cultural Revolution and, 407 English language studies, 145–146 dialects versus languages, 411 reading processes, insights into, 140–141 different writing systems, 386 International Convention on the Rights of the Greek tradition compared, 410–411 Child, 518 Hanzi writing system (See Hanzi writing neuroimaging studies of system) Chinese language studies of dyslexic integration of non-Han languages, 410 children, 146–147 Keju exams, 406–407 English language studies of dyslexic mathematics and literacy in China (See children, 145–146 Mathematics and literacy) generally, 143–145, 147 numeracy, evolution of, 66–67 poor readers, studies of, 147 overview, 386–387 numerals and writing differentiated by, scholar selection system, 401 471–472 schools oral and written text construction in government schools, 395 adolescents (See Adolescence, oral and Han dynasty, during, 395 written text construction during) historical development, 394–395 phonology and, 141 Ming dynasty, during, 396 reading and private schools, 395, 401 inductive understanding of, 473–474 Qing dynasty, during, 396 progression of, 471 Song dynasty, during, 395–396 universal features, 479 Wei-Jin period, during, 395 writing differentiated, 471 Yuan dynasty, during, 396

582 INDEX

Chinese literacy (cont.) Church-Turing computability, 157–158 script, 32, 36 Cicero, 433–434, 446 social class and, 400–401 Civilizational norms, 432, 445 Tangut script, 409 Civil society and literacy teaching skills hegemony and, 438–439 brainstorming, 400 overview, 432 brush pen, use of, 400 Clanchy, M., xiv recitation, 400 Clarke, John, 230 textbooks Classical Arabic advanced stage, in, 398–400 criticisms of, 426–427, 428–429 composition, for, 400 education, in, 421–422 couplet composition, 399 overview, 419–420 Hanzi recognition, for, 396–398 simplification of, 422–423 Hanzi writing, for, 398 Clerics and literacy, 439–440 phrase-making, 399–400 “Clerisy,” 433 pictorial story books, 398–399 Clinton, Bill, 297 Pinyin notation system in, 398 Clinton, K., 339 poetry, 399 Cochran-Smith, Marilyn, 287–288 primary stage, in, 396–398 Codices, 369 reading, for, 398, 400 Cognition and concepts of self, 223 sentence-making, 399–400 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency Yuwen system, 398 (CALP), 113–114 Tibetan languages, 408–409 Cognitive consequences of literacy, xix Tomba script, 410 Cognitive skill versus social practice, literacy as, Wenjiao system xix–xx Buddhism in, 402 Cognitive neuroscience perspective on literacy classical education in, 403 algorithmic rules, 157–158 government control of, 402 brain and overview, 402, 403 functional specialization of, 154 promotion of literacy in, 402–403 hierarchically connected network, as, 154 rigidity of, 403 membrane potential, 154–156 Taoism in, 402 regions utilized in language, 160–161 Yuwen system, inclusion of, 403–404 structure of, 153–154 Wenyan system, 396, 407 case studies women and, 401–402 cognitive differences between groups, Xixia language, 409 169 Zhuang script, 410 digit span, 172–173 Chomsky, Noam, 14, 158, 162 ecological relevance, 171–172 Christianity, literacy and functional differences between groups, Bible (See Bible) 164–165 books, difficulty in producing, 370 hemispheric differences between groups, codices and, 369 166–169 encouragement of, 367 neuroanatomical differences between grammar and, 367–368 groups, 164–165 illiteracy in Christian tradition, 367 overview, 162–163 importance of, 363 population, 163–164 Latin, dominant role of, 371 positron emission tomography (PET), mass literacy, role in rise of, 434 using, 160–161 punctuation and, 367–368 semantic intrusion and awareness of Roman tradition, borrowing from, 366–367 phonological form, 174–175 sermo humilis, 367 sentence context, 173–174 uncial script and, 368–369 short-term working memory and vernacular languages, redaction into writing, phonological processing, 172 371 spatial span, 172–173 women, inclusion of, 370–371 two-dimensional pictorial object naming, Christiansen, M. H., 162 169–170

INDEX 583

visuomotor integration, 170–171 Confirmation, 458 word versus pseudo-word repetition, 173 Confucius, 395, 399, 401, 402 cognitive level, 152–153 Constantine, 364–367 cultural evolution, role of, 161–162 Convention, role in language, 51 data structures, 157–158 Conventions of reading developmental perspective on cognition, case studies 158–160 abolitionist cultural associations, role of, dynamical system level, 152–153 207–215 EEG and, 160–161 access to printed materials at time of, 204 environment, role of, 158 importance of literacy at time of, 203–204 fMRI and, 160–161 institutes, role of, 204–205, 206–207 functional architecture, 158–160 lectures, role of, 205–206 functional modularity, 158–159 literacy rates at time of, 202–203 implementation level, 152–153 Oprah’s Book Club, 215–217 information processing models, 156–158 overview, 202 innate prior structure, role of, 158 Provincial Union Association, 207–209 learning dynamics, 158–160 rhetoric, training in, 207 memory retrieval, 160 Toronto Mechanics’ Institute, 204–206, 207 metalinguistic awareness, 161 communities and, 201–202 neural constructivism, 162 continuum between literacy and, 201 overview, 152, 175–176 educational policy, effect on, 569 positron emission tomography (PET) and, genre and, 200–201 160–161 normative conventions representational dynamics, 158–160 basic skills, 570 structure integration, 160 linguistic awareness, 570 Cognitive psychology, 469 overview, 569–570 Cognitive revolution, 12 scientific literacy and, 571 Cole, Michael, xx, 297, 330, 333–334, 505 writing, tied to, 570–571 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 433 social nature of, 200–201 Collaborative knowledge Cooper, J., 295 differences from print media, 302–303 Coptic alphabets, 28 folksonomy, 302 Coptic language, Christianity and, 372–373 social software, 301, 302–303 Cossu, G., 137–138 Web 2.0 movement, 301 Coulmas, Florian, 36–37 Wikipedia, 301–303 Cribbiore, R., 357 Collins, Jackie, 245–246 Criterion referenced testing, 567 Colombia, Escuela Nueva in, 524, 526–527, Cross, K. P., 540 528–529, 531–532 Cross-linguistic studies. See Linguistic variation Colonialism, emergence from, 9 research Commonplacing, 227 Crowley, Kevin, 314 Communion, 458 Cultural evolution, role of, 161–162 Communities and reading, 201–202 Cultural norms, 432, 444–445 Computer assisted instruction (CAI), 557 Cultural predisposition to literacy Computer games. See Video games cognitive abilities, effect of literacy on, Computer-mediated communication 505–506 arXiv.org, 299 collaboration between expert and novice, 503 effect on print literacy, 294–295 cultural capital, literacy as, 507 e-mail, 293–294 cultural tools, 504–505 Instant Messaging (IM), 294 culture defined, 509 Short Message Service (SMS), 294 emergent literacy approach and, 504 types of, 293 family and (See Family and reading) Computers. See also Digital literacy; Technology guided participation, 502 and literacy institutionalized roles, importance of, 502 evolution of, 552–553 intent participation and, 507–509 interactive nature of, 556–557 intersubjectivity, development of, 502–503 Condorcet, xvii overview, 501, 515–516

