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Strange Allies: Canada-Quebec-France Triangular Relations, 1944-1970

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Strange Allies: Canada-Quebec-France Triangular Relations, 1944-1970 Strange Allies: Canada-Quebec-France Triangular Relations, 1944-1970 David Meren Department of History McGill University, Montreal October 2007 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © David John Meren, 2007 i Abstract This dissertation examines the Canada-Quebec-France triangle from the period after the Second World War to the 1970s. It argues that the France-Quebec rapprochement of the 1960s and accompanying tensions in Ottawa’s relations with Quebec City and Paris were the result of the clashing of nationalist reactions (Gaullist, Quebecois and Canadian) that arose from domestic circumstances in the triangle’s components intersecting with the acceleration of transnational cultural and economic flows and preponderant US power. The first half of the work discusses the 1944-1960 period. These years were a high point in Canada-France relations, as a common Atlanticist response to Cold War realities meant greater official contact; moreover, economic exchanges grew in absolute terms and cultural links multiplied, consistent with the proliferation of transnational relations and Quebec’s socio-cultural transformation. The period, however, was also marked by growing differences; the conditions contributing to expanded links also fuelled nationalist reactions and set the stage for subsequent tensions. The official Canada-France relationship was undermined by Ottawa and Paris’ increasingly divergent foreign policies. Additionally, Quebec neo- nationalism’s rise exacerbated Canada’s internal tensions and stimulated Quebec interest in cooperation with France to maintain Quebec’s majority francophone identity. Paris responded enthusiastically, encouraged by its concern to counter US cultural power. Triangular relations in the 1960s are explored in the second half of the dissertation. Notions of ethno-cultural solidarity, geo-political considerations, and a ii belief that Quebec was destined to accede to a new political status combined to encourage the France-Quebec special relationship. Ottawa struggled to respond to the evolving Gaullist and Quebec neo-nationalist challenges. Ultimately, the passing of the acute crisis phase of triangular tensions was attributable less to the federal response than to political events in Quebec City and Paris, the reality that Quebec and Gaullist nationalism increasingly were talking past each other, and the fact that the international trends to which they were a response proved stronger. By 1970, the triangle had settled into a period of attentiste truce. Employing elements of the “new diplomatic history,” notably attention to the cultural dimension, the dissertation brings together archival sources from all three points of the triangle, furthering our understanding of the development of each of its components, and of the history of globalization. iii Résumé Analytique Cette thèse est une étude des relations triangulaires entre le Canada, le Québec et la France de la fin de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale jusqu’aux années 1970. L’idée développée est que le rapprochement entre la France et le Québec durant les années 1960 ainsi que les tensions en résultant entre Ottawa, d’une part, Paris et Québec d’autre part, sont le fruit d’un affrontement opposant des courants nationalistes (gaulliste, québécois et canadien) survenant de conditions domestiques s’entrecroisant avec des courants transnationaux culturels et économiques. Sur ces derniers, se greffe le poids toujours croissant des Etats-Unis, dont le rôle devient prépondérant. La première partie de la thèse traite de la période allant de 1944 à 1960. Ces années constituent une nouvelle étape dans l’histoire des relations franco- canadiennes. En effet, grâce à une politique atlantiste commune élaborée durant la Guerre Froide, les contacts officiels franco-canadiens sont nombreux. En outre, en harmonie avec la multiplication des échanges transnationaux et la transformation culturelle du Québec, les relations économiques mais aussi culturelles se multiplient également. Pourtant, l’époque n’est pas exempte de difficultés, appelées à se développer ultérieurement. Les conditions contribuant au développement des liens alimentent également les réactions nationalistes. Ottawa et Paris divergent sur bien des aspects de politique étrangère et les relations franco-canadiennes en sont sapées; l’ascension du néo-nationalisme québécois entraîne des tensions internes au Canada tandis qu’au contraire, la France est sollicitée pour maintenir l’identité majoritairement francophone du Québec. La réponse de Paris fût enthousiaste, et motivée par une préoccupation de contrer le pouvoir culturel étasunien. iv La deuxième partie de la thèse