NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 Andreina Maahsen-Milan Assistant Professor at the Uni- versity of Bologna, she currently teaches Sustainable Design and Un- derstanding of Architectural Quality. Main topics: Urban and morpho- typological studies, planning design for urban regeneration. She is author of many essays and articles on urban architectural topics and on relation- ships between settlements construc- tion and cultural identity.

“Sotto il segno dell’Aquila”. Sacrari e cimiteri di guerra tedeschi (1911-1945). “Under the sign of the Eagle”. German war memorials and cemeteries (1911-1945)

Wilhelm Kreis (1873-1955) fu un celebre architet- Wilhelm Kreis (1873-1955) was a prominent ar- ideological cornerstones of the second half of the to e un noto professore. Pur mantenendosi ambi- chitect and prestigious professor. He directed and 19th century. guamente ai margini dell’attività politica, diresse conditioned choices while being ambiguously on e condizionò scelte importanti e dominò la scena the margins of political activity, he dominated the dell’architettura tedesca per quasi cinque decadi. architectural scene for almost five decades. Kreis Kreis prese parte come architetto e maestro ai più took part in and to a certain extent directed, as importanti eventi nell’architettura e nell’urbanisti- architect and master, part of major events in ar- ca che coinvolsero le maggiori città tedesche fino chitectural and urban planning that involved the alla caduta del Terzo Reich. Con Bonatz, Behrens, biggest German cities up to the fall of the Third Tessenow, Kreis può essere considerato una delle Reich. Together with Bonatz, Behrens, Tessenow, guide più influenti della cultura architettonica tede- Kreis can be considered one of the most influential sca, profeta della spiritualità tedesca e guardiano and unparalleled leaders in German architectural Parole chiave: sacrari militari tedeschi; cimiteri di dei valori della Germanicità inizialmente rappre- culture - prophet of spirituality and watchman of guerra; Wilhelm Kreis; castelli funebri; mausolei sentati dal Regime prussiano e poi dal Terzo Reich. values from Deutschtum, initially embodied by militari; giorno della rimembranza Il suo contributo – miscelando forme e temi presi the Prussian Reich, and subsequently by the Third dalla tradizione storica – solo parzialmente lo qua- Reich. His contribution – combining themes and Keywords: German war memorials; war cemeteries; lifica come una figura ancora legata ai principali shapes taken from historical tradition – only par- Wilhelm Kreis; totenburg; military mausoleums; day of assi ideologici della seconda metà del secolo XIX. tially qualifies him as a figure still linked to the remembrance http://in_bo.unibo.it NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

PREMISE In the 20th century, heroic exaltation is sum- hood in the sacrifice required by war. Its use In the complex picture of 20th century archi- marised in Horace’s line: “Dulce et decorum and abuse, particularly in relation to regres- tecture, an important role was played by sa- est pro patria mori” and goes hand in hand sive ideology, lasted well beyond the brink of cred and monumental architecture. Provid- with the progressive detachment from com- World War II1: it is clear that the rhetoric of ing a bond and a continuity with the ancient pietas. The semantic change of “perir the language is projected into art and archi- tradition of tanatorial cult and celebrations, pugnando” takes place at a time when ar- tecture as a cultural mediator for masses. highlighting some original aspects, resuming chitecture turns from a collective, dramatic This device, created in well defined socio-cul- investigations in this , after such archi- event into individual sacrifice, from tragic tural élites, is widely reverberated through tecture has been collectively removed and ordinariness to an extreme national identity. civil society thanks to the repeated use of forgotten, means finding a new equilibrium This event sanctions the transition in the certain lexical and iconic syntagms. A pen- and awareness of man’s finiteness, within a “management of death” from a religious etration and persuasion gradually transmit- broader and more articulated cultural per- to a civil level: the bodies and the memory ted by passwords, resulting in the creation spective. When examining shapes and roles of killed soldiers ‘belong’ to the Nation. No of aesthetical, philosophical subcultures re- of war cemeteries our thought goes to their wonder that British poet Wilfred Owen, who inforcing group identities. In this way we can instrumental use by governments and dicta- died during World War I, polemically quoted explain the success of the death|war combi- torships. this ode, to highlight deception and false- nation in the youth world, more attracted and http://in_bo.unibo.it 242 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