584 INDEX

Cultural predisposition to literacy (cont.) de Tracy, Destutt, 435 participatory appropriation and, 509–510 Developing nations, literacy in planning language, use of, 502–504 alternative education programs (See scaffolding model, 502–504 Alternative education programs) social process, nature of, 501–502 generally, 530, 532 sociocultural theory and, 506–507, 509–510 information literacy and social structures in, sociocultural view, 507 561–562 stage theory and, 504 low levels of whole language approach and, 504 access to education, lack of, 519–520 zone of proximal development, 501 funding, lack of, 520–521 Cummins, J., 113–114 limited reading skills, 520 Cuneiform, 34 non-completion of education, 520 Curriculum standards in adult literacy education overview, 519 abstract skills versus content knowledge, 542 technicist solutions, 520–521 Canada, in, 541–542 Developmental dyslexia. See Dyslexia United Kingdom, in, 542 Development fatigue, 548 United States, in, 542 Devotional writing Cyrillic alphabet, 28 concepts of self in, 228 Rome, in, 358 d’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 441 Dewey, John, 437 Damerow, P., 63–64 Diaries, concepts of self in, 225, 226 Daniels, Peter T., 568 Dickens, Charles, 444–445 Danish International Development Agency, 525 Dictionaries, 26 Dark Ages, literacy during Digital literacy. See also Technology and literacy generally, 362–363, 375 American Standard Code for Information Christianity and, 367–375 Interchange (ASCII), 297 (See also Christianity, literacy and) collaborative knowledge late Roman Empire, during, 363–367 differences from print media, 302–303 (See also Rome, literacy in) folksonomy, 302 Davis, Thomas Osborne, 213–214 social software, 301, 302–303 Deafness Web 2.0 movement, 301 adults, neuroimaging studies of, 143 Wikipedia, 301–303 children, phonology and, 141 computer-mediated communication Death penalty, 442–443 arXiv.org, 299 DeBoer, G. E., 273 effect on print literacy, 294–295 Defining literacy e-mail, 293–294 difficulty in, 3–5 Instant Messaging (IM), 294 educational policy, effect on, 567–568 Short Message Service (SMS), 294 evolving meaning of, 451–453 types of, 293 modern distinction between literate and continuity with print literacy, 286–287 illiterate, inaptness of, 452 cultural tool, Internet as, 505–506 17th Century, in, 451–453 digital archives, 299–300 technology, impact on, 551–552 Digital Divide Defoe, Daniel, 434–435 bandwidth, lack of, 553–554 Democratization and loss of literate hegemony, developing countries, in, 296 445 digital language divide, 554–555 Derrida, Jacques economic impact of, 296 forgetfulness of language, 12 English, predominance on Internet, 297, 555 Innis compared, 13 gender, in, 295–296 logocentrism and, 14–15 Internet and, 553 overview, xv, 5, 12 local languages of instruction, difficulty in phonocentrism and, 13–15 educating in, 555 speech versus writing in ideas of, 13–14 overview, 295, 323–324 works of, 12–13 prior forms of literacy compared, 297 Desbordes, Françoise, 52, 53 rise of, 553 Descartes, Rene, 5 electronic literature, 292–293

INDEX 585

hypermedia Downing, J., 494 advances in, 289–290 Drawing, writing differentiated, 471 comprehension in, 290–291 Dropout rates in adult literacy education construction-integration model of text Canada, in, 540–541 comprehension, 291–292 United Kingdom, in, 541 hierarchical linking, 291 United States, in, 541 historical background, 288–289 Dworkin, Andrea, 444 Hypercard, 289 Dyslexia implications of, 290 adults, in, 143 Intermedia, 289 children, in macrostructures, 291 Chinese language studies, 146–147 methods of reading in, 290 English language studies, 145–146 navigating information in, 291 reading processes, insights into, 140–141 network linking, 291 information literacy (See Information literacy) Education and literacy literacy episteme in context of, 16 academic language, in (See Academic New Literacy Studies, 297–299 language) New London Group and, 298 adolescence, oral and written text overview, 287, 303 construction during (See Adolescence, word processing, in, 287–288 oral and written text construction during) Digit span, 172–173 adult literacy education (See Adult literacy di Matteo, Livio, 203–204 education) Diocletian, 364–365 alternative education programs (See Diogenes Laertius, 53 Alternative education programs) Diogenes of Oinoanda, 353–354 Arab world, in (See Arab world, literacy in) Dioscorus of Aphrodito, 372–373 Aristotle on, 50 Dipylon Oinochoe, 349 Canada, in, 437 Distance learning child-centered education, 436–437 examples of, 558 classical studies, dominance of, 436 interactive radio instruction (IRI), 558 connection between, 519 interactivity, need for, 558 demand for literacy, xiv Internet and, 558–559 determining literacy overview, 557–558 advanced literacy, 573–574 virtual classrooms, 557–558 basic literacy, 573, 574 Dobson, Teresa M., 293 criteria used, 573 Domain of knowledge, literacy as metalinguistic concepts, 574 activities in domains, 469 developing competence, xviii cognitive psychology and, 469 developing nations, in conﬁguration of, 470 access to education, lack of, 519–520 differentiation between systems, 473 non-completion of education, 520 domain deﬁned, 469 educational writing, concepts of self in, educational implications of, 483 231–233 implicit knowledge, 469, 472 family reading as preparation for, 188 overview, 468–469 forms of formal schooling, persistence of, properties of domains, 469 522–523 psycholinguistic implications of, 482–483 fourth grade slump, 313 reading, children and France, in, 435–436, 453 inductive understanding of, 473–474 game-like learning, 319–320, 321 progression of, 471 generalist science education, 271 universal features, 479 Germany, in, 436 writing differentiated, 471 human right, education as, 518–519 skills involved, 469–470 institutionalized roles, importance of, 502 transgression technique, studies using, islands of expertise, 314 472–473, 477 learners, responsibility of, 572 writing, children and (See Writing) literacy episteme in context of, 15–16 Douglas, J. Y., 293 literacy policy, development of

586 INDEX

Education and literacy (cont.) alphabet defining literacy as ability to read and write, function, 25 effect of, xiv, 566–567 historical background, 25 defining literacy as acquaintance with American spelling, 26 literature, effect of, xiv, 568–569 Christianity and, 371–372 determining literacy, importance of, 573–574 Great English Vowel Shift, 27 normative conventions of reading and, Hanzi writing system compared, 404–405 569–571 simplification of spelling, 25–26 overview, 566–567, 574 standardization of spelling, 27 societal literacy and, 571–572 Enlightenment, 441 mass public education, effect of, xiv, 568 Entertainment as purpose of writing, 230–231 oral comprehension and, 313–314 Ephrem the Syrian, 373 primary school curricula, development of, 463 Episteme of literacy primers (See Primers) academic context, in, 8, 16, 17 “quiet revolution” in (See Alternative anthropology and, 10 education programs) cognitive revolution and, 12 reform efforts, failure of, 521–522 colonialism, and emergence from, 9 religious tradition and, 453, 454 digital revolution and, 16 school authorities, responsibility of, 573 documentary tradition and, 17 schools (See Schools) education, in, 15–16 scientific literacy, defining goals for, 282 episteme of Man and, 7 16th through 18th Centuries, education in evolutionary biology and, 11–12 reading during (See 16th through 18th explosion in printed material, effect of, 16–17 Centuries, education in reading during) fusion of sign systems and, 17 social mobility and, 436 hegemony of writing, decline of, 17, 18–19 teachers (See Teachers) historical background, 8 teachers, responsibility of, 572–573 historical form of language, writing as, 8 technology and new approaches to, 560–561 historical semantic and, 6–7 United States, in, 437 hunter-gatherers and, 6 universal standard, commitment to, 572 institutional settings, in, 15–16 EEG (Electroencephalography) mass communications media and, 11, 16 cognitive neuroscience perspective and, molecular biology compared, 6 160–161 moral ontology and, 7 neuroimaging studies using, 142 multidisciplinary nature of literacy and, 4–5, Egypt. See also Arab world, literacy in 17–18 Ancient Egypt music and, 11 bureaucracy and, 358 new disciplines, rise of, 17 literacy levels in, 356–357 overview, 5 numeracy, evolution in, 64–65 peculiar form of language, writing as, 8, 17 writing in, 34–35 poetry and, 11 Community Schools Program, 525, 526–527, publications, role of, 8–9 528 purpose of, 6 Coptic language, Christianity and, 372–373 reductionism in, 11 Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 438 science, in, 15–16 Electroencephalography (EEG) scope of, 6–8 cognitive neuroscience perspective and, self and, 6 160–161 semiotic mediation and, 17 neuroimaging studies using, 142 sociology and, 10 Electronic literature, 292–293 speech versus writing, 9–11 Elwert, Georg, 571–572 sudden emergence of, 9, 15 E-mail, 293–294 Epistemic games, 315 Emergent literacy approach, 494, 504, 511–512 Escarpit, Robert, 246–247 England. See United Kingdom Ethiopic script, 33 Englebart, Douglas, 288–289 Ethnography of literacy English language cognitive approaches to literacy

