Vol II Issue 2 December 2016 ISSN 2395-7352
MIZORAM UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal)
MIZORAM UNIVERSITY NAAC Accredited Grade ‘A’ (2014) (A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY) TANHRIL, AIZAWL – 796004 MIZORAM, INDIA
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ii Vol II Issue 2 December 2016 ISSN 2395-7352
MIZORAM UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal)
Chief Editor Prof. Margaret Ch. Zama
Editor Prof. Sanjay Kumar
iii Patron : Prof. R. Lalthantluanga, Vice Chancellor, Mizoram University Advisor : Prof. Lianzela, Head, Dept. of Economics Advisor : Mr. C. Zothankhuma, IDAS, Registrar, Mizoram University
Editorial Board Prof. Margaret Ch. Zama, Dept. of English, Chief Editor Prof. Srinibas Pathi, Dept. of Public Administration, Member Prof. NVR Jyoti Kumar, Dept. of Commerce, Member Prof. Lalhmasai Chuaungo, Dept. of Education, Member Prof. Sanjay Kumar, Dept. of Hindi, Member Prof. J. Doungel, Dept. of Political Science, Member Dr. V. Ratnamala, Dept. of Jour & Mass Communication, Member Dr. Hmingthanzuali, Dept. of History & Ethnography, Member Mr. Lalsangzuala, Dept. of Mizo, Member
National Advisory Board Prof. Sukadev Nanda, Former Vice Chancellor of FM University, Bhubaneswar Prof. K. Rama Mohana Rao, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Prof. K. C. Baral, Director, EFLU, Shillong Prof. Arun Hota, West Bengal State University, Barasat, West Bengal Dr. Sunil Behari Mohanty, Editor, Journal of AIAER, Puducherry Prof. Joy. L. Pachuau, JNU, New Delhi Prof. G. Ravindran, University of Madras, Chennai Prof. Ksh. Bimola Devi, Manipur University, Imphal
iv CONTENTS
From the Desk of the Chief Editor vii
Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers 1 - K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo 18 - Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana Comparative Performance of Infrastructure Fund Schemes of Public and Private Sector Banks in India 31 - Bhaskar Biswas Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes 40 - K. Mallikarjuna Rao Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management: A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram 53 - S. Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi Performance of Political Parties in Village Council Election 2015 in Mizoram: A Gender Perspective - Zonunmawia Role of the Chief in Administration of Traditional Village System: A Study of Thangkhal Village in Manipur - S. Haukhanlian Mate India’s Connectivity with Bangladesh with reference to Tripura: Prospects and Challenges - Sanjoy Roy The South China Sea Dispute: Understanding the On-Going Maritime Rivalry and its Implications for India - Henry Malsawmtluanga
v Collective Consciousness and Female Seafarers’ Stress Who have passed through the Port City of Durban - Mariam Seedat Khan, Gunasekharan Dharmaraja & Belinda Johnson
Same Sex Relationship in India: The Constitutionality, Legality and Morality Debates - Partha Pratim Paul
The Predicament of Girl Child in India: The State of the Art Literature on Issues and Concerns - R. K. Mohanty
Tobacco, Gender Roles, and Cancer in the Mizo Society: How Gender Determines Cancer Prevalence through Gendered View of Tobacco - C. Vanlalngilneii& M. Thamilarasan
A Descriptive Study of Blogging by the Mizo - Lalremruati Khiangte & R. N. Mishra
Framing Muslims as Illegal Migrants in Assam: Media Hype or Social Reality? - Anbarasan Perumal & Tenepalli Hari
Policy Initiatives and Media Interventions in Preservation of Endangered Languages of North-East India - Uttam Kr Pegu
Hindi Education in Mizoram: A Status Study -Irene Lalhmachhuani & Lalhmasai Chuaungo
vi From the Desk of the Chief Editor
I am happy to place before the readers the fourth issue (Vol. II Issue 2 December, 2016) of Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences. The response from the readers and the contributors has been overwhelming. This issue contains 19 research papers, including 2 in Hindi, on divergent areas of Social Sciences and Humanities. The rising Internet and mobile phone penetration has changed the way people communicate and do business in recent years. In the lead article, Prof. K. Rama Mohana Rao and Mr. Chandra Sekhar Patro highlighted the trends and the growth of online marketing and the challenges involved in international and Indian perspective. Customer information privacy, fraudulent practices, legal jurisdiction, customer protection, and security are the key problems which need to be addressed by the marketers and governments. In their well-researched paper, Ms. Lalnunmawii Ralte and Dr. Laldinliana have attempted to establish a link between consumer religiosity and shopping behavior within the religiously and culturally homogenous Mizo society in North East India. They have found a statistically significant positive correlation between religiosity and dependency to trust sales people. One of the complicated areas of business is stock market. This is mainly due to high uncertainty and volatility in share prices. In his paper, Dr. Bhaskar Biswas attempts to evaluate the performance of six infrastructure mutual fund schemes by analyzing their returns, total risk, and so on. There is another paper on mutual funds written by Dr. K. Mallikarjuna Rao which focuses on socio-economic factors of the investors in Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh and their relationship with their buying factors and attitudes. Livelihood of people residing in areas closer to forests, and within the forest area, is inextricably linked to forest ecosystem. In their exploratory study, Mr. S. Vanlalpekropuia and Dr. A. Muthulakshmi evaluate the Joint Forest Management programme in Mizoram and suggest strategies for making this programme more effective in terms of forest conservation and enhanced livelihood opportunities. There are two papers pertaining to politics and administrative system in Indian villages.