fascinated by the logical traps of conservative the late, romantic period and its impact as detachment from the salvific idea of science radicalism and nationalism than adults. It is heroischer Nihilismus on active generations and human progress. evident that ‘terrible’ and therefore sublime between the end of the 19th century and the These associative words recall and postulate events – as explained by Carlo Mazzantini 2- first decades of the 20th century. the “fight between Blood and Soil resulting are only and always implemented in Defence At the beginning of the 20th century new re- in a sort of rooted animality and humanity”7. of the Nation for the safety and prosperity of quests and claims calling for change were Such vision – that will be diffused and repeat- future generations: in brief, Honour, Beauty. intertwined with movements pressing for a ed – like a mantra – already in the early 1920s ‘return to the soil’. The imperative “Zurück expressed sacralisation (and cult) of death in 1.“EARTH, FIRE, AIR” auf die Scholle” rather than “Kehrt zur Na- the military world as a perceptive, intensified, 1.1 Heroic nihilism: onset and consequences tur zurück!”3 advocated by Lebensreformer4 simultaneous experience totally subtracted This essay examines themes and issues that up to the dawn of World War I, gradually led from individuals. go way back in time in European experience to Spengler’s theory5: the syntagm Blut und Marinetti’s cry in the Futurist Manifesto stig- and memory, but that still impregnate and Boden [Blood and Soil] acquired such a per- matizes, in a single line, the social and genre condition individual perception in relation to vasive and effective meaning that it resulted emancipation process8 through the exaltation collective cultural identity. They refer to the in the well-known Nazi phraseology6, and on of the “War, the world’s only hygiene”. These guidelines that supported the heroic cult in both sides of the Alps marked a progressive ideas were later echoed in Berlin’s artistic- http://in_bo.unibo.it 243 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan Fig. 1-Tower of Silence, Mumbai fire and soil with the impurity of the (ingraving from: “True Stories of the burnt body, it was therefore impos- Reign of Queen Victoria”, Cornelius sible to use cremation. This custom Brown, 1886). was maintained among popula- Fig. 2 - Zoroastrian Tower of Si- tions of the steppe, according to lence in the Iranian province of the ritual of the so-called ‘Funeral Yazd, [Wikipedia]. The “Towers of of the Sky’ (Himmelbestattung), Silence” [Dakhmah], an institution also called ‘Funeral of the Sun’ typical of Zoroastrism, originally (Sonnebestattung.] consisting of 10m high wooden Fig. 3 - Chilpyk, Tower of Silence scaffoldings to support a platform (Turm der Stille), I century A.D. subject to strong winds, where the Fig. 4 - Giovanni Crupi (1849- dead were left to be eaten by vultu- 1925), Heroon at Girgenti res. The sacrality of Zoroastrianism (Agrigento),Tomb of Theron (shot: prohibited any contamination of 1900).

literary environments of Herwarth Walden (1879-1941) – organizer of Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon (1913) – who accepted and dis- seminated in these founding, iconic principles9.

1.2 War and death, between aestheticism and vitalism The complex phenomenon of the political- cultural picture cultivating and managing the national myth of the heroic death, also im- plies the special reform of its “management” . The collective event is turned into a mass action, aimed at removing any pain suffer- ing. Military death is abstract, projected into a ‘mythical’ dimension – subject to manipula- http://in_bo.unibo.it 244 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

From left to right: tion and propaganda – valid for both authori- Fig. 5, a, b, c - The German im- perial eagle Reichsadler and de- tarian and democratic regimes. velopment of the heraldic symbol: This is testified by the events that in France, (a) William’s Era (1890-1918), (b) Italy and in the rest of Europe supported the , (c) Third Reich. creation of Military Memorials and the Tomb The predator, looking to its left and of the Unknown Soldier10 since 1920. In Ger- not to its right shoulder, (symbol of the Nation) was used to symbolise many the analogue Grabmal des unbekannt- the Nazi Party. en Soldaten has been located since 1930 in Fig. 5, d, e, f, g - The Reichsadler the space inside the Neue Wache (K.F. Schin- from: Wilhelm Kreis, 1911; Ludwig kel | H. Tessenow), Berlin. Gies,1937; Robert Scheibe, 1937; The decorative painting and plastic art fol- Arno Brecker, 1940. lows a precise ideological programme: the atrocities of the battlefield, suffering inside the trenches, tortures in the Feldlazarett must not be evoked. Only young, indomitable men, whose serene faces revealed a «certain http://in_bo.unibo.it 245 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

final victory» could be portrayed.