INDEX 587

assumptions, challenges to, 332–333, 334–335 valuing literacy, importance of, 513–514 literacy thesis, rejection of, 335 vocabulary development and, 512–513 deﬁnition of literacy across different Females. See Gender and literacy; Women and traditions, 329–330 reading discourse and, 335 Feminist theory and concepts of self, 222 ethnographic approaches, 339–342 Ferreiro, E., xx, 475–476 learning and literacy Ferry, Jules, 453 balanced approach, need for, 330 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 460 collaborative learning, 331–332 Fiction. See Literature communities of practice, 331–332 Fidalgo, Z., 503–504 continuum of literacy, 331 Finnegan, R., xvii distributed learning, 331–332 Fish, Stanley, 201–202 implications of debate, 332 Flaubert, Gustave, 244–245, 246, 247–248, 461 learning-conscious learning, 332 Flower, L., 574 overemphasis on reading, 330 fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) phonics and, 330–331 cognitive neuroscience perspective on literacy task-conscious learning, 332 and, 160–161 whole language approach, 331 neuroimaging studies using, 142–143 multimodality and, 335–336 Forgetfulness of language, 12, 17 overview, 329 Forms of formal schooling, persistence of, social practice approaches 522–523 autonomous model, rejection of, 336–337 Foucault, Michel, 7–8, 13 literacy events, 338 Fox, Pamela, 222 literacy practices, 338 France local practices, importance of, 338–339 education in, 435–436 New Literacy Studies, 336–337, 338, 339 French Revolution and literacy, 434, 453 nontraditional forms of literacy, 337–338 primers in, 461–462 Euclid, 266 “religion-free” schooling in, 453 Eudocia, 370–371 Franklin, Benjamin, 445 Eugippius, 369 The Freeman, 209–212 Euripides, 439 Froebel, Friedrich, 436–437 Eusebius of Caesarea, 369 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Evolutionary biology, 11–12 cognitive neuroscience perspective on literacy Extended writing, concepts of self in, 228 and, 160–161 neuroimaging studies using, 142–143 Fairclough, N., 335 Fallows, James, 287 Game-like learning, 319–320, 321 Family and reading Games cultural practices, role of, 509–510 Madison 2020 (See Madison 2020) emergent literacy approach, 511–512 Pokemon, 317 formal education, as preparation for, 188 video games (See Video games) gender, role of, 186–187, 188 Yu-Gi-Oh, 316–317 generational continuity, providing, 187 Garland, David, 443 mealtime conversation, 513 Garton, Alison F., 510–511 outside world, as link to, 187–188 Gaur, Albertine, 289–290 overview, 186 Gee, James Paul, 335, 338–339 parental mediation, 188–189 Geertz, Clifford, 6, 242–243 parental reading, 186 Gelb, Ignace J., 61–62, 289–290 privacy and, 187 Gender and literacy reading comprehension, 511 Chinese literacy, gender and, 401–402 scaffolding model, 511 Christianity, inclusion of women in literary shared book experiences, 510–511 tradition, 370–371 social class, role of, 186–187 Digital Divide and, 295–296 socioeconomic factors, 514–515 femaleness of “popular” literature, 247 story books, 513 gender-based differences in reading, 248–249

588 INDEX

Gender and literacy (cont.) different forms of literacy in, 348, 357 maleness of “educated” literature, 247 Dipylon Oinochoe, 349 mass literacy and, 435 earliest examples of writing, 349 reading, role in, 186–187, 188, 192, 194–196 expansion of writing, 349–350 women and reading (See Women and reading) historical background, 439 Generalist science education, 271 Homeric epics, 349–350, 439 Geneva Resolution of the Rights of the Child, inscriptions 518 importance of, 354 Genre philosophical doctrines in, 353–354 academic language political uses of, 354–355 genre mastery, 121 stone, in, 352–353 important genres in education in, 130 survival of, 353 conventions of reading and, 200–201 laws, writing of, 351–353 interface of modality and, 93, 102, 106 literacy levels in, 356–357 Germanic languages, Christianity and, 371–372 literature, development of, 347 Germany, education in, 436 Lyric poetry, 350–351 Ghana, School for Life in, 525, 526–527, 528 mass literacy, role in rise of, 433, 439 Ghoti, 37 modern assumptions, imposition of, 356 Gibbon, E., 439 Nestor’s cup, 349 Giddens, Anthony, 223, 339 ofﬁcial records, use of writing in, 351 Ginsparg, Paul, 299 overview, 348–349 Glagolitic alphabets, 28 Persian Wars, at time of, 351 Goodman, Ken, 331 persistence of Greek language, 439 Goody, Jack, xix, 10–11, 59, 161–162, 332–333, 432 philosophy, development of, 347 Google Print Library, 299 regions, differences across, 347–348 Gorgias, 352 social advancement and, 358–359 Gothic languages social class and, 357 alphabet, 28 trade and, 357–358 Christianity and, 373–374 Gregory I, 371–372 Graff, Harvey, 202–204, 297–298 Gregory of Nyssa, 370–371 Grammar Gregory VII, 440 advent of, 52 Guided participation, 502 Arab world, education in, 421–422 Gutenberg, Johannes, 26–27 Bible, in, 367–368 concepts of self in grammatical instruction, 231 Haas, C., 574 deﬁned, 52 Haiplik, B., 527–528 necessity of writing for, 53 Hakes, D. H., 489 Plato and, 52 Hall, R. Mark, 216–217 Socrates and, 52 Halliday, M. A. K., 114, 118–121, 278, 570–571 Stoics and, 53 Hamilton, M., xvii, 424–425 symbol and meaning, distinction between, Hanley, J. R., 493–494 52–54 Hanson, Ann, 358 Gramsci, A., 433 Hanzi writing system Gratianus, 441 bronze inscriptions, 389 Great Britain. See United Kingdom center of Chinese literacy, as, 404 Greek literacy clerical script, 390 alphabet cognition and development of, 346–347 English compared, 404–405 generally, 28–30 logography in, 404–405 literacy, effect on, 347 morpheme construction, role of, 406 vowels, introduction of, 346–347 overview, 404 approaches to study of, 348 phonology in, 405 archives, 355 Pinyin notation system, importance of, Berezan letter, 351 405–406 Chinese tradition compared, 410–411 studies of, 405 democracy and, 352–353 components of, 387