vii In his paper, Mr. Zonunmawia analyses the gender prospective of 2015 village council election in Mizoram. In another paper, Prof. S. Haukhanlian Mate elaborates the role of the chief in administration of traditional village system in case the Thangkhal tribe in Manipur. Problem of connectivity hinders the economic development of a region. In his paper, Mr. Sanjoy Roy focuses India’s connectivity with Bangladesh with special reference to Tripura. Tripura is expected to be a future hub of trade and commerce in North East India, if the existing projects in the region and the agreements signed between India and Bangladesh are implemented effectively. In a paper on foreign policy, Mr. Henry Malsawmtluanga examines the ongoing maritime rivalry of the South China Sea in general and India’s interest and strategy in particular. The paper suggests the importance of improved partnership with South East countries. This issue contains four papers on gender issues. Ms. Mariam Seedat Khan et al highlight the psychological problems faced by women seafarers who have passed through the Port City of Durban. They are compelled to cope with the long absence from home, long working hours, limited rest periods, gender discrimination, limited benefits, limited medical and recreational facilities and loneliness. In India, homosexuality is a criminal offence. In the context of the criminalization of same sex relationship, Dr. Partha Pratim Paul raises a few pertinent questions in respect of the Constitution, law and morality. In his paper, Dr. R. K. Mohanty discusses the problems and rights of a girl child by using the State of the Art Literature as an approach. In an interesting paper on tobacco, gender roles and cancer in the Mizo society, Ms. C. Vanlalngilneii and Dr. M. Thamilarasan observe that the gender roles in tobacco consumption are matching with differences in cancer prevalence across the male and female population as lung cancer is more prevalent among the Mizo males. The advent of digital technology and Internet in the 21st century has witnessed dramatic changes in social life. In their descriptive study of blogging by the Mizo, Ms. Lalremruati Khiangte and Prof. R.N. Mishra analyze the demographic factors and the habits of Mizo bloggers. The study found that blogs are significantly utilized by the educated to air their voices without fear and to express their feelings of neglect by the main stream media.The most common perception in North East India is of illegal migrants from across the border threatening to outnumber the local population. In their paper, Dr. Anbarasan Perumal and Dr. Tenepalli Hari have examined the media coverage of the issue with reference to migrants in Assam. Mr. Uttam Kr. Pegu in his paper addresses the need to preserve and maintain
viii endangered indigenous languages. He stresses the necessity to preserve and document endangered languages because they are a celebration of rich cultural diversity. In another paper on languages, Ms. Irene Lalhmachhuani and Prof. Lalhmasai Chuaungo have studied the status of Hindi education in Mizoram by analyzing enrollment pattern in Hindi subject at higher secondary levels, background of the students enrolled in Hindi schools, and profile of teachers teaching the subject at various levels of education. As noted, this issue contains two papers published in Hindi. In her paper Dr. Bandana Bharati critically examines the concept of tradition and impersonality developed by T.S. Eliot, a well known English writer and critic. In the second paper, Ms.Aradhana Shukla and Prof. Sanjay Kumar have thoughtfully analyzed the popular novel ‘Naukar Kee Kameez’ authored by well known Hindi writer Vinod Kumar Shukla. This paper highlights the day to day exploitation and humiliation of lower rank staff in the Government offices by their superiors. I express my thanks to all the contributors for their invaluable input. Special thanks goes to Prof. K. Rama Mohana Rao, an eminent writer on services marketing for contributing the lead article at short notice. A number of experts helped us in assessing the articles and making valuable suggestions for their improvement. I owe sincere thanks to all of them. The Editorial Board remains ever greatful to Prof. R. Lalthantluanga, the Vice Chancellor of Mizoram University, Patron of the Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, our two advisors, Mr. C. Zothankhuma, Registrar, Mizoram University, and Prof. Lianzela, Head, Department of Economics, Mizoram University for their guidance and support.
Margaret Ch. Zama Chief Editor
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x Lead Article Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers
K. Rama Mohana Rao* Chandra Sekhar Patro**
Abstract Over the last two decades, rising internet and mobile phone penetration has changed the way people communicate and do business. E-commerce is a relatively novel concept and at present, heavily leaning on the internet and mobile phone revolution to fundamentally alter the way businesses reach their customers.The proposition of e- commerce to the customer is in offering an almost infinite variety of choices spread over an enormous geographical area. Firms cannot compete solely based on sheer volumes in today’s ever-evolving, information symmetric and globalised world of e- commerce. Instead, the realm of competition has shifted to ever-shortening delivery timeliness, both consistently and predictably. Negligible or zero delivery prices, doorstep delivery, traceability solutions and convenient reverse logistics have become the most important elements of differentiation for providers. The conventional methods of reaching customers have been effectively substituted to a greater extent by online marketing processes. The customer acceptance to online marketing is growing rapidly throughout the world and more so in developed parts. The trends and estimates for the future indicating a clear shift to online marketing.This paper focuses on analyzing the growth of online marketing and the challenges in international and Indian perspective. Keywords: E-commerce, Growth, Internet, Online marketing, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
Introduction focusing a wider retail value chain. At the The world of marketing is undergoing an same time, consumer behaviors and unprecedented wave of innovation. expectations are evolving from time to Technology and Internet are playing a time (Terzi, 2011) and are being major role in people’s life, and more so in influenced significantly by online business. New business models are having marketing. Electronic commerce (e- e-commerce as an integral part and commerce) became one of the most
*Dr. K. Rama MohanaRao is Professor in Department of Commerce and Management Studies, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India Email: [email protected], Mobile: 09949669929 **Chandra Sekhar Patro is Assistant Professor, Department of Management Studies, GVP College of Engineering (A), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India Email: [email protected], Mobile: 09440872590 1 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro important uses of technology relating to networks and search information and so the Internet. The activity of online on. Consumers’ online shopping behavior shopping, which falls under the e- depends on the factors such as shopping commerce umbrella, is considered to be motives, personality variables, internet one of its important features. The knowledge and experience, and shopping enormous advantages offered by incentives. Online shoppers always want electronic shopping stimulate corporate to seek information within few clicks and managers, marketing departments and reach to the most relevant information retailers to offer their products through according to their requirements such as websites to attract the largest number of competitive brands, best price offers, shoppers, not only to local markets, but product specification and consumer word- also globally (Alsharif, 2013). E- of-mouth (Gao, 2005). commerce is benefiting from several The Global E-Commerce Market positive trends, including the continued rollout of broadband and increasing user The change in consumer behavior comfort in shopping online. along with the availability of cheaper and reliable technology for secure transactions Silverstein (2002) observed that has led to a significant growth in online internet is making life simple and sales around the world. This growth is also innovative. People are doing business online and trade has become more easy stimulated by the increasing number of and fast. Internet is providing new ways smart phones and internet connections. As of promoting the business. Website e-commerce is a relatively new industry, becomes the essence of online business the majority of online retailers are finding as to show their services and products. hard to acquire digital marketing skills and Internet gathers all competitors and develop proper governance structure. consumers in one place. It brings new lane Security remains one of the major to promote, advertise products and concerns for consumers as the complexity services in market. According to of online fraud attacks continue to Rodriguez (2009) online consumers are increase. Despite being mired in many always seeking new products, new issues, the e-commerce industry is rising attractiveness and the most important and changing in a rapid manner. The thing being price compatibility with their constantly changing dynamics of the budget. The internet is the best way to save online retail industry has put pressure on time and money through purchasing all the stakeholders to redesign their online within their range of budget at business models, if they desire to stay home or from anywhere. Consumers don’t competitive and grow. Online retailers are have limits to online shopping and they looking to understand the consumers’ also use internet for comparison of prices purchase behavior and are aligning with of goods and services, news, visit social consumers’ desire to shop from the
2 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers comfort of their homes and offices, and retail sales accounted for 6.3 percent of even on the move. all retail sales worldwide. It has grown by Growth of Retail E-commerce 25.1 percent in 2015 to reach USD 1.67 Online shopping is one of the most trillion and it is expected increase more popular online activities worldwide with than double to USD 3.578 trillion, making global e-retail sales reaching USD1.34 up 12.8percent of total retail spending by trillion in 2014 (Figure-1). The total e- 2019 (eMarketer, 2016).