1.3 Anthropological-cultural recovery and re- vival In the course of the “Short Century”11 the recovery of the neo-pantheistic Land/Na- ture combination, intended as a primary el- ement of life, is confronted with the Judaic – Christian tradition. The Prussian Statute From left to right: Roman legions led by Varus at Teu- Preußischen Allgemeinen Landrechts issued Fig. 6, a, b, c - (a) Hermanndenkmal, toburg forest. His mythical figure in 1794 allowed the incineration of remains Detmold. Work by architect Ernst apparently inspired in the Nibelun- for hygienic reasons. This procedure later von Bandel (1800-876), completed gelied the figure of hero Siegfried; became widespread because it was economi- at the end of the Franco-Prussian (b) Bismarkdenkmal, Hamburg; (c) cally profitable and the religious rite was re- war and inaugurated by Emperor ‘Eisernen Heinrich’, Braunschweig, William. Hermann was the German 1915. jected by Social Democrats militants and by prince who in 9 A.D. defeated the Freidenkers (freethinkers). http://in_bo.unibo.it 246 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan From left to right: Fig. 7, a, b, c – (a) Eiserne Kreuz, 1914, (b) Langemarck Kreutz, 1934; (c) Mutterkreuz-mit-Or- denskreuz.

The two oppositive concepts belong to the matter, the denial of its disintegration. The activity of the Rosicrucian lodges and diatribe Germany faced in the course of the the creation of occultist circles – such as the 19th century between Roman Catholics, Prot- 1.4 Death and divinization of the Soil: a bio- Kosmikerkreis (the Cosmic Circle), around estants and Agnostics, on the cremation of graphic-cultural mix German poet Stefan George (1868-1933) in the dead [Feuerbestattung]12. This practice In the different political-cultural milieus, the Munich – or the theoretical development of was explicitly forbidden for Roman Catholics predominating scientist vision of the late 19th Chthonismus16, contribute in creating a deep by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the century was matched with a growing aspiration bond with the world of the dead and with re- Faith13. to purity, hygienism and de-contamination: mote history, through trance procedures and The burial rite in the cold, wet soil clashes similarly biological terminology is transferred interpretation of dreams. These phenomena also with the recovery at the end of the 19th to philosophy and architecture as an organic are experienced as a disquieting identity and century of Indo-Germanic cults, with all their process. Interest in Central Asian Aryan – Sas- duality with a growing interest and consen- semantic- cultural outcome14. sanid and Persian – traditions of the Turm der sus, particularly at the artistic level17. The new century begins in search of Beauty Stille or Türme des Schweigens [Towers of Si- During the same years the dissemination and of the Golden Age: death too requires in lence]15 [fig. 1,2] is aroused during William’s and the success in critique of the Erdmut- its ceremonial the desire to go beyond natu- time characterised by theosophical-esoteric ter-Urmutter cult-myth, with studies being ral limits, the freedom from the pondus of the or clearly neo-pagan phenomena. resumed by the Swiss Johann J. Bachofen http://in_bo.unibo.it 247 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

From left to right: Fig. 8, a, b,c – Wilhelm Kreis, Bi- smarkturm, Erfurt. Architectural project: Johann Emil Schaudt; plastic works: Hugo Lederer; (b) Bismarkturm, Erfurt; (b,c) Bi- smarkturm, .