INDEX 589

cultural significance of, 387 Holland, Norman, 248–249, 250 discrepancy between speech and writing, 391 Homer, 349–350, 439 flexibility across different languages, 408 Homer, Bruce D., 494–495 homophones in, 391–392 Householder, F. W., 56 left-right orientation, change to, 390 Høyrup, Jens, 257–258 morpho-syllabic system, as, 387 Huang, H. S., 493–494 oracle-bone inscriptions, 388–389 Huey, E. B., xvi origins of, 387 Human rights, education as, 518–519 phonetic nature of, 411 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 436 Pinyin notation system, 393–394, 398, 405–406 Hume, David, 435, 442 poetry in, 390–391 Hunter-gatherers, 6 Qin type, 389 Huyssen, Andreas, 247 recognition, textbooks for, 396–398 Hymns, 456 regular script, 390 Hypercard, 289 resistance to other writing systems, 387, Hypermedia. See Digital literacy 407–408 rhyme books, organization of, 392–393 IALS (International Adult Literacy Survey), semantic sets in, 411 536–537 simplification of, 390 IM (Instant Messaging), 294 Six-State type, 389 Incas, evolution of numeracy among, 67–68, small seal script, 389–390 263–264 spread of, 406 Indic scripts, 30–31 stability of, 411 Individualism and concepts of self, 221–222 standardization of, 391 Industrial Revolution and literacy, 434–435 standard reading language, 390 Information and communication technologies types of script, 387–388 (ICT). See Technology and literacy vulgar type, 389 Information literacy writing, textbooks for, 398 creation of digital products and, 560 Harris, Max, 363 developing nations, social structures in, Harris, Roy, 492–493 561–562 Harris, W., xxii, 356–357, 433 digital information, use of, 559–560 Hart, H. L. A., 444 education, and new approaches to, 560–561 Hart, Michael S., 299 new skills, need for, 559 Hartwell, Ash, 520, 528 overview, 300–301 Havelock, E. A., xix, 8–10 social process, literacy as, 559 Hayles, N. Katherine, 289–290, 293, 294–295 Information processing models, 156–158 Heath, Shirley Brice, xvii, xx, 208, 281, 338, Information society, 550 340–341 Innis, Harold Hebrew writing, 33 bias of communication, xiii Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 460–461 Derrida compared, 13 Hegemony economic focus of, 13 civil society and, 438–439 overview, 5, 12 democratization and loss of, 445 speech versus writing in ideas of, 13 intellectuals, of, 433 works of, 12–13 Renaissance and, 440 Inscriptions Scientific Revolution and, 440 Greek literacy and (See Greek literacy) United States, lack in, 445 Hanzi writing system, in writing, decline of hegemony of, 17, 18–19 bronze inscriptions, 389 Heiberg, J. L., 266 oracle-bone inscriptions, 388–389 Heidegger, Martin, 12 Latin, in (See Roman literacy) Heim, Michael, 287 mathematics, in (See Mathematics and Herring, S. C., 294 literacy) Hildreth, G., Roman literacy and Hirsch, E., 542 bronze, in, 354 Historical form of language, writing as, 8 philosophical doctrines in, 353–354 Historical semantic, 6–7 survival of, 353

590 INDEX

Instant Messaging (IM), 294 Lancelot, Claude, 456 Integrational linguistics, 56–57 Landow, George, 289 Intellectual community and literacy Lanham, Richard A., 286–287, 300 hegemony of, 433 Lankshear, C., 298 overview, 432–433 La Salle, Jean Baptiste de, 456, 457 Intent participation, 507–509 Latin America. See also speciﬁc nation Interaction hypothesis, 489 education reform efforts, failure of, 521–522 Interactive radio instruction (IRI), 558 Mesoamerica (See Mesoamerica) Intermedia, 289 Latin language. See also Roman literacy International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS), early Christianity, dominant role in, 371 536–537 Europe, dominance in, 27 International Convention on the Rights of the mass literacy, role in rise of, 433–434 Child, 518 persistence of, 439 Internet. See also Digital literacy; Technology Law and literacy and literacy capital punishment, 442–443 cultural tool, as, 505–506 central position of, 441 “Digital Divide” and, 553 common law versus continental law, 442 distance learning and, 558–559 historical background, 441–442 English, predominance of, 297, 555 interpretation and, 442 Intersubjectivity, development of, 502–503 medieval concept of law, 442 IRI (Interactive radio instruction), 558 natural law, 441–442 Irish languages, Christianity and, 372 reform movements, 442–443 Islam. See Qur’an Roman law, 441–442 rule of law, 441 Japanese language utilitarianism and, 443–444 Hanzi system, spread of, 406 League of Nations, 518 script, 32–33 LeFevre, J., 511–513 Jerome, 367–368, 369 Lemke, Jay, 301, 305 Johnson, Samuel, 3–4, 26 Leo, 366 The Journal of Education for Upper Canada, Leu, D. J., Jr., 286 212–215 Levi-Strauss,´ Claude, 10, 14 Jurisprudence and literacy. See Law and literacy Lewis, Richard, 206–207 Justinian, 366–367, 441–442 Lexical density in adolescent oral and written text construction Kant, Immanuel, 7–8, 460 age-related differences, 98 Karmiloff-Smith, A., 490–491, 494 data, 98 Kearins, J., 505 generally, 98 Khalil, M. A., 294 Lexical diversity in adolescent oral and written Khalıl´ ibn Ahmad Al Fara-hıdi,¯ 374–375 text construction Kharos.t.hi script, 30–31 age-related differences, 99–100 Kirby, S., 162 context-sensitive analysis, 99 Knorring, Sophie von, 244 data, 100 Knowledge economy, 550 generally, 98–99 Koller, Hermann, 11 Lexical numeration, 61 Koran. See Qur’an Libanius of Antioch, 363–365 Korean language Liberman, Isabelle Y., 137–138 Hanzi system, spread of, 406 Licklider, J. C. R., 293–294 script, 31–32 Life story and concepts of self, 226–227 Koselleck, Reinhard, 6–7 Linguistic awareness, 570 Krantz, Judith, 245–246 See also Metalinguistic development Kress, G., 298, 335–336 Linguistic literacy theory, 497 Kuhn, D., 281 Linguistic variation research Kurvers, J., 495 communicative purpose, effect of, 80–81 cross-linguistic studies Lagerlof,¨ Selma, 245 English studies, differences from, 87–88

INDEX 591

Korean study, 87 creation of model, 246 overview, 87 different ways of reading, 248 Somali study, 88 femaleness of “popular” literature, 247 distributional patterns, 81 gender-based differences in reading, 248–249 ethnographic perspective, 75–76 maleness of “educated” literature, 247 fundamental differences between speech and political attempts to promote “educated” writing, early research showing, 75 literature, 246–247 greater potential of writing for styles of rebelliousness of “popular” literature, 247 expression, 76 women, importance to, 242–243 historical evidence Locke, John, 432, 439 drama, in, 84–85 Lockridge, Kenneth, xvii, 434, 438 literature, in, 85 LoDagaa peoples, 10–11 medical prose, in, 85 Logocentrism, 14–15 nonclausal noun modification, 85 Logography, 34–35, 404–405 overview, 84 Long, Elizabeth, 540–541 patterns of change, 84 Lord’s Prayer, 455–456 reasons for changes, 85–87 Luke, A., 294–295, 338–339 lack of absolute differences between speech Luke, C., 294–295 and writing, research showing, 75 Luria, A. R., 475–476 lexico-grammatical features, 76–77 Luther, Martin, 455–456 Multi-Dimensional approach Lyric poetry, 350–351 assumptions in, 81–82 dimensions of variation, 81 Mackay, Charles, 205–206 fundamental differences between speech Macrina, 370–371 and writing, 82, 83–84 Madame Bovary, 244–245, 246, 247–248 general patterns and conclusions, 82 Maddox, B., 341 linguistic complexity, 82–83 Madison 2020 statistical factor analysis, 82 “augmented by reality,” 321–322 oral poetry, in, 88–89 complexity of, 322 overview, 75–76 goals of, 323 scope of study, 76, 77 learning and, 322, 323 spoken registers micro level, focus on, 322 classroom teaching, 80 overview, 321–322 linguistic characteristics, 80 SimCity compared, 322, 323 office hour sessions, 80 urban planning example, 322–323 production circumstances, 81 Mandrou, R., 442–443 spontaneity of, 89–90 Mann, Horace, 462 written registers Manners manuals, 242–243 differences among, 77, 81 Marcum, R., 300–301 e-mail, 81 Marr, D., 152, 158–159 linguistic characteristics, 77–78 Marshack, Alexander, 60 production circumstances, 77 Martin, J. R., 278 revisability of, 90 Mass communications media, 11, 16 textbooks, 78–79 Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Literacy standards, xiv–xvi Games (MMORPGs), 292–293 Literature Mass literacy concepts of self in, 228–229 Calvinism, role of, 434 conventions of use and social practice, xvi Catholicism, role of, 434, 439–440 defining literacy as acquaintance with, effect Christianity, role of, 434 on educational policy, 568–569 clerics and, 439–440 electronic literature, 292–293 early education and, 435 female novelists, impact of, 243–244, 245–246 French Revolution and, 434 growth of reading, role in, 460, 461 gender and, 435 political reaction to, 461 Greece, role of, 433, 439 “popular” versus “educated” literature Industrial Revolution and, 434–435