Figure-1. Retail e-commerce sales Worldwide, 2014-2019 (Sales in USD trillions, % change and % of total retail sales)
Source: eMarketer (2016), Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com
Asia-Pacific is the largest retail Pacific region is likely be the leader in ecommerce market in the world, with sales terms of volume of trade and percentage of USD 877 billion in 2015, accounting of growth rate. Rapid growth in the for more than half of global sales (Table- number of internet users buying digitally 1). The region also has the fastest growth rate worldwide and estimated to reach for the first time, as well as the increasing USD 2.336 trillion at the end of 2019. disposable incomes in China, India and Though the expected growth rates are Indonesia, are fuelling the region’s decliningin all the regions, the Asia- growth. Table-1. Retail Ecommerce Sales Worldwide by Region, 2015-2019 (Sales in USD billions, Growth in % change)
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Region Sales Growth Sales Growth Sales Growth Sales Growth Sales Growth Asia Pacific 877.61 35.7 1,152.21 31.3 1,488.42 29.2 1,892.07 27.1 2,336.27 23.5 Middle East & Africa 14.69 28.5 18.67 27.1 23.33 24.9 28.6 22.6 34.69 21.3 Central & Eastern 52.38 23 62.55 19.4 74.08 18.4 85.6 15.6 98.74 15.3 Europe
3 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro
Latin America 40.98 22.9 49.83 21.6 59.81 20 68.94 15.3 79.74 15.7 North America 367.44 14.4 415.71 13.1 466.92 12.3 521.74 11.7 579.93 11.2 Western Europe 317.89 13.3 351.38 10.5 385.91 9.8 418.2 8.4 448.69 7.3 Worldwide 1,670.99 25.1 2,050.36 22.7 2,498.48 21.9 3,015.15 20.7 3,579.06 18.7
As shown in Table-2, China is the by UK withUSD 86.81billion, and India unchallenged world leader as far as the withUSD 6.10billion sales.The most retail ecommerce sales are concerned significant feature of ecommerce in India valued at USD 672.01 billion during 2015 is that the growth rate in ecommerce sales and the country is expected to retain the was 129.5 percent in 2015 which is leadership position in 2019 also with an substantially high compared to China, US, expected sales of USD 1,973.04 UK and Japan. The expected growth rates billion.US was the second major player in future are also substantial and with USD 340.61billion sales, followed encouraging for ecommerce in India. Table-2. Retail E-commerce Sales Growth in Select Countries, 2015-2019 (Sales in USD billions, Growth in % change) 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Country Sales Growth Sales Growth Sales Growth Sales Growth Sales Growth China 672.01 42.1 911.25 35.6 1,208.31 32.6 1,568.39 29.8 1,973.04 25.8 US 340.61 14.2 384.89 13 431.84 12.2 481.94 11.6 534.95 11 UK 99.39 14.5 110.32 11.1 121.36 10 132.28 9 143.19 8.3 Japan 78.55 14 100.3 12 111.33 11 122.46 10 134.1 9.5 India 14 129.5 24.61 75.8 39.45 60.3 55.26 40.1 68.47 23.9 Indonesia 3.22 65.6 5.29 64.3 8.21 55.3 10.92 32.9 13.16 20.6 Source: eMarketer (2016), Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com
There are 1.46 billion digital buyers purchases for the first time.The number is Worldwide in2015 and will continue to expected to increase to 2.07 billion by climb steadily, fueled by new internet users 2019.However, the growth rate is expected in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and the to decrease from 11 percent in 2015 to 8.1 Middle East and Africa making digital percent in 2019 (Figure-2).
4 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers
Figure-2. Digital Buyers Worldwide, 2014-2019 (billions and % change)
Source: eMarketer (2016), Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com The e-commerce companies such online merchants in China have been as Amazon, Apple and JD.com are the successful in making the transition to leading global e-retailers based on m- mobile commerce powerhouses, which commerce sales (Table-3), with market comes as a small surprise with the strong leader Amazon generating more revenue mobile internet penetration rate in the and CAGR in retail sales. Especially, country(Deloitte, 2016). Table-3. Global Top 10 e-retailers
FY2014 e- FY2014 e- FY2014 e- Sales commerce FY2011-2014 Name of Country commerce commerce rank retail sales as e-commerce e company of origin retail sales growth FY2014 % of total CAGR(%) (US$M) rate(%) retail revenue Amazon.com 1 Inc. US 70,080 100 15.1 18.6 2 Apple Inc. US 20,600 49 12.6 29.9 3 JD.com, Inc. China 17,672 100 62 73.2 Wal-Mart 4 Stores Inc. US 12,200 2.5 22 24 Otto (GmbH 5 & Co KG) Germany 8,397 65.4 5.6 6.7 6 Tesco PLC UK 6,504 6.5 20 14.6 7 Macy's Inc. US 5,400 19.2 30.1 34.9 Liberty 8 Interactive Corp US 5,198 49.5 6.4 9.9
5 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro
Casino Guichard- 9 Perrachon S.A. France 4,606 7.1 20.1 15.8 Suning Commerce 10 Group Co., Ltd. China 4,199 23.7 17.8 63.5 Source: Deloitte (2016). Retrieved fromhttps://www2.deloitte.com Figure-3 shows the shares of top 10 the top 10, the difference between the top2 countries in the global B2C e-commerce and the rest is still quite significant. market of 2015. China is the world’s Together, the China and the US account largest e-commerce market, with a share for nearly 60 percent of the global B2C e- of 33.7 percent. The US ranked second commerce market, while the other eight with 26.2 percent, followed by the UK (7.7 countries combine for a little over 25 percent) and Japan (5.0 percent). Within percent. Figure-3. Share of global B2C e-commerce market (2015)
The increase in ecommerce trading can have online stores or are planning to enter be pegged on the ever increasing smart the market. Half of all E-commerce phone and internet penetration worldwide, transactions are already made using multiple there is an ever growing base of digital devices (Figure-4). As that figure crosses the buyers (Rudolph, 2016). Understanding 50percent mark in 2016, retailers will need ecommerce retail trends is the key to to redesign the online buying experience for succeeding online for those who already this new reality (Criteo, 2016).