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(1815-1887)18 reignited interest in the Clas- sphere of his circle – and twins Alexander and the recent national unity and the victory over sical World and in the Hesiodic myth of Gaia Berthold Schenk von Stauffenberg, younger France (1870), for a systemic national-pop- intended as Magna Mater, the goddess who brothers of the more celebrated Claus (1907- ular unification through the recovery of na- gives life. After a period of oblivion, Ludwig 1944), one of the authors of Adolf Hitler’s as- tional, common values. Klages (1872-1956) reviewed the Bachofen sassination attempt21. For this reason the Sacred- Roman imperial study. The writings of the classical schol- The presence of young Prussian officers revival acquired a precise ideological conno- ar influenced the theories of F. Engels, Th. in George’s circle is highly significant and tation. In particular, in the last decades of the Mann, E. Fromm, R. Maria Rilke, O. Gross, J. fraught with consequences: the elitist con- 19th century, imposing, celebrative monu- Evola and W. Benjamin19. cepts of the poet and of his companions had ments had been dedicated to Germany’s an- Discussions on the polarities and antinomy a decisive impact on the actions of the ‘Ge- cient and recent military glory. of Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) were wide- heimes Deutschland’ [Secret Germany]22 and Among the most significant was Hermanns- spread among literary Salon20, up to the vul- set the basis for the creation of the so-called denkmal (1838-’75)26, at Detmoldt, dedicated gate of journals and magazines. konservative Revolution23. This revolution to the mythical Hermann completed - after Dandyism, scepticism and doctrinarian rela- cherished the birth of the ‘Third Reign’ [Dritte decades of work – thanks to the Kaiser. This tivism destroyed traditional metaphysical Reich], of evident totalitarian, aristocratic or- highly rhetorical work combines theatrical and religious thought. The popular magazine igin, whose task is to implement – from an plasticity and votiv-Tempel architecture; the “Jugend” often used heavy irony for George’s expansion point of view - the universalist pro- central structure – with niches all around and circles, while being deeply fascinated and in- gramme of Friedrich II Hoehenstaufen. covered by a dome – supports the statue of fluenced by him. the hero, holding up a sword in sign of victory. The esthetizing climate of Münchner Sez- 2. ‘HEROIC CULT AND PIETAS’. ART AND AR- ession , provides fertile ground for rooting CHITECTURE OF MILITARY MAUSOLEUMS 2.1 The Colossal statues (and proliferation) of exacerbated existential 2.1 Heroon and modernity: use of models and Projects and statues are referred to a long concepts, almost on the verge of exaltation Nationalist identification season of classical and oriental studies of and neurosis. Changes in architectural models and sym- German Historicism [Fig. 4], having as ideal bols of pan-Germanic ἡρῷον [Heroon], some models the symbols of Germanity, ranging 1.5 Esthetizing militarism already popular in the mid-19th century – from Ostrogoth King Theoderich (Theodoric), Among the fervent admirers of George – poet from Walhalla24 [L. V. Klenze, 1830-‘42] to paladin Roland – the above-mentioned Fried- par excellence of Jahrhundertwende (1896- Befreiungshalle25 [F. v.Gärtner | L. V. Klen- rich II - duke Heinrich ‘the Lion’. The heroic 1910) – there were several young aristo- ze,1842-’63] – characterised a 20th century Pantheon also features other contemporary crats and intellectuals. This group included generation of military memorials and monu- figures such as: the undisputed Founder of 19-year-old literate Hugo von Hoffmannsthal ments, dedicated to the heroic cult. In Wil- the Second Reich, Chancellor Otto von Bis- (1874-1929) – who soon dissociated himself liam’s time, advantage had been taken of the marck (1815-’98), the object of a lay, popular from George and the pathological atmo- widespread fervour and optimism, following cult and rhetoric exaltation – on the verge of http://in_bo.unibo.it 249 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

From left to right: Fig. 9, a, b, c – (a) Ravenna, Mou- soleum of Teoderich, 520 A.D.; (b), Wilhelm Kreis, Bismarckturm, Stet- tin [1906-09]; W. Kreis, Bismarc- kturm, Jena [1906];