592 INDEX

Mass literacy (cont.) Zapotecs, evolution of numeracy among, Latin, role of, 433–434 65–66 modernization and, 431 Mesopotamia overview, 433 commercial use of writing in, 25 Puritanism, role of, 434 cuneiform, 34 Rome, role of, 433–434 mathematical algorithms in, 257–258, 259–260 scribal and craftsman’s literacy, 433, 439 mathematical inscriptions in, 264 Masuch, Michael, 227–228 numeracy, evolution of, 62, 63–64, 70 Mathematical Classic by Zhang Qiujian, 254–255, Mesrop Mashtots, 373–374 256, 264 Metalinguistic development Mathematics and literacy. See also Numeracy, abstraction, ability of, 489 co-evolution with literacy action, language as, 488–489 algorithms, reading analysis and control framework, 489–490 abstraction, level of, 258 autonomy hypothesis, 489 complexity, level of, 258–259 awareness and, 161, 488–489 correspondence between computation and commonalities of theories, 491 text, 256 interaction hypothesis, 489 differences across milieus, 257–258, 259–260 linguistic literacy theory, 497 division example, 256–257 literacy as predictor of, 492–495 interpretation of text, 255–256, 258 minimal consciousness and, 496 Mesopotamia, in, 257–258, 259–260 overview, 487–488 modality of integration, 259 phonological awareness and, 491–492, 493–494, multiplication example, 255 496 operations used, 255, 257 phonological processing and, 496–497 prescriptive nature of text, 256 predictor of literacy, as, 491–492 inscriptions, reading reciprocal nature of literacy and, 495–497 continuity between processes and literacy, representational redescription theory, 264 490–491 division example, 261–263 scriptism and, 492–493 integration of mathematics and literacy, theories of, 487 264–265 word, and concept of, 494–495 interpretation of text, 264 Mews, Hazel, 242–243 literacy competencies required, 263–264, 265 Mexico Mesopotamia, in, 264 Aztecs, evolution of numeracy among, 68–69 multiplication example, 260–261 intent participation, observations of, 508–509 numeracy and, 260 Mixtecs, evolution of numeracy among, 68–69 overview, 260 Millar, R., 272 relationship between processes, 263 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Pythagorean theorem example, 265–267 518–519 Matres lectionis, 30, 33 Miller, J. D., 279 Mayan writing, 35, 36 Million Book Project, 299 Mayr, Ernst, 11–12 Mixtecs, evolution of numeracy among, 68–69 McDermott, R., 338, 339 MMORPGs, 292–293 McGuffey, William H., 459–460, 462–463 Modernization and literacy McGuffey’s Readers, 459–460, 462–463 capitalism, rise of, 437–438 McHenry, Elizabeth, 208 conservative nature of education, 438 McLaren, Karen, 208 contrary forces, as, 438 McLuhan, Marshall, xix, 11, 16 deﬁned, 431 Mejıa-Arauz,´ R., 508–509 mass literacy and, 431 Melania, 370–371 overview, 431–432 Mesoamerica Modern Language Association of Ontario, 212 Aztecs, evolution of numeracy among, 68–69 Mohageg, M. F., 291 Mayan writing, 35, 36 Monosyllabicity, 36 Mixtecs, evolution of numeracy among, 68–69 Montessori, Maria, 531 Olmecs, evolution of numeracy among, Moral ontology, 7 65–66 Morocco, literacy in, 427–428

INDEX 593

Muller,¨ Max, 53–54 dyslexic children, 140–141 Multi-Dimensional approach. See Linguistic overview, 134–135 variation research phonology, core role of, 135–136 Multidisciplinary nature of literacy, 4–5, 17–18 “Spoonerism” tasks, 140 Multimodality, 335–336 visual word form area, importance of, 134 Murgatroyd, John, 224–235 New Literacy Studies, 297–299, 336–337, 338, Murray, James A. H., 26 339 Music, 11 New London Group, 298 Muter, V., 491–492 New Readers, 455 Myers, G., 275–276 Newspapers Myrdal, Jan, 245–246 Arab world, and literacy in, 425 cultural tool, as, 505–506 Napoleon, 434, 435–436 growth of reading, role in, 460–461 Necessity of literacy, 4 The Nine Chapters on Mathematical Procedures, Negroponte, Nicholas, 296 254–256, 264, 268 Nelson, Theodore, 288–289 Normative conventions of reading Neo-Confucianism, 403 basic skills, 570 Nestor’s cup, 349 linguistic awareness, 570 Nettleton, Thomas, 233–235 overview, 569–570 Neuman, S. B., 323–324 scientiﬁc literacy and, 571 Neumann, Franz, 444 writing, tied to, 570–571 Neural constructivism, 162 Norm referenced testing, 567 Neuroscience and literacy Norris, Pippa, 295 cognitive perspective (See Cognitive Norris, Steven P., 571 neuroscience perspective on literacy) Note-taking, concepts of self in, 227–228 neuroimaging studies Novels. See Literature adults Numeracy, co-evolution with literacy. See also deaf adults, 143 Mathematics and literacy dyslexic adults, 143 administrative role of numeracy, 70 generally, 142–143 Aztecs, among, 68–69 children bookkeeping, emergence of writing from, 70 Chinese language studies of dyslexic China, in, 66–67 children, 146–147 common elements, 62 English language studies of dyslexic complexity of relationship, 71 children, 145–146 conceptual linkage, 70 generally, 143–145, 147 decay of documents, research problems posed poor readers, studies of, 147 by, 70 EEG, using, 142 Egypt, in, 64–65 fMRI, using, 142–143 Incas, among, 67–68, 263–264 overview, 141 independent development of, 62 positron emission tomography (PET), level of civilization required for development, using, 142–143 70–71 phonology and lexical numeration, 61 core role of, 135–136 Mesopotamia, in, 62, 63–64, 70 CV pattern of syllables, 136 Mixtecs, among, 68–69 deaf children, 141 numerals, 61 development of awareness across languages, numeric notation, 61–62 136–137 older history of numeracy, 69–70 phonemes, awareness of, 135–136, 137–138 Olmecs, among, 65–66 sequence of development, 137–138 origin of, 62–63 syllables, awareness of, 136, 137–138 overview, 59–60 reading processes, insights into quipus, 67–68 acquisition of skills across languages, reasons for distinction, 71 138–140 tallies, 60–61 deaf children, 141 Upper Paleolithic period, during, 60–61 development across languages, 135 Zapotecs, among, 65–66