6 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers
Figure-4. Share of Retail e-commerce Transactions Using Multiple Devices
Source:Criteo (2016). Retrieved from http://www.criteo.com/resources. Forces Driving E-commerce Growth phone users and growth of social media. Online sales are driven primarily by an Capturing customers’ product and increase in the number of broadband payment preferences to deliver an connections and usage of smart enhanced online shopping experience is phone.Beacons, big data & predictive driving the growth of e-commerce. The analysis, advanced personalization, omni- e-retailers are following different ways to channel tactics, localization, digital tech better reach out to their potential taking over the brick and mortar stores, customers and enhance the shopping and an increased focus on customer experience. It will be difficult to retain experience are some of the most important customers if r online retailers do not trends in ecommerce. Mobile strategies integrate their back-end systems applied by the e-retailers are expected to seamlessly with their front- end systems. rise even more, as the industry is focusing The dynamics of the e-retail industry have more on mobile payment methods. There changed in recent years and as a result new is an increased adoption of one-stop shop challenges are emerging. The growing technology partners - online shopping security concerns, poor digital marketing platforms that support all touch points: skills, lack of proper governance and poor digital, traditional retail, enterprise integration of technology are the technology (Chaffey, 2016). challenges faced by the industry. To continue this growth path it is necessary The various forces driving e- totackle these issues effectively. commerce growth across all the major geographies include: improvements in E-Commerce in India technology, new needsand desires of The rise of social networks and mass consumers, increase of internet and smart adoption of mobile devices is acting as a
7 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro channel to accelerate online marketing penetration and relative better economic further, shaping the ecommerce trends for performance, India’s e-commerce revenue the Indian market. Adoption of e- is expected to jump from USD 30 billion commerce by the consumers is much in 2016 to USD 120 billion in 2020, faster in Tier-2 cities as compared to Tier- growing at an annual rate of 51 percent, 1 cities (Prabhudesai, 2014).The mobile the highest in the world (ASSOCHAM- apps present a new way of fostering brand Forrester, 2016). While in terms of base, loyalty within customers. Almost 41 India may be lower than China and other percent of Indian e-commerce sales are giants like US and Japan, but the rate of from mobile as it is the most mobilized growth is way ahead of others. Against way of shopping (Vikas, 2015).With the India’s annual expansion of 51 percent, initiation of technology, online retailers China’s e-commerce is growing at 18 are devising attractive delivery options percent, Japan 11 percent and South Korea such as same-day delivery or delivery 10 percent. within an hour, easy-to-use check out E-commerce became an integral part process, buying through mobile apps, and of the lifestyle of population in many try at home or your door, etc., for improved countries and India is one among them. customer experience (Chaturvedi & Accessibility to e-commerce platforms is Gupta, 2014). Further, adoption of not a privilege but rather a necessity for international practices such as digital or most people, particularly in the urban experiential stores and showrooms, pop- areas. India has a total of 259.14 million up and fulfillment stores and drones that internet and broadband subscribers will fascinate the Indian market. (ITSPI, 2014). This penetration of internet The major players of Indian e- coupled with the increasing confidence of commerce industry, catering myriad needs the internet users to purchase online, has of tangible products are Amazon, Flipkart, led to an enormous growth in the e- Snapdeal, Jabong, Shopclues, etc. commerce space, with an increasing Similarly, BigBasket is the most popular number of customers registering on e- and leading e-retail stores in groceries commerce websites and purchasing department,Myntra in fashion, BabyOye products through the use of mobile in baby care, Quikr in online classifieds phones. In particular, e-commerce presents one of the greatest opportunities and the list goes on (Bose, 2015). The in the retail sector since it provides a Travel industry comprised almost 61 dramatic change from brick and mortar percent of the total e-Commerce market establishments to virtual shops which (Sirohi, 2015). Other categories like could operate for a fraction of the cost apparels, computer and electronics are (NDA, 2015). also fuelling the overall online market growth.Being driven by a young According to a report provided by demographic profile, increasing internet Forrester (2012), social networks play an
8 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers important role in driving consumers online with a knowledgeable store and getting them to engage with brands. employee.Multichannel retailing has been This would gain specific significance in helping India’s consumption story and the light of facts such as India ranked as increasing the share of organized retail in Facebook’s second largest audience after the total retail pie. the US (Statista, 2015). However, it should The steady growth in the number of be kept in mind that there still exists a form web shoppers also is helping to boost e- of ‘digital divide’ in India where the commerce sales. The reasons identified for benefits of internet have not fully buying through Internet (ASSOCHAM, percolated to non-urban areas. In this 2016) are good discounts and lower prices, scenario, mobile connections would play saving time with less effort, convenience a very important role. India has close to of shopping at home, availability of wide 914.92 million wireless subscribers rangeof products, detailed information on (ITSPI, 2014). Mobile phones have been the product and facility to compare various and will be a key tool in helping users models or brands. Other factors connects in a market where overall contributing to the growth of e-commerce internet penetration may be low. include aggressive merchandising and According to Sand (2015), the e- discounting from flash sale and daily deal, commerce industry is rising fast, with more online loyalty programs and changes that can be seen within a year. increasing popularity of smart phones and US retailer Amazon became the second- tablet computers among consumers which largest online marketplace by shipments leads them to spend more on online in India, after domestic rival Flipkart, shopping (PWC, 2015). pushing former number two, Snapdeal, to E-commerce Adoption among SMEs in third place. Similarly in the taxi business, India multinational Uber is in a race with India’s Ola, the current domestic-market leader. SMEs in India have traditionally The ‘Total Retail Survey’ conducted by been dependent upon domestic trade but PwC (2016) tracked consumer behavior with access to internet technologies they across retail channels, bringing to light the have started to explore the opportunity to changes brought about by multichannel trade globally. SMEs in India contribute retailing and identified that Indian around 17 percent to the country’s GDP. consumers today are moving with pace SMEs made a significant contribution to towards the Omni-channel way of life. India’s exports and industrial output at 40 Unconventional product categories like percent and 45 percent respectively. furniture, grocery and jewelry are finding Currently, there are approximately 48 takers through the online channel. Further, million SMEs operating in India (SME shoppers are demanding a service-focused Street Survey, 2014). Although SMEs in in-store experience and want to interact India may or may not have own online