http://in_bo.unibo.it 250 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan divinization. morials, designed by well known and highly Teutonic Cross (Deutscher Orden) – black on The most sensational statue is undoubtedly appreciated sculptors of the Reich. They had a white background – characterising the Ger- the Bismark-Denkmal27 erected in Hamburg to deliver a message of national propaganda, man Army before World War I. The top war in 1901-’06. This colossal statue, at the cen- full of rhetorical and psychological sugges- decoration – Eisenkreutz – intrinsically tes- tre of Alt Helbpark, fully meets the tradition tions: George Kolbe, Arno Brecker, Robert tifies the tradition of the Ostkolonization, as of the Rolandstatue; inside the base there is a Scheibe, spread the esthetizing ideal of the a desire for expansion eastward. The same circular crypt similar to contemporary histor- Bereitschaft - readiness (to make sacrifices) cross was taken as a model by Militär Grab- ical war memorials like Berlin’s Siegessäule – a virtue rewarded with the quies perpetu- steine, military cemetery gravestone. The (1865-73) - Johann Heinrich Strack, archi- ated in the Isle of the Blessed (Elysium)31. shape, made from stone slabs was simple tect; Friedrich Drake, scultptor - in Berolina [Fig. 11a-c]. to make and used inexpensive material, an Platz28. important detail in case of mass burial. [Fig. The heroic cult referred to the late medieval 2.3 Adler, Kranz und Kreutz: Nationalist rhet- 7a-c]. tradition of the so-called ‘Roland-figuren‘29: oric and use similarly the giant statues dedicated to the Among the more frequent symbols of the 2.4 Volkstrauertag vs. Heldengedenktag – the Chancellor portray him as a paladin of the military cemetery cult is the persistent use of controversial day of remembrance nation with the severe, watchful eye of the the laurel wreath and the eagle – Reichsadler The Volkstrauertag (People’s Mourning Day) venerable old man. [Fig. 6a-c]. – immediately calling to mind the insigna of was proposed in 1919 by the Volksbund imperial Roman power32. This emblem, de- Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge [German 2.2 War propaganda statues rived from Austrian-Hungarian heraldry was War Graves Commission ] as a commemo- The same line is followed by the statues dedi- repeatedly modified and redesigned between ration for German soldiers killed in the First cated to the Duke of Braunschweig. - ‘Eisern- the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th World War. [14,a-c; 17 a,b]. In 1926 it was er Heinrich’ - by Arnold Kramer (1915), where century, up to the current era. (The current agreed that Reminiscere (Day of Remem- the Austrian tradition of the ‘Wehrmann in Reichsadler (1956) used in the Federal Re- brance) was to be observed every year, even Eisen’ (Iron Warrior) is resumed, in other public of Germany was designed, upon Hil- if the weakness of the Weimar Government words statues devoted to national war pro- ter’s request, by Ludwig Gies)33. together with the religious and political op- paganda30. This figure highlights the proud, Its use, uninterrupted since the foundation of position resulted in uncertain celebrations. virile attitude of the German Warrior, looking the Holy Roman Empire – when transferred [Fig. 10a]. With the authoritarian regime of at a high, distant horizon. The didactic mean- from William to Hitler’s Reich acquired a 1933, Josef Goebbels, Minister of Propa- ing is clear and refers to the uncompleted state and prophetic value with the introduc- ganda, fixed 27th February as the Day Com- project to expand the German Reich to Slavic tion of the fylfot cross (Hakernkreutz) inside memorating Heroes (Heldengedanktag), with lands. [Fig. 10b]. the laurel wreath held by the eagle’s claws a drastic change in meaning and ceremonial: This iconology was resumed and extended – [Fig. 5 a-f]. The flags, no longer at half-mast, were un- in between the two wars – to World War I Me- In military cemeteries icons also included the furled like during festivities. Celebrations http://in_bo.unibo.it 251 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

From left to right: In the next page, from left to Fig. 10, a, b – (a) “Germany ho- right: nours its 2 million dead soldiers Fig. 11, a, b, c - “War dead“ -(a) of the World War with great George Kolbe, (1934); (b) Robert celebrations in the Parliament Scheibe, (c) Arno Brecker. Plenary Hall in the presence of the President of the Repu- blic Von Hindenburg and of Chancellor Brüning“, February 1932; (b) Propaganda poster of the Deutschnationale Volkspar- tei (German National People’s Party)”Save the East” for 1920 elections. It depicts a Teutonic Knight threatened by a Pole and a socialist.

were directly taken over by the Nazi Party and that soon became widespread: an example is 3. THE PROTAGONISTS the Army. given by the Totenbürgen (funerary castles), In this intricate exchange of roles between the most significant military monumental Kunst und Leben (art and life), in the oppo- 2.5 Cenotaphs and Mausoleums complexes built before and in between the sition between Geschichte und Zukunft (his- In the years before and after World War I ar- two world wars, to celebrate German nation- tory and future), cultural models and topòis chitecture progressively prevails over sculp- alism. Among the most famous monuments clearly emerged and profoundly influenced ture as a mediator of nationalist propaganda. is the Tannenberg Denkmal, (1924-27)34, a generations of artists and architects in the The adopted models derive from historical monument having an octagonal plan, clear- years prior to the Great War. Choices and constructions, dating back in time, but shar- ly referring to Frederick, and the Annaberg emulation of leading intellectuals see them ing the same, impressive, evocative power: cenotaph35 (1931-’33), [fig. 7, a-c], recalling directly involved, either as actors or victims, the Mausoleum of Theodoric, Ravenna, the the Iranian Towers of Silence. Both models also in the subsequent dramatic decades. Castle of the Mount in Apulia [fig. 12a], the later converged, in the years of post World The ambiguous role of architects, in their funereal crypt in Braunschweig cathedral. War II, upon the concept of the El Alamein proximity to power, is measured in the dif- Years of studies and redesigning by German war memorial (1959)36. ferent level of ideological implication with Academies and Polytechnic Schools, pro- the National Socialist party, prior and during vided the basis for architectural solutions World War II. Their front-line role is evident http://in_bo.unibo.it 252 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

http://in_bo.unibo.it 253 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan Clockwise: Fig. 12 a - Castel del Mon- te- Andria, Apulien (Italy), XIII Century A.D.; (b-e),Tannenberg- Denkmal, Hohenstein-Olsztynek, (1925–1927). The complex, by brothers Walter (1888–1971) and Johannes Krüger (1890–1975), was turned, in 1935, into the Mausoleum of general Paul von Hindenburg.