594 INDEX

Numerals Phonocentrism, 13–15 evolution of literacy and, 61 Phonology numeric notation, 61–62 core role of in reading, 135–136 writing differentiated by children, 471–472 CV pattern of syllables, 136 deaf children, 141 Oakeshott, Michael, 445–446 development of awareness across languages, OECD (Organization for Economic 136–137 Co-operation and Development), 536–537 Hanzi writing system, in, 405 Oliver, P., 494 phonemes, awareness of, 135–136, 137–138 Olmecs, evolution of numeracy among, 65–66 sequence of development, 137–138 Olson, David R., xv, xx, 56, 92–93, 277, 332–333, syllables, awareness of, 136, 137–138 334–335, 341–342, 423–424, 432–433, 493, Piaget, J., 488–489, 501, 504, 570 494–495, 523 Pictograms, 36 Ong, W., xix, 570–571 Pinyin notation system, 393–394, 398, 405–406 Ontario, case studies on reading in. See Plato Conventions of reading criticism of writing by, 8, 47–48, 49, 347–348 Open Content Alliance, 299 grammar and, 52 Oppenheimer, Todd, 288 Pliny, 355–356, 357 Oprah’s Book Club, 215–217 Plotinus, 52 Oral comprehension, 313–314 Poetry, 11 Oral versus written communication. See Speech Pokemon, 317 versus writing Popular culture Organization for Economic Co-operation and Madison 2020 (See Madison 2020) Development (OECD), 536–537 Pokemon, 317 Orientation to language, prescriptive versus SimCity, 322, 323 descriptive, xix specialist language in, 316–317 Origen, 369 video games (See Video games) Osborne, J., 272 Yu-Gi-Oh, 316–317 Portugal, cognitive neuroscience case study in. Palfreyman, D., 294 See Cognitive neuroscience perspective Palladius, 370–371 Positron emission tomography (PET) Panyametheekul, S., 294 cognitive neuroscience perspective on literacy Paper, advent of, 26 and, 160–161, 164–165 Participatory appropriation, 509–510 neuroimaging studies, use in, 142–143 Paulesu, E., 143 Potter, Alonzo, 214–215 Peculiar form of language, writing as, 8, 17 Practical knowledge, 445–446 Pedagogy. See Education and literacy; Teachers Pratt, Chris, 510–511, 514–515 Pereira, F., 503–504 Preliterate societies, prejudice against, 51–52 Perkins, D., 277 Prentice, Alison, 203–204 Perkins, Eleanore, 223–224 Primacy of speech, 54–56, 456 Perpetua, 370–371 Primers Peru, evolution of numeracy among Incas in, difﬁculty in using, 462 67–68, 263–264 English Reformation, use during, 456 Pervasiveness of literacy, 4 France, in, 461–462 PET (Positron emission tomography) McGuffey’s Readers, 459–460, 462–463 cognitive neuroscience perspective on literacy United States, in, 459–460 and, 160–161, 164–165 Prinsloo, M., 340–341 neuroimaging studies using, 142–143 Printing, advent of, 26–27, 438 Phillips, L. M., 571 Privacy and reading, 187, 192 Philosophical concepts and literacy, 5 Project Gutenberg, 299 Phoenician writing, 28–29, 33, 346–347 Protestantism and literacy, 437, 454 Phonemes, awareness of, 135–136, 137–138 Proust, Christine, 267 Phonetic principle, 476–477 Provincial Union Association, 207–209 Phonetics, 52, 54 Ptolemy II, 299 Phonics, 330–331 Puritanism and literacy, 434

INDEX 595

Pythagorean theorem, 265–267 mass public education, effect of, 568 mechanical nature of, 568 Qian Baocong, 254–255, 265–266 neuroscientific insights into (See Neuroscience Qinshihuang, 389–390 and literacy) Quartz, S. R., 162 newspapers, role of, 460–461 “Quiet revolution” in education. See Alternative normative conventions of (See Normative education programs conventions of reading) Quigley, B. A., 541 norm referenced testing, 567 Quintilian, 53 novels, role of, 460, 461 Quipus, 67–68, 263–264 overemphasis on, 330 Qur’an [Qur’an]¯ peers, competitiveness of, 189 alphabets in, 33, 39, 374–375 phonology and (See Phonology) Arabic language and, 374–375, 419–420 “popular” versus “educated” literature education, use in, 421–422 different ways of reading, 248 memorization of, 505 gender-based differences in reading, 248–249 primary school curricula, development of, Radegund, 371 463 Radway, Janice, 200–201, 249–250 primers, use of Ravid, Dorit, 126–127, 130, 497, 570–571 difficulty in using, 462 Rawls, John, 444 English Reformation, during, 456 Reading France, in, 461–462 academic disciplines, organization into, United States, in, 459–460 463–464 privacy and, 187, 192 algorithms (See Mathematics and literacy) schools, in (See Schools, reading in) Arab world, in scientific literacy and (See Scientific literacy) Arabic script, effect of, 424 self-esteem and, 191 difficulty of, 423 silent reading, instruction through, 463 low level of, 424 simultaneous teaching of reading and writing, Canada, case studies on reading in (See 462–463 Conventions of reading) 16th through 18th Centuries, education during children and (See 16th through 18th Centuries, inductive understanding of, 473–474 education in reading during) progression of, 471 social class, role of, 186–187, 190–191, 192, universal features, 479 193–194, 195–196 writing differentiated, 471 social nature of (See Social nature of reading) Chinese textbooks for, 398, 400 solitude and, 185–186 communities and, 201–202 spoken reading, instruction through, 463 conventions of (See Conventions of reading) success in teaching, 567–568 criterion referenced testing, 567 technology supporting reading skills, 556 developing nations, limited reading skills in, women and (See Women and reading) 520 Reformation and literacy, 454, 456 dyslexia in children, insights into reading Regulatory function of writing, 56 processes from, 140–141 Renaissance enjoyment, growth in reading for, 460 hegemony of intellectuals and, 440 family and (See Family and reading) moral philosophy and, 440–441 gender, role of, 186–187, 188, 192, 194–196 Representational redescription theory, 490–491 good books, 461 Research Hanzi writing system as standard reading Canada, case studies on reading in (See language, 390 Conventions of reading) hypermedia, methods of reading in, 290 cognitive neuroscience, in (See Cognitive illiterate persons, lack of understanding by, neuroscience perspective on literacy) 470–471 conventions of reading, in (See Conventions importance of teaching, 464 of reading) inscriptions (See Mathematics and literacy) Portugal, cognitive neuroscience case study in literature, role in growth of reading, 460, 461 (See Cognitive neuroscience perspective)

596 INDEX

Research in literacy Schleppegrell, M. J., 114, 118 decolonization, impact of, 454 Schmandt-Besserat, Denise, 63–64 historical background, 453 Scholarly language. See Academic language linguistic variation research (See Linguistic Schools. See also Education and literacy variation research) China, in (See Chinese literacy) new media, impact of, 454 literacy policy, development of overview, 453 defining literacy as ability to read and write, quantitative surveys, 453 effect of, 566–567 signing name, based on ability of, 454 defining literacy as acquaintance with Western model of literacy, 453–454 literature, effect of, 568–569 Reznitskaya, A., 126–127 determining literacy, importance of, Rhodes, Jane, 208–209 573–574 Ringer, Fritz, 436 normative conventions of reading and, Rivalland, J., 513–514 569–571 Robertson, T. J., 205–206 overview, 566–567, 574 Robins, R. H., 52 societal literacy and, 571–572 Rogers, A., 332 primers (See Primers) Rogoff, B., 331–332, 502, 506–508, 509–510, 513 reading in Roman law, 441–442 academic success, impact on, 190 Roman literacy. See also Latin language competitiveness of, 190 alphabet, 27–28 reading groups, 190 approaches to study of, 348 self-esteem and, 191 archives, 355–356 social class, role of, 190–191 aristocratic nature of, 364–365 sorting mechanism, as, 189–190 bureaucracy and, 358, 364–365 teachers (See Teachers) collapse of Empire, effect of, 365 Scientific history and literacy devotional writing, 358 importance of studying, 254 different forms of literacy in, 348 interpretive skills involved, 253 Greek tradition, borrowing from, 439 lack of attention to, 253 inscriptions literacy competencies required, 253–254 bronze, in, 354 mathematics (See Mathematics and literacy) philosophical doctrines in, 353–354 Scientific literacy survival of, 353 conceptions of, 272 lack of importance of, 363 data-based papers, functions of, 273–275 late Empire, during, 363–367 educational goals, defining, 282 laws, writing of, 354, 355–356, 363–364, 365–366 fundamental importance of, lack of literature literacy levels in, 363 on, 272–273 mass literacy, role in rise of, 433–434 generalist science education and, 271 modern assumptions, imposition of, 356 language of science overview, 348–349 argumentative structure, 273–275, 276 private epitaphs, 356 overview, 273 privatization of documents, 366 structure of, 275–276 rhetorical education in, 363–364 texture of, 275–276 social advancement and, 358–359 literacy episteme in context of, 15–16 social class and, 357 normative conventions of reading and, 571 trade and, 357–358 overview, 271–272 writing and, 438–439 programmatic concept, as, 271 Rosenzweig, Roy, 302 reading and Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, xvii, 456, 462 assumptions, role of, 280 Ryan, M., 292–293 complexity of, 280 constructivism and, 279–280 Saussure, F. de, 14, 53–54, 55–56, 57 inference, role of, 280 Savigny, Friedrich Karl von, 442 interactive nature of, 281 Scaffolding model, 502–504, 511 interpretation, mechanisms of, 279, 281 Scarcella, R., 113, 114 iterative nature of, 280–281