9 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro presence, 43 percent of SMEs participate Legal Aspects in online sales in India. Web-enabled With e-commerce boom in India, on SMEs are likely to make higher profits, one side there is a huge increase in online have enhanced customer reach and shopping and number of consumers and improved employment opportunities. The on other side the number on cases in survey found that around 56 percent of consumer complaint forum/consumer SMEs believe that the use of internet court is also increasing rapidly. To be safe, technologies is critical for business general awareness of legal aspects of e- growth. SMEs have begun to recognize commerce are required (Chaudhary, the potential of e-commerce and 2015). The year 2007 is regarded as the understand that its adoption could play a birth year of the Indian ecommerce major role in enabling growth for their industry. Efforts are not made to make a business, both in domestic and legislation to protect the specific interests international markets. of the consumers from online marketing. Indian SMEs are facing a number of Apart from FDI Policy, which regulates challenges including competitive foreign investment into the e-commerce pressures, locally, nationally and industry, it is believed that all other Indian internationally. SMEs need to improve laws, which would apply to any online access to new customer segments and business, would apply to e-commerce reach customers in all corners of the businesses as well (Singh, 2016). world to achieve the desired results. According to KPMG and Snapdeal For the first time, a model law on e- (2015) study, 85 percent of the SMEs commerce was adopted in 1996 by United who adopted e-commerce believe that Nations Commission on International it is a cost effective medium to grow Trade and Law (UNCITRAL). India was sales. The key factors for e-commerce also a signatory to this model law, and had adoption among SMEs are cost effective to revise its national laws as per the said to grow sales, for business profitability model law. Indian e-commerce, therefore, and for business expansion, geographic falls within the purview of Information reach - national and international. Technology Act, 2000 (Karnatak, 2014), Despite of high potential, a large number and it legally recognizes all of SMEs are still not ready to move correspondence by electronic mail, away from the traditional business information in an electronic form with models. The slow growth of e- digital signatures. It also recognizes commerce adoption in SMEs has been application and approval done in attributed to several adoption barriers electronic format for Licenses, Permits such as: technological cost transparency, and other documents pertaining to inadequate financing, lack of awareness, Government departments. In addition, it and training & support. also makes hacking (download, copy,
10 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers extract, damage of electronic files/data) about online transactions and on account liable for punishment (Chaudhary, 2015). of jurisdiction of various consumer The law prescribes stringent penal and forums, it gives only the brief account of pecuniary penalties for violation of its pecuniary jurisdiction of the forums. There provisions during e-commerce is a dire need for specific provisions for transactions. IT Act 2000 is the sole cyber online transactions where directly law of India that has been invoked on consumer is involved. All businesses numerous counts against e-commerce engaged in e-commerce should ensure that portals and Internet intermediaries in India they take account of consumer protection who violated the provisions of the same issues. (PTLB, 2012). Oddly though, the Information The legal requirements for Technology Act passed by the undertaking e-commerce in India also Government of India deals only with involve compliance with other laws like issues relating to hacking, privacy, contract law, Indian penal code, etc. regulating authority and punishments for Further, online shopping in India also wrongdoers. The act however does not involves compliance with the banking and focus on the interest of online shoppers, financial norms applicable in India. With and is, therefore, of limited use to the active use of electronic commerce in consumers who face problems while India the e-commerce dispute resolution shopping online. It is high time that proper in India is required to be strengthened. The regulations for online shopping need to be present litigation system of India is not formulated. The government should either conducive for the growth of e-commerce amend the existing CPA to expressly and online dispute resolution is more include good and services bought/availed appropriate for such purposes in online with procedure for filing India (PTLB, 2012). complaints or pass a separate act for the Determination of the jurisdiction of protection of online consumers. disputes on the virtual space of World There have been quite a few cases Wide Web is the critical problem to be filed in the District Forums of Karnataka, addressed. Though India has started Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala dealing with settling territorial disputes by against online shopping portals. For enacting IT Act, 2000 but, it still lacks a instance, the District Consumer Forum lot as no specific legislation governs (DCF), Ernakulam had entertained Mr. online transactions and IP issues in India. Vinodkumar, Ernakulam’s complaint When e-commerce takes place as against Ebay, India and Shoed Merchant, business-to-consumer (B2C), then Mumbai was successfully awarded Consumer Protection Act, 1986 obviously compensation by the Kerala State has its role to play but, it too does not talk Consumer Dispute Redressal
11 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro
Commission. Similarly, consumers have and cross-border e-commerce disputes in been successful in their complaints against a timely manner and obtain redress, as Naaptol in Karnataka, Gujarat and appropriate, without incurring Himachal Pradesh DCFs. This is good unnecessary cost or burden. news for consumers as this sets precedent It should include out-of-court for handling online shopping complaints mechanisms, such as internal complaints by Consumer Forums. handling and alternative dispute The OECD (2016) Council gave resolution. Subject to applicable law, the certain recommendations on Consumer use of such out-of-court mechanisms Protection in case of E-commerce which should not prevent consumers from need to be considered in formulating any pursuing other forms of dispute resolution legislation. and redress. Consumers who participate in e- Businesses should protect consumer commerce should be afforded transparent privacy by ensuring that their practices and effective consumer protection that is relating to the collection and use of not less than the level of protection consumer data are lawful, transparent and afforded in other forms of commerce. fair, enable consumer participation and Businesses engaged in e-commerce choice, and provide reasonable security should pay due regard to the interests of safeguards. consumers and act in accordance with fair Governments and stakeholders business, advertising and marketing should work together to achieve such practices as well as the general principle protection and determine what changes of good faith. may be necessary to address the special Online disclosures should be clear, circumstances of e-commerce, including accurate, easily accessible and for children and vulnerable or conspicuous so that consumers have disadvantaged consumers. information sufficient to make an Impact of E-Commerce on other Trade informed decision regarding a transaction. Channels Businesses should provide The Internet and e-commerce are consumers with easy-to-use payment transforming the way firms operate by mechanisms and implement security redefining how back-end operations – measures that are commensurate with product design and development, payment-related risks, including those procurement, production, inventory, resulting from unauthorized access or use distribution, after sales service support, of personal data, fraud and identity theft. and even marketing are conducted (Terzi, Consumers should be provided with 2011). In this process, the Internet and e- effective mechanisms to resolve domestic commerce alter the roles and relationships