as they had been delegated with the narra- tion and heroic interpretation of “pro Patria mori”: since the early years of the Regime celebrations and monumentality tend to fade away and deprive war cemeteries of their meaningful testimonies and warning. The Kriegerdenkmal im Hofgarten (München), a war memorial dedicated to soldiers from Munich, is a rare example featuring the sol- dier on his death-bed, therefore following the Christian tradition based on Medieval funer- ary plastic art. A collective work by architect Thomas Wechs (1893-1970) together with sculptors Karl Knappe, Eberhard Finster- walder, Bernhard Bleeker37. For this reason, the progressive removal of http://in_bo.unibo.it 254 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan Fig. 13 a, b – Robert Tischler, Annaberg-Denkmal, (1931-33]. The Totenburg of Sankt Annaberg, in Upper Silesia, (today Poland) was built to honour the martyrs of the 1921 German revolution against the Poles (Sturm auf den Annaberg).

any reference to body decay, resulted in en- though not reactionary, cautious in testing hancing the hero’s immortal physicality and different languages without being eclectic, his superhuman nature. All rhetorical expe- Kreis was a prominent architect and presti- dients are therefore used to eliminate any gious professor. An intellectual very close to sadness and pietas when facing death: the power who directed and conditioned choices Totenkopf, ‘indifference‘ towards death in while being ambiguously on the margins of contrast with the Christian recall of the Me- political activity, he dominated the architec- mento mori38, was commonly reported in the tural scene for almost five decades. emblems of European Storm Troops39. Professor of History of Architecture and of Architectural Design in Dresden and Berlin, 3.1 Wilhelm Kreis, ideas and role the leading German Academies of Architec- It is not easy to determine, after almost five ture, Kreis took part in and to a certain extent decades from his death, the role played by directed, as architect and master, part of ma- Wilhelm Kreis (1873-1955) in German archi- jor events in Architectural and Urban Plan- tecture, given the continuous oblivion that ning that involved the biggest German cities characterised his figure40. A conservative up to the fall of the Third Reich. http://in_bo.unibo.it 255 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan Fig. 14, a, b, c – Heldengrab [He- roes Memorial], Berlin-Dahlem 1915 (Willy Lange, Garteninspektor Landschafts (1864-1941); (b, c) Ehrenfriedhof Lubeck, Ehren- friedhof (1914-15) designed by Gartenarchitekten Harry Maasz (1880-1946), (c) photo of the cen- tral exedra.

Together with celebrated masters Bonatz, The works in Eisenach, Stettino, Zobten, Jena, Behrens, Tessenow, Kreis can be considered Erfurt, Viersen, Dresden, etc., consolidated a one of the most influential and unparalleled new ‘type’ of architecture, with a great impact leaders in German architectural culture - on the facies of celebrative monuments, but prophet of spirituality and watchman of val- referred to the classic tradition of the Greek ues from Deutschtum, initially embodied by quadrangular Heroon, [Fig. 4], combined the Prussian Reich, and subsequently by the with the Theodoric prototype. The Bismarck Third Reich41. towers recall in a simplified form the votive temple as in the colossal Ara (altar)42. Kreis 3.2 Bismarck’s epopee trained and fascinated generations of archi- After exalting the myth of Eiserner Kanzler, tects, like the Krügers or Tischler, active in with the round-plan Bismarktürmen and Germany since the early 1920s, up to the end Bismarksäulen series, directly planned or of the 20th century. [Fig. 13 a-c]. inspired by Kreis’ models, the national move- His contribution – combining themes and ment was widespread in the Reich with hun- shapes taken from historical tradition – only dreds of constructions. [Fig.8, a-c; 9, a-c]. partially qualifies him as a figure still linked http://in_bo.unibo.it 256 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan Fig. 15, a, b – Wilhelm Kreis, Eh- renmal, Hattingen; Ehrenmal, Ber- ka (Project).