met en valeur ces relations durant les années soixante. À idée d’une solidarité ethnoculturelle, se rattache une nouvelle donne géopolitique et une conviction que le Québec est au seuil d’accéder à un statut politique neuf, favorisant ainsi des relations privilégiées entre le Québec et la France. Ottawa se bat pour répondre aux défis provenant à la fois du gaullisme et du néo- nationalisme québécois. La crise est aiguë, et sa résolution tient moins à la politique fédérale alors menée qu’aux événements politiques à Québec et à Paris, aux différences entre le nationalisme québécois et le nationalisme gaulliste, et au poids, toujours plus fort, des tendances internationales auxquelles ceux-ci répondaient. Le début des années soixante-dix est marqué par une trêve attentiste entre les différents partis concernés. Utilisant des éléments de la « new diplomatic history, » qui accorde une attention plus grande à la dimension culturelle, la thèse analyse des sources archivistiques de l’ensemble des partis concernés, permettant une compréhension approfondie de l’évolution de leurs relations, mais aussi de la mondialisation. v Table of Contents Abstract i Résumé Analytique iii Table of Contents v Acknowledgements vii CHAPTER 1 1 Introduction: In de Gaulle’s Shadow CHAPTER 2 27 Atlanticism in Common: France-Canada Relations, 1944-1954 CHAPTER 3 55 Atlanticism in Question: Canada-France Relations, 1954-1960 CHAPTER 4 85 Diverging Integration: Canada-France Economic Relations, 1944-1960 CHAPTER 5 114 Growth amid Stagnation: Triangular Economic Relations, 1944-1960 CHAPTER 6 144 Prelude to a Rapprochement: Canada-France Cultural Contacts, 1944-1960 CHAPTER 7 173 “Plus que jamais nécessaires”: The Politicization of Canada-France Cultural Relations CHAPTER 8 204 Le ‘fait français’: The Cultural Impetus for Triangular Relations CHAPTER 9 241 Vive le Québec libre? Triangular Relations and the Will for Independence CHAPTER 10 290 Atlanticism in Conflict: The Geo-political Impetus for Triangular Relations, 1960-1967 CHAPTER 11 323 Les retrouvailles: Triangular Political Relations, 1960-1967 CHAPTER 12 365 Épanouissement: Triangular Cultural Relations, 1960-1965 vi CHAPTER 13 401 Mission Impossible? France-Quebec Economic Relations, 1960-1970 CHAPTER 14 436 Much Ado about (almost) Nothing: Triangular Economic Relations, 1960-1970 CHAPTER 15 474 Crisis: Political Triangular Relations, 1967-1968 CHAPTER 16 511 Rivalry, Recrimination, Renewal: Triangular Cultural Relations, 1965-1970 CHAPTER 17 546 Is Paris Turning? Triangular Political Relations Enduring, 1968-1970 CHAPTER 18 592 Conclusion APPENDIX 611 BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 vii Acknowledgements As I reach the end of this journey, I am mindful of the numerous individuals who have accompanied and supported me along the way, and helped to make it such a memorable experience. Pride of place goes deservedly to my supervisor, Professor Carman Miller, who supported this project from its earliest beginnings. His mentorship and suggestions were essential to the completion of this work and my training as an historian, for which I am deeply thankful. It was a privilege to work with him. I also wish to thank the chairs of McGill’s Department of History during my studies, Professors Suzanne Morton and Brian Lewis, for their support. Brian’s friendship and generosity during my years in Montreal have been especially appreciated. Thanks are also owed to the departmental staff, especially Colleen Parish, Georgii Mikula, Jody Anderson and Karen Connors. My research was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, McGill’s Faculty of Graduate Studies, and the Robert and Mary Stanfield Foundation, and I express my gratitude to all three institutions. I am also indebted to the staffs of the research institutions that I frequented. The staff of McGill’s McLennan-Redpath Library, especially the interlibrary loan department, ensured that I had the materials I needed, as did those at Library and Archives Canada, the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, and the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Thanks are also owed to the staffs of the Archives nationales de France and Archives du ministère français des affaires étrangères, and to Greg Donaghy, Mary Halloran, and Ted Kelly of the Historical Section of Canada’s Department of Foreign Affairs. viii I have benefited immeasurably from the kindness, suggestions, and encouragement of my colleagues and friends. In Montreal, these include Tom Brydon, Steven Usitalo, Jarrett Rudy, Sebastian Normandin, Sean Mills, Elizabeth Kirkland, Nicolas Kenny, Greg Griffin, Stephanie Bolton, Anna Shea, Megan Webster, and Matthew Kerby. I also enjoyed many turkey dinners and animated conversations around the table at the family home of Chris Hynes. In Ottawa, my friend and colleague Ryan Touhey showed me the
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