12 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers of various parties, fostering new supply to provide intelligent recommendations networks, services and business models. (Ghetika, 2014). The end results are efficiency As customers’ trust on online market improvements, better asset utilization, is increasing, products like pen-drive, faster time to market, reduction in total mobiles, earphones are being more order fulfillment times, and enhanced purchased online. Customers get look and customer service (ECLAC, 2002). E- feel of the product at offline store and then commerce offers important opportunities prefer to purchase online at cheaper rate. to both developing and developed To stay in the game, traditional retailers countries. The development of e- have been working on their internet commerce is likely to have both direct and strategy. For instance, ShoppersStop, indirect impact on international trade as which started its online store in 2008, has well as the labor markets. boosted presence and improved features The rapid growth of online retail and user interface to bring its online visage reflected in the deteriorating financials of on par with leading e-commerce websites. physical retailers. Over the past years, The company is also trying to leverage its competition from online retailers such as physical network by giving customers the Flipkart (in books, music and electronics), option to return products at its stores. Myntra and Jabong (in apparel) has eaten Apart from ShoppersStop, Croma has an into the revenues of offline retailers. online store with options such as store Specifically, competition has been intense pickup and cash on delivery. Even compelling many to go online even as their manufacturers of retail products such as net store additions slowed. The operating Titan Industries (watches, jewellery, parameters such as same-store sales eyewear, etc.) and Aditya Birla Nuvo growth, conversion ratio and sales per (apparel - Allen Solly, Louis Philippe, square feet have been on a decline. Offline Peter England, etc.) have set up retailers need to leverage on customer beachheads in cyberspace. experience. The online business is rich in The Future of E-Commerce information but lacks in touch and feel, offline business is rich in touch and feel E-commerce today is largely but lacks in flow of information. When driven by price and convenience: a good customer buys something offline and deal on products that are delivered leaves the store, there is no behavioral data quickly. Consumer expectations of the available on what products customer e-commerce experience are changing searched for, what was the customer’s drastically, along with the shopping preference, which colors he/she liked, experience. The desire for instant access which brand he/she liked. But when and fast turnaround, 24/7, will be the customer buys online, all behavioral data norm driven in particular by millennials can be tracked and this data can be used and Generation Z consumers (Ovum,
13 K. Rama Mohana Rao & Chandra Sekhar Patro
2016). Consumers expect goods Conclusions advertised online to live up to the The business organizations certainly promise in everyway – with no depend to a greater extent on Online disconnect between the ‘fit and feel’ of marketing in future. The trends of growth what they see and what they get. This in all the economies are indicating in clear places great pressure on retailers and terms the future scenario in this direction. those that fail to meet expectations will The growth rate in India is highly fall by the wayside. impressive and recorded highest in the The report by Criteo (2016) world during the last few years and the highlights six major trends that have a big projections revealing the same trend. impact on e-commerce: There are many benefits associated with Consumers will complete most online marketing to the sellers as well as shopping journeys via multiple devices. to the buyers. It contributes to the economic prosperity of the country. The Smartphone shopping will continue sectors like SME’s, agriproducts, to gain ground. handlooms and handicrafts, jute and Merchant Retailers will see a high leather garments, dairy, poultry and marine web influence on their in-store Sales. products, and many other sectors Marketing will shift from being struggling to reach the markets nationally device focused to people-focused. and internationally find online marketing as an effective source to reach the target Advertising will become more consumers.These sectors can address the relevant and non-intrusive. key marketing problems which were the Instant delivery services will become major hindrance for the growth and common. development of these sectors through One of the key determinants of online marketing. Therefore, it is success of e-retailers is their ability to necessary for the government to promote keep track of users across a growing online marketing for the overall number of devices and touch points, development of the economy. and to figure out how to effectively It is true that India has emerged as measure which of those are most one of the top rated countries as far as the effective at driving sales. Retailers use of mobile phones are concerned. The have to recognize rapidly the changing Internet reach is mostly confined to urban trends and adapt quickly to such areas. The vast rural segment needs to be changes. This includes adopting provided internet access for the promotion promising new technologies and of online marketing. Development of e- embracing partnership opportunities infrastructure should be the priority for the and organizational agility. union as well as state governments to
14 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers promote e-marketing and paperless which require policy regulation from the currency transactions. The growth of government. Given the legal and policy online marketing though highly desirable, support, dependable e-infrastructure, and the problems associated with need to be training on e-marketing skills to all such addressed carefully. Customer information sectors for which investment on marketing privacy, fraudulent practices, legal infrastructure is a herculean task, the jurisdiction, consumer protection, and online marketing certainly prove to be security and safety are the key problems highly beneficial.
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16 Online Marketing: The Powerful Astra in the Strategic Armory of Marketers
PTLB. (2012). Legal Issues In E-Commerce In India. Retrieved from http:// ecommercelawsinindia.blogspot.in/2012/03/legal-issues-in-e-commerce-in-india.html PwC. (2015). Indian retail industry is devising strategies which could potentially disrupt competitor business. Retrieved from http://www.pwc.in/press-releases/2015/indian- retail-industry-is-devising-strategies-which-could-potentially-disrupt-competitor- business.html. PwC. (2016). Indian consumers moving towards omnichannel way of shopping: PwC. Retrieved from http://www.pwc.in/press-releases/2016/indian-consumers-moving- towards-omnichannel-way-of-shopping.html. Rodriguez, S. (2009). Consumer Behavior Report.Economic Climate Shifts Consumers Online.Retrieved from http://twinklemagazine.nl/nieuws/2009/03/ Reccessie_ drijft_ Amerikanen_ het_internet_op/13_Consumer_behaviour_report.pdf. Rudolph, S. (2016). The Future of Online Retail Shopping is Bright-Statistics and Trends. Retrieved from http://www.business2community.com/infographics/future-online-retail- shopping-bright-statistics-trends-01458175#0cBzlrkWYFVtrEmO.99. Sand, J. (2015). The war for the Indian e-commerce market gathers pace as it outgrows USA. Retrieved from https://global-www.bdo.global/en-gb/blogs/tech-media-watch-blog/ march-2015/the-war-for-the-indian-e-commerce-market-gathers- p#sthash.gopKBIsS.dpuf. Silverstein, B. (2002). Business to Business internet marketing. Canada: Jim Hoskins. Singh, S. (2016). Laws of Indian ecommerce or the Lack of It!. Retrieved from http:// indianonlineseller.com/2016/02/laws-of-indian-ecommerce-or-the-lack-of-it/ Sirohi, G. (2015). E-Commerce (Online Shopping) Industry in India to Cross 1 Lakh CroreIn 2015. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/e-commerce-online-shopping- industry-india-cross-1-lakh-gulshan-sirohi. SME Street Survey (2014).The status of E-commerce among Indian MSMEs.Retrieved from http://smestreet.in/?s=The+status+of+E-commerce+among+Indian+MSMEs. Statista. (2015). Top 15 Countries Based On Number Of Facebook Users. Retrieved from http://www.statista.com/statistics/268136/top-15-countries-based-on-number-of- facebook-users/ Terzi, N. (2011). The impact of e-commerce on international trade and employment.Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 745-753. Vikas, S.N. (2015). 41% of India E-commerce sales is from Mobile; Mobile wallet usage surging: Meeker’s2015 Internet Trends. Retrieved from https://www.meekers.com/41- percent-of-India-E-commerce-sales-is-from-Mobile-;-Mobile-wallet-usage-surging- Meeker’s-2015-Internet-Trends.
17 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo
Lalnunmawii Ralte* Laldinliana**
Abstract Backed by findings from past researchers in the field of consumer religiosity and its relationship with several aspects of consumer behaviour, the present study attempts to establish a link between consumer religiosity and shopping behaviour within the religiously and culturally homogeneous Mizo society in Northeast India. The study looks at shopping behaviour as manifested through trust in apparel sales persons and complaint intention, whereby the term ‘apparel’ is further confined in scope to include only those styles considered acceptable as ‘church clothes’. Consumer religiosity was measured with the help of the Religious Orientation Scale (ROS) developed by Allport and Ross (1967). Findings suggest there are statistically significant relationships between religiosity and shopping behaviour. Key words: Consumer religiosity, Mizo Christian, Church attire, Trust in salespersons, Store loyalty.