to the ideological cornerstones of the second project evocation - we refer to the intense half of the 19th century. designing activity of cenotaphs that should Kreis was convinced that architecture could have been built in different sites in Europe, interpret and testify the final destiny of the to celebrate the big battles of the Wermacht; German nation. This accounts for the fact among those that were only sketched or ideal that he is lined up with the more conservative projects, we find the Reichsehrenmal, Berka German culture, without, however, adopting a (Ukraine), Ehrenmal, Oslo, “der Panzer”, priori a world of classical signs and languag- in Africa and in Greece, in Warsaw, Kutno, es: this is the final horizon of his personal and Narvik, Witusgebirge, Drothheim, Grebberg collective research. The mythogenesis and (NL), Macedonia, Saar, Italy, Dnjepr (Rus) - of heroic celebration of the ancient world are some of the most impressive, complex, fu- entrusted with Germany - as timeless heri- nerary monuments of 20th century European tage. [Fig. 14,a-c]. His work, up to his death, history. [Fig. 1] was devoted to consolidating the heroic, as well as the political and military myth through celebrations, with the construction or simple http://in_bo.unibo.it 257 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan Top, from left to right: Fig. 16 a, b, c, d – (a) Wilhelm Kreis, Ehrenmal, Warsaw: (b-c) Ehrenmal, Kutno (Ukraina); (d) Ehrenmal, Ma- cedonia. Bottom, from left to right: Fig. 17, a, b - (a) Ehrenfriedhof Kol- meshöhe Bitburg, (b) Ehrenfriedhof Kriegsgräberstätte Eversberg, Me- schede, (D).

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NOTES Beck, München, p. 380-391. und Geschichte eines [14] GERNER, M. (2001) The Goddesses and Gods of cker Verlag (2005), Graz. [6] Darré, R. W. (1932), Bauwerks, Berlin Friedhofskultur, Hohenheim, Old Europe. Myths and Cult [24] Traeger, J. (1980), Die [1] Cappellari, P. (2000) I Deutsche Agrarpolitik, July [11] HOBSBAWM, E.(1994), Stuttgart , p. 122. Images, University of Califor- Walhalla. Idee, Architektur, Legionari di Nettunia. I ca- 1932. The Age of Extremes: the [15] Stausberg, M. (2004), nia Press; Updated edition Landschaft, Bosse Verlag, (1982). duti della Repubblica Sociale [7] Spengler, O. (1922), Der short twentieth century, Die Religion Zarathushtras, Regensburg. Italiana di Anzio e Nettuno Untergang des Abendlandes: 1914-1991, Weidenfeld & vol. III, Stuttgart, Kohlham- [19] FEHRHOLZ, K. (2007), [25] TROST E. (1968), Die (1943-1945), Herald Ed., Umrisse einer Morphologie Nicolson, London. mer Die Suche nach der “Ur- Donau. Lebenslauf eines Roma. der Weltgeschicht, , C.H. [12] Koselleck, R. (1987), [16] DÖRR, G. (2007) Mut- mutter”. Der Dualismus von Stromes, Fritz Molden Ver- [2] Mazzantini, C. (1995), A Beck (1988), München.[ The Preußen zwischen Reform termythos und Herrschaf- Geist und Natur im Werk lag, Wien cercar la bella morte, Mon- definition is taken from the und Revolution. Allgemei- tsmythos: zur Dialektik der Hermann Hesses, Grin Ver- lag, München. [26] Schmidt, H. (1893), dadori, 1986, Marsilio. text: Kampf zwischen Blut nes Landrecht, Verwaltung Aufklärung um die Jahrhun- Ernst von Bandel und das [3] Brauchle, A. (1951), und Boden um die innere und soziale Bewegung von dertwende bei den Kosmi- [20] MEISTER, J. BEST, Hermanns-Denkmal, Meyer, Rückkehr zum Paradies. Der Form einer verpflanzten Tier- 1791–1848, in Industriel- kern, Stefan George und B., STROBL, A. (2007), Hannover. und Menschenart, ibid., p. le Welt, Vol. 7, Klett-Cotta, in der Frankfurter Schule, Münchner Sezession. Ge- Buchhändler Adolf Just‘. In: [27] Schilling J. (2006), Geschichte der Naturheilkun- 708]. Stuttgart. Königshausen & Neumann, schichte und Gegenwart, Würzburg. Prestel-Verlag, München. Distanz halten. Das Ham- de in Lebensbildern, Reclam [8] Marinetti, F.T. (1909), [13] Congregazione per la burger Bismarckdenkmal Verlag, Stuttgart. Manifesto of Futurism, in Dottrina della Fede, Decr. [17] BAUMGARTEN, M. [21] RIEDEL M., (2006), und die Monumentalität der [4] Wedemeyer-Kolwe, B. Giornale dell’Emilia, Bolo- 15,12,1886. Quoad corpo- (2012), L’ Europe des Geheimes Deutschland, Ste- Moderne, Wallstein-Verlag, (2004), Der neue Mensch. gna, on february the 5th, rum creamationem (in ASS, Esprits. Die Magie des Un- fan George und die Brüder Göttingen. 1909.. XXV [1892-1893], 63, non- fassbaren von der Romantik Stauffenberg, Böhlau Verlag, Körperkultur im Kaiserreich [28] BRAUN, M. (2000), Die und in der Weimarer Repu- [9] Walden, H. (1923), Erster ché in Denzinger, n. 3195- bis zur Moderne, Exhibi- Köln, p. 174. 3196), published again three tion Catalogue, Zentrum P. Siegessäule, Berlin Edition, blik, Königshausen und Neu- Deutscher Herbstsalon: Ber- [22] GEORGE, S. (1928), Das Berlin. mann, Würzburg. lin 1913. Leitung: Herwarth years later with a different Klee, Bern, 2012. [texts by: neue Reich, G. Bondi, Berlin. title (decr Quoad crematio- Baumgarten M., Bianchi P., [29] RÖSSING, Ren., RÖS- [5] Bramwell, A. (2003) Walden, Galerie Der Sturm, [23] MOHLER, A. (1950), Berlin. nem aliena voluntate perac- Faurcherau S., Hertzog G., SING, Rog. (2004), Rolande Blut und Boden, in Francois tam, in ASS, XXIX [1896- Horst, M.]. Die konservative Revolution in Deutschland, Hinstorff, E., Schulze, H., Deutsche [10] Demps, L. (1988), Die 1897], 642 in Deutschland 1918–1932. Rostock. Erinnerungsorte, vol. 3, C.H. Neue Wache. Entstehung [18] Gimbutas, M. (1974), Ein Handbuch, Leopold Sto- http://in_bo.unibo.it 259 NUMERO 4 - giugno 2012 “Under the sign of the Eagle” Andreina Maahsen-Milan