INDEX 597

lack of attention to, 278–279 Self-esteem and reading, 191 principled nature of, 281 Self-realization as purpose of writing, relativism and, 279–280 228–229 science, relationship to, 281 Semiotic mediation, 17 simplistic views of, 279 Semitic scripts, 33–34 written text and Sen´ echal,´ M., 511–513 assumptions regarding, 278 Sentence, advent of, 51 decoding model of reading, limitations of, Sequoyah, 35 276 Serpell, R., 509–510 dependence of scientific theory on, Sesame Street, 558 276–277 Shadd, Amelia Freeman, 207–208 idealization in, 276 Shadd, Mary Ann, 207, 208–212 inference from, necessity of, 276 Shaffer, David, 321–323 interpretation of, necessity of, 277–278 Shaywitz, B. A., 145–146, 147 intrinsic nature of, 278 Shaywitz, S. E., 145–146, 147 limitations of, 276 Shenoute, 372–373 oral speech, inadequacy of, 277 Shortland, M., 272 Scientific Revolution Short Message Service (SMS), 294 canonical authority, challenge to, 440 Sibawayh, 374–375 hegemony of intellectuals and, 440 SimCity, 322, 323 Scribal and craftsman’s literacy, 433, 439 Sinclair, H., 488–489 Scribner, Sylvia, xix, xx, 297, 330, 333–334, 505 Situated meaning Scriptism, 47, 492–493 “bottom-up” nature of, 319 Seigal, Jerrold, 224 context and, 319 Sejnowski, T. J., 162 “game-like” learning and, 319–320, 321 Self, concepts of overview, 319 academic language, in specialist language and, 321 accommodation with representation of verbal meaning compared, 319 message, 122 video games and, 321 audience, relationship with, 123, 124 16th through 18th Centuries, education in authoritativeness, establishing, 123–124 reading during complexity of message and, 122–123 canticles, use of, 456 generally, 122 catechisms, use of, 455–456, 457 teaching role of language in, 129 Communion and, 458 autobiography and, 222 concentric teaching, 457–458 capitalism and, 221–222 confirmation and, 458 cognition and, 223 examinations, 458 “commonplacing,” 227 failure, consequences of, 458–459 devotional writing, in, 228 grammar and, 456 diaries, in, 225, 226 hymns, use of, 456 educational writing, in, 229–230, 231–233 Lord’s Prayer, use of, 455–456 entertainment as purpose of writing, 230–231 memory versus literacy, 455 extended writing, in, 228 primers, use of, 456 feminist theory and, 222 religious instruction and, 455–456 grammatical instruction, in, 231 syllabaries, use of, 457 individualism and, 221–222 Ten Commandments, use of, 457 life story, necessity of, 226–227 Siyaad Barre, Maxamed, 88 literacy episteme and, 6 Sizer, Theodore, 523–524 note-taking, in, 227–228 Smith, C. L., 489 novels, in, 228–229 Snow, Catherine E., 130, 330, 570–571 overview, 221 Social class self-narration in administrative affairs, 223–224 Arab world, and literacy in, 420 self-realization as purpose of writing, 228–229 Chinese literacy and, 400–401 social class and, 222–223 concepts of self and, 222–223 translations from Latin, in, 230 Greek literacy and, 357

598 INDEX

Social class (cont.) Pokemon, in, 317 reading, role in, 186–187, 190–191, 192, 193–194, popular culture, in, 316–317 195–196 rules, 316 Roman literacy and, 357 situated meaning and, 321 Social nature of reading technical vocabulary, 315–316 family and reading (See Family and reading) video games, in (See Video games) gender, role of, 192, 194–196 Yu-Gi-Oh, in, 316–317 marginalization based on reading skills, 194 Speech versus writing memories of first reading experiences, 185–186 Aristotle on symbols, 14, 50–52 overview, 185, 198–199 biomechanical independence, 57 peers, competition with, 189 convention, role in language, 51 privacy and, 192 Derrida, in ideas of, 13–14 privatization of books, 193 difficulty in defining, 46 reflections on, 191–192, 197–198 grammar (See Grammar) schools, reading in independence of, 56–58 academic success, impact on, 190 Innis, in ideas of, 13 competitiveness of, 190 integrational linguistics and, 56–57 reading groups, 190 lack of counterparts between, 57–58 self-esteem and, 191 linearity of signs and, 57 social class, role of, 190–191 literacy episteme and, 9–11 sorting mechanism, as, 189–190 neo-Stoic view, 56 social class, role of, 192, 193–194, 195–196 overview, 46, 58 social mobility and, 196–197 phonetics, 52, 54 social status of books, 192–193 Plato and solitude and reading, 185–186 criticism of writing by, 8, 47–48, 49 Social practice approaches to literacy grammar, 52 autonomous model, rejection of, 336–337 preliterate societies, prejudice against, 51–52 literacy events, 338 primacy of speech, 54–56 literacy practices, xiii, xvi, 338 reductivism and, 47 local practices, importance of, 338–339 regulatory function of writing, 56 New Literacy Studies, 336–337, 338, 339 research on linguistic variation (See Linguistic nontraditional forms of literacy, 337–338 variation research) scribal culture, xiii, 570 scriptism, 47 Social software, 301, 302–303 sentence, advent of, 51 Societal literacy, xiii–xiv, 571–572 Socrates and Sociocultural theory, 506–507, 509–510 criticism of writing by, 47, 48–50 “Sociocultural view,” 507 grammar, 52 Socrates spatial relations, significance of, 57 criticism of writing by, 47, 48–50 substitute for speech, writing as, 46–47 grammar and, 52 temporal integration of, 57 lack of writing by, 347–348 “visible speech,” writing as, 46, 49 Socratic method, 48 vision, significance of, 57 Solitude and reading, 185–186 Spelling Spatial span, 172–173 acquisition of skills across languages, 138–140 Specialist language American spelling, 26 basis of knowledge, 315 simplification of, 25–26 classificatory information, 316 standardization of, 27 confirmation of information, 315 Spinillo, A. G., 514–515 definitions, 315 Spiro, Rand, 291 difficult information, explication of, 315 “Spoonerism” tasks, 140 dispute resolution and, 316–317 Stace, W. T., 53 elements of, 315 Stage theory, 504 intertextuality, 315 Stephenson, Robert, 434–435 lucidly functional language, as, 317 Sticht, Thomas G., 536 overview, 323 Stock, Brian, xiii, 201–202

INDEX 599

Stoics, 53 digital language divide, 554–555 Sudol, Ronald, 288 distance learning Suetonius, 354 examples of, 558 Sumerian writing, 34–35, 36 interactive radio instruction (IRI), 558 Suppe, F., 273–275 interactivity, need for, 558 Sutman, F. X., 272 Internet and, 558–559 Sweet, Henry, 54, 56 overview, 557–558 Syllabaries, 32–33, 35–36, 457 virtual classrooms, 557–558 Syllables, awareness of, 136, 137–138 English, predominance on Internet, 297, 555 Syllabography, 35 information and communication technologies Syriac language, Christianity and, 373 (ICT), role of, 550–551, 562 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), 114 information literacy (See Information literacy) information society and, 550 Tager-Flusberg, H., 489 knowledge economy and, 550 Tallies, 60–61 lack of progress in, 549 Talmud of Babylon, 374 literacy episteme in context of, 16 Tangut script, 409 local languages of instruction, difﬁculty in Taoism, 402 educating in, 555 Taylor, Charles, 7 overview, 548, 562 Teachers promises of, 549 adult literacy education, professionalism of statistics, problems in gathering, 551 teaching staff trends in, 552–555 Canada, in, 541 Teenagers. See Adolescence, oral and written generally, 541 text construction during United Kingdom, in, 541 Ten Commandments, 457 United States, in, 541 Textbooks alternative education programs, in, 530 Chinese literacy and (See Chinese literacy) literacy, responsibility for, 572–573 linguistic variation research and, 78–79 Teaching. See Education and literacy Textual communities, xiii, 568–569, 571–572 Technical knowledge, contempt for, 446 Theodosian Code, 365–366 Technology and literacy. See also Digital literacy Theodosius II, 370–371, 374 bandwidth, lack of, 553–554 Theseus, 352 basic literacy skills, supporting Third World, literacy in. See Developing comprehension skills, 555–556 nations, literacy in computer assisted instruction (CAI), Thomaıs,¨ 371 557 Thompson, E. P., 198 decoding skills, 555–556 Thucydides, 439 interactive nature of computers and, Tibetan languages 556–557 generally, 408–409 multimedia instruction, 557 scripts, 31 overview, 555, 556 Tishman, S., 277 reading skills, 556 Tolchinsky, Liliana, 126–127, 130, 497 writing skills, 556 Tomba script, 410 broader vision of literacy, providing Tompkins, Jane, 210–211 creation of digital products, 560 Tonnies,¨ F., 433, 444 developing nations, social structures in, Torgesen, J. K., 492 561–562 Toronto Mechanics’ Institute, 204–206, 207 digital information, use of, 559–560 Transgression technique, 472–473, 477 education, new approaches to, 560–561 Translations from Latin, concepts of self in, 230 new skills, need for, 559 Tudge, J. R. H., 509 social process, literacy as, 559 Turkeltaub, P. E., 143–145 cultural tool, Internet as, 505–506 Tversky, D., 294 deﬁnition of literacy and, 551–552 Tyler, Ann, 221 development fatigue, 548 Digital Divide (See Digital literacy) Uccelli, Paola, 570–571