Introduction society. Being a Mizo has become At first glance, religion and tantamount to being a Christian, with the consumption may appear to be conflicting Mizo identity irrevocably transformed concepts. However, there is a common from that of ‘vicious marauders and head- thread binding the two disparate concepts hunters’ to ‘Mizo Christians’ (Lloyd, together which is culture. Religion is one 1991) within the span of a few decades. of the most dominant characteristics of a In fact, Pachuau (2014) says: ‘Time in culture (Pohlong, 2004), especially in Mizoram is governed by church time, in Mizoram, a small State in Northeast India, the span of both a day and a lifetime’. The wherean overwhelming majority (87.16 sheer number of churches of various percent) of the population follows denominations present at any given Christianity (Census 2011). Being locality, and visible from any vantage ‘religious’in the Mizo society involves point, attests to the predominance of regular participation in church activities, Christianity in this remote north-eastern accentuating the collective nature of the state of India.
* Lalnunmawii Ralte is Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, ICFAI University, Aizawl, Mizoram. ** Dr. Laldinliana is Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram. Email: [email protected] 18 Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo
According to Durkheim (1995), ‘A as defined by Allport and Ross (1967), that religion is a unified system of beliefs and is, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity, on practices relative to sacred things, that is Mizo Christian consumer behaviour. Of to say, things set apart and forbidden- particular interest is the effect of religiosity beliefs and practices which unite into one on Mizo consumers’ trust in salespersons single moral community called a Church, and their intention to complain in case of all those who adhere to them’. Every dissatisfactory consumer experiences. religion lays down a formal set of rules or Religiosity is the degree to which tenets that seek to guide or modify the beliefs in specific religious values and beliefs, values and behaviour of its ideals are held and practised by an followers, providing a reliable support for individual (Kamaruddin, 2007). culture formation (Delener, 1990). Even if According to Clayton & Gladden (1974), individuals do not remain true to these rules it is a commitment to an ideology. For at heart ‘they would try to remain within instance, religiosity may be manifested in its broad framework, at least externally’ (Pohlong, 2004). Thus, religion and culture the form of church attendance, donations provide humans with values to live by, and participation in church group thereby influencing their behaviour at both activities, etc. the individual and social levels. The influence of Christianity is Numerous studies (Bailey &Sood deeply entrenched into the everyday lives 1993; Essoo & Dibb 2004; Giacalone & of the Mizo people. This is bound to have Jurkiewicz 2003; Mokhlis 2006; an impact on how Mizo consumers make Singhapakdi et al. 2000) have attested to their decisions regarding their purchases the significance of religion as a factor and their general attitude towards influencing consumers since religion ‘is consumption. Furthermore, Christian not a fad that can be dismissed by the principles encourage a trusting and marketer as a short-term change, but rather forgiving nature that may influence the it is a long-term phenomenon’ Khraim way Christian consumers perceive and (2010). This is because the basic doctrines react to unpleasantness in their of a particular religion are static as consumption experiences (McCullough & compared to other cultural values and Worthington, 1999). Also, religion fosters attitudes, making religion a reliable factor a conservative attitude which may make in studying consumer behaviour religious consumers less adventurous and (McDaniel & Burnett 1990). However, more risk-averse. Thus, religion has a despite its evident importance in potential for significantly influencing the consumers’ lives, religion has remained consumption and shopping behaviour of an under-studied topic in consumer Mizo Christian consumers. Past research across the world. The present researchers have shown, time and again, study looks at the influence of religiosity that religiosity influences consumer
19 Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana behaviour (Arli&Tjiptono 2013; Shin et Presbyterian Church, in its Presbyterian al. 2011; Siguaw& Simpson 1997). Mizo Handbook 2014, has issued an advisory Christianity, being a socio-cultural regarding the maintenance of appropriate establishment, is a fitting candidate for church attire for both male and female such a study. attendees. Although the advisory is not a In Christian cultures across the prescription, it advises against the wearing world, wearing one’s best clothes to of pants by females to church, amongst church is a mark of reverence of the other pointers. That such an advisory ‘Lord’s Day’, that is, Sunday. In common needs to be issued brings to fore the parlance, the term ‘Sunday Best’ is importance Mizo Christians place on their traditionally used to refer to such clothes physical appearance and the significance worn by Christians. These are usually the of appropriate church attire in Mizo best formal clothes they own, reserved for society. Furthermore, during the year special occasions. While the culture of 2015-2016, the Kristian Thalai Pawl Sunday Best is on the decline in other parts (KTP), the Presbyterian Church youth of the world (Litfin, 2012), it is still organization whose members constitute preserved and actively propagated the target population for the present study, amongst Mizo Christians. Even a cursory in their ‘Kum Puan Thupui Kaihhruaina- observation on any given Sunday will Krista Tana Danglam Ngam’ (a guide attest to this. Girls and boys, men and booklet on how to pursue Godliness and women, young and old - all come out be different for Christ) an entire chapter carefully attired on Sundays. While the was dedicated on how Mizo Christian men and boys invariably wear formal youth should distinguish themselves in pants and shirts, ties and blazers, and their manner of dressing and appearance. often, suits too; the attire worn by women ` Coupled with past encouragements and girls differ according to their age from missionaries (Lloyd, 1991) and the groups. The youngest girls - the ones who present church’s unwavering stand on go to Beginner’s and Primary Sunday formal dress codes, there is a longstanding Schools - wear frocks and dresses, the tradition of formal church attire in Mizo older girls in Sunday School wear dresses Christian life, which is likely to remain or blouse-skirt suits, and adult women are unchanged for the foreseeable future. In expected to wear the puan (formal wrap- fact, a lot more can be written about the around) with tailored blouses. While the ‘Sunday fashion’ of Mizo Christians. youngest girls may get away with There is also a long standing tradition of sleeveless dresses, it is considered buying new clothes for major annual unacceptable for older girls and adults to church events, like Christmas, youth wear clothes that have no sleeves. Pants conventions, Sunday School meets, are not accepted as respectable church weddings etc. Apart from Sunday Bests attire for females. The Mizoram and the sartorial demands brought on by
20 Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo festivals and other special events, there is bound to exist among religious Mizo also the requirement of semi-formal attire consumers as to the acceptability (as for the numerous church activities that church attire) of the apparel products occur throughout the week. The more being offered in stores. Moreover, inclusive term ‘church attire’ is used to Christian teachings extol the virtues of include both kinds of clothing - Sunday trusting others and holding them in utmost Best as well as semi-formal clothes worn regard. This has a potential for practical to church-related social activities. application in real life situations, as seen in studies by McDaniel & Burnett (1990) The penchant for fashion & Choi, Kale & Shin (2010). Within the consumption is most apparent in the scope of the present study, it is youth, the Gen Y, who have been described hypothesized that highly religious as ‘the most consumption-oriented of all consumers place greater trust in generations’ (Sullivan &Heitmeyer, salespersons and are more likely to 2008). This is the rationale behind the consider their advice, when compared to selection of the KTP members as the target less religious consumers. This assumption population for the present study. This is especially well-founded when the Presbyterian youth group comprises of collectivistic nature of Mizo society is Mizo youth between the age group of 14 brought into consideration. to 40 years, the Generation Y cohort. The KTP has the maximum number of social When dissatisfied, consumers often activities in any given year, meeting every voice their complaints to business Monday night for a worship service, where managers or to third parties like consumer members are expected to dress in formal courts/forums, their social groups etc. or semi-formal clothes, the women While this is a perfectly rational behaviour, notably wearing their puan. In addition to for some highly religious consumers, it may this, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday nights, come in conflict with the Christian doctrine and occasionally Saturdays, are spent that venerates forgiveness (McCullough & conducting choir practices, fund raising Worthington, Jr. 1999). This may be one activities, committees etc. Even in these of the reasons why the consumer forums places, a certain level of formality is in Mizoram have such few cases to report expected from members in the way they (Directorate of Economics & Statistics dress, except when physical work is 2014) despite research findings by involved. Laldinliana and Jyoti Kumar (2012) that show Mizo consumers do have intentions Numerous studies like that of to complain in case of dissatisfying Delener (1990) and Siguaw & Simpson purchases. The present study provides an (1997) have shown that religious assessment of the influence of religiosity consumers tend to be more conservative on a consumer’s intention to voice and risk-averse. Some apprehensions are complaints, formally or otherwise.
21 Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana
Because religious practices often Hypothesis 2: There is a significant defy the logic of the marketplace relationship between religiosity and (Iannaccone, 1992), highly religious intention to complain in case of a consumers may behave in seemingly dissatisfactory consumer experience. irrational manner which may leave them The study was undertaken among at a less advantaged position compared to Christian youth belonging to the Mizo consumers who are not religiously community. For this purpose, the KTP, the oriented. youth fellowship of the Mizoram Objective and Methodology Presbyterian Church was selected as the The present study seeks to evaluate target population, considering its the relationship between religiosity and unparalleled share in membership as the Mizo consumer’slevel of trust in compared to other similar organizations salespersons and complaintintentions in in Mizoram. The youth fellowship has a case of dissatisfactory experiences. The total membership of 1,38,871 according main objective of the study is to gauge the to the Kristian Thalai Pawl Report 2014- role of religiosity in the Mizo consumer 2015. The study was confined to Aizawl buying process in the context of church- city, the state capital, where the appropriate apparel. concentration of the target group is the highest at 59,202 members, that is, about Consumer religiosity is measured 42 percent of total members. The age using the Religious Orientation Scale group of the target population ranged from (ROS) developed by Allport and Ross 14 to 40 years of age. Amongst all the (1967). The ROS consists of 20 items, constituent bodies of the Mizoram divided into two sub-scales - the Extrinsic Presbyterian Church, the youth fellowship sub-scale consisting of 11 items and the has the maximum number of activities in Intrinsic sub-scale with 9 items. any given year, which may translate into It is hypothesized that highly higher demand for clothing variety. religious consumers place greater trust in In all, 500 questionnaires were apparel salespersons and are more likely physically distributed across Aizawl city. to consider their advice.It is also It was also uploaded on Google Forms. hypothesized that highly religious After screening all the responses, 350 consumers are less willing to lodge formal completed questionnaires were selected complaints even when they are dissatisfied for analysis for this study. with their consumption experience. Thus, two formal hypotheses are framed as Results and Discussion follows: All 350 respondents belonged to the Hypothesis 1: There is a age group of 14 years to 40 years, as significant relationship between religiosity stipulated by KTP guidelines. Of these, and trust in salespersons. 51.7 percent respondents were male and
22 Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo
48.3 percent were female. More than 95 index figures and not on the individual percent of the respondents were younger item scores. than 35 years of age, with two-thirds of Kruskal-Wallis H-Test showed the all respondents aged between 20 to 29 education level of the respondent had a years. Respondents with at least college- statistically significant effect on the score level education comprised of 62.3 percent of the ROS, H(4) = 12.665, p = 0.013. of the total sample. Further, Jonckheere-Terpstra test for
The religious orientation of the ordered alternatives showedJ = 19,314, zj = - 3.088, p = 0.002, r = - 0.16, indicating respondents was measured using the j j Religious Orientation Scale (ROS) a statistically significant trend of overall developed by Allport & Ross (1967). The religiosity decreasing with higher education levels (p < 0.05). ROS consists of 20 items, which is divided j into two sub-scales - the Extrinsic sub- Regarding the analysis on shopping scale consisting of 11 items and the behaviour, the following results were Intrinsic sub-scale with 9 items. In order obtained: to determine the internal consistency of i. Trust in Salespersons the Religious Orientation Scale, a The level of trust in salespersons was reliability analysis was done to find out measured using two questions - one was Cronbach’s Alpha (á) coefficient for the positively-worded and the other was Scale. For the complete ROS scale with framed as a negative sentence. Reverse 20 items, Cronbach’s alpha á = 0.738, coding was used for the latter question.As showing an adequate level of internal shown in Table 1 below, 40.6 percent of consistency. No striking differences were the respondents found salespersons to be observed between the genders with respect trustworthy, while 34 percent did not and to their responses to the ROS 25.4 percent were undecided. The median questionnaire. Furthermore, since the score was 3 for all respondents.When the present study is concerned with the total same question was altered and posed as a index score and not sub-scale indexes, negatively-worded statement, the results further analysis work is performed on the showed a clearer picture. Table 1: Trust in Salespersons’ Advice
Do you agree with the statement- Salespersons give me truthful advice? Frequency Percentage (%) Rating Scale Male Female Total Male Female Total Strongly Disagree 5 8 13 1.4 2.3 3.7 Disagree 46 60 106 13.1 17.1 30.3
23 Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana
Neutral 52 37 89 14.9 10.6 25.4 Agree 77 64 141 22 18.3 40.3 Strongly Agree 1 0 1 0.3 0 0.3 Total 181 169 350 51.7 48.3 100 Source: primary data Table 2 shows that 79.1 percent this item as the statement is posed in a of the respondents did not trust negative way. The median score was 2 salespersons while only 6.9 percent for both genders, with a few outliers in trusted them. Reverse scoring is used for both groups. Table 2: Perception about Salespersons Do you agree with the statement- Salespersons say anything, as long as they make their sale? Frequency Percentage (%) Rating Scale Male Female Total Male Female Total Strongly Agree 35 46 81 10 13.1 23.1 Agree 99 97 196 28.3 27.7 56 Neutral 32 17 49 9.1 4.9 14 Disagree 13 8 21 3.7 2.3 6 Strongly Disagree 2 1 3 0.6 0.3 0.9 Total 181 169 350 51.7 48.3 100 Source: primary data Mann-Whitney U-