[30] Kronenberg, M. (2010) [35] Mende, E. (1991), Der forms and Traditions of the Die Bedeutung der Schule Annaberg und das deutsch- Luftwaffe, vol. 2, James für die “Heimatfront” im Er- polnische Verhältnis, Bund Bender Publishing, San sten Weltkrieg - Sammlun- der Vertriebenen, Vereinigte José. gen, Hilfsdienste, Feiern und Landsmannschaften und [40] NERDINGER W., MAI, E. Nagelungen im Deutschen Landesverband, Bonn. (1994), Wilhelm Kreis. Ar- Reich, Göttingen. [36] BRAND. G. (1997), chitekt zwischen Kaiserreich [31] KERĖNY, K. (1994), Die Bekenntnisse eines An- und Democratie, Klinckhardt Mythologie der Griechen. Die gepassten - Der Architekt & Biermann, München. Götter und Menschheitsge- Wilhelm Kreis als General- [41] SCHARF, H. (1984), schichten, dtv, München. baurat für die Gestaltung der Kleine Kunstgeschichte [32] BERGMANN, B. (2010), Deutschen Kriegerfriedhöfe, des Deutschen Denkmals, Der Kranz des Kaisers: Ge- in Kuder, Ulrich, Architektur Wiss. Buchgesellschaft, nese und Bedeutung einer und Ingenieurwesen zur Zeit Darmstadt. der nationalsozialistischen römischen Insignie, Walter [42] STEPHAN, H., SPEER, Gruyter Verlag, Berlin-New Gewaltherrschaft 1933- 1945, p. 124-156. A. (1944), Deutsche Künstler York. unserer Zeit. Wilhelm Kreis, [33] Hartmann, J. (2008), [37] ALCKENS, A. (1936), Gerhard Stalling Verlag, Ol- Der Bundesadler, in: Vier- Die Denkmäler und Denk- denburg. teljahrshefte für Zeitge- steine der Stadt München, schichte, vol.56, n.3, p. Callwey, München. 494–509. [38] Brockhaus Enzyk- [34] TIETZ, J. (1999), lopädie (1999), Sub Vo- Das Tannenberg-National- cem, Ed. F.A. Brockhaus, denkmal. Architektur, Ge- Mannheim. schichte, Kontext, B. Verlag [39] ANGOLIA, J.R., Bauwesen, Berlin. SCHLICHT, A. (1997), Uni- http://in_bo.unibo.it 260