600 INDEX

Ulfilas, 373–374 van der Toorn, K., xiii, 570–571 Uncial script, 368–369 Varenne, H., 338, 339 Undifferentiated writing, 474–475, 478 Venantius Fortunatus, 371 UNESCO, 427–428, 453–454, 518–520, 549–550, Vernon, S. A., xx, 494 551–552, 558 Vezza, A., 293–294 UNICEF, 518–519, 558 Vico, xvii, 441 United Kingdom Video games Adult Basic Skills Strategy Unit, 539, 541 islands of expertise and, 314 adult literacy education in (See Adult literacy learning and education) customization of games, 318 Basic Skills Agency, 537, 538, 542, 545–546 failure, consequences of, 318 Further Education colleges, 539 game-like learning, 319–320, 321 Learning and Skills Council, 539 level of challenge, 318 Local Education Agencies, 539 overview, 317, 318–319 National Foundation for Educational ownership of games, 318 Research, 540 performance before competence, 318 Qualification and Curriculum Authority, 542 producers, players as, 318 Skills for Life program, 537, 538, 544 relationships, role of, 318 United Nations scientific method compared, 318 Dakar Framework for Action, 550 “smart tools,” 318 Development Program, 518–519, 550 strong identities, building, 317–318 literacy, focus on, xiv, 8, 9 well-ordered sequence of problems, 318 Literacy Decade, 548–549, 550, 559 MMORPGs, 292–293 Millennium Summit, 518–519 oral comprehension and, 313–314 Special Session on Children, 518–519 school success and, 313–314 World Conference on Education for All, situated meaning and, 321 518–520, 549 specialist language in United States basis of knowledge, 315 Adult Education Act, 539 confirmation of information, 315 Adult Education and Family Literacy Act, 539 definitions, 315 Adult Education and Literacy System, 538, difficult information, explication of, 315 539, 541, 544 elements of, 315 adult literacy education in (See Adult literacy intertextuality, 315 education) overview, 314–316, 323 capital punishment in, 442–443 situated meaning and, 321 Division of Adult Education and Literacy, 541 technical vocabulary, 315–316 education in, 437 written instructions, inaptness of, 320–321 education reform efforts, failure of, 521–522 Vietnamese language, spread of Hanzi system Equipped for the Future project, 542 to, 406 hegemony of intellectuals, lack of, 445 Vincent, David, 222 National Academy of Sciences, 536 Visible speech, writing as, 46, 49 National Adult Literacy Survey, 538 Visual word form area, 134 National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 536 Visuomotor integration, 170–171 National Center for the Study of Adult Vygotsky, L. S., xix, 12, 476, 492, 501–502, 504–505 Learning and Literacy, 545–546 National Institute for Literacy, 545–546 Wagner, Daniel A., 427–428 National Reporting System, 538, 544–545 Wagner, Richard, 444 No Child Left Behind initiative, 566 Walton, M., 298 primers in, 459–460 Ward, Samuel Ringgold, 208–209 USAID, 526–527 Warschauer, Mark, 297 Urbanization, effect on language, 36 Watt, Ian, xix, 242 Urban planning “games.” See Madison 2020 Web 2.0 movement, 301 Uri, H., 495 Weber, Alfred, 432 Weber, Max, 221–222, 431, 437 Vai peoples, 333–334, 505 Webster, Noah, 26, 459

INDEX 601

Wechsler Memory Scale, 172–173 extended writing, concepts of self in, 228 Wenjiao system. See Chinese literacy functions of, 438 Wenyan system, 396, 407 grammar, necessity for, 53 Wernicke, Carl, 160 Greece, in Whole language approach, 504 earliest examples of writing, 349 Wikipedia, 301–303 expansion of writing, 349–350 Wilberforce Educating Lyceum, 207–208 laws, writing of, 351–353 Wilson, Daniel, 205–206 official records, use of writing in, 351 Winfrey, Oprah, 215–217 Hanzi writing system (See Hanzi writing Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 5, 12 system) Women and reading Hebrew writing, 33 Chinese literacy and, 401–402 hegemony of writing, decline of, 17, 18–19 Christianity, inclusion of women in literary historical background, 438–439 tradition, 370–371 historical form of language, as, 8 criticisms of, 249–250 linguistic variation research (See Linguistic “cultural panic” regarding, 243–246 variation research) early 19th Century, reading habits in, 243 mass public education, effect of, 568 early 20th Century, reading habits in, 245 Mayan writing, 35, 36 emotional intimacy and, 250 mechanical nature of, 568 female novelists and, 243–244, 245–246 Mesopotamia, commercial use of writing in, identity, role in shaping, 250 25 literature, importance of, 242 normative conventions of reading tied to, manners manuals, importance of, 242–243 570–571 1980s, reading habits in, 245–246 norm referenced testing, 567 “popular” versus “educated” literature numerals differentiated by children, 471–472 creation of model, 246 peculiar form of language, writing as, 8, 17 different ways of reading, 248 Phoenician writing, 28–29, 33, 346–347 femaleness of “popular” literature, 247 Plato, criticism by, 8, 47–48, 49, 347–348 gender-based differences in reading, regulatory function of, 56 248–249 Rome, in, 358, 438–439 maleness of “educated” literature, 247 scientific literacy and (See Scientific literacy) political attempts to promote educated self-realization as purpose of, 228–229 literature, 246–247 simultaneous teaching of reading and writing, rebelliousness of “popular” literature, 247 462–463 two-way nature of reading, 242 Socrates Word processing, 287–288 criticism by, 47, 48–50 World Bank, 518–519 lack of writing by, 347–348 Writing speech versus (See Speech versus writing) adolescence, oral and written text success in teaching, 567–568 construction during (See Adolescence, Sumerian writing, 34–35, 36 oral and written text construction during) technology supporting writing skills, 556 Ancient Egypt, in, 34–35 undifferentiated writing, 474–475, 478 Arabic language, in, 33 visible speech, as, 46, 49 Arab world, low level of writing in, 423–424 Aristotle defining, 8 Xixia language, 409 bookkeeping, emergence from, 70 Xu Shen, 390 children and (See Children) criterion referenced testing, 567 Youth. See Children devotional writing Yu-Gi-Oh, 316–317 concepts of self in, 228 Rome, in, 358 Zapotecs, evolution of numeracy among, 65–66 drawing differentiated, 471 Zeno, 373 educational writing, concepts of self in, Zhuang script, 410 231–233 Zimrich, F. E., 443 entertainment as purpose of, 230–231 Zone of proximal development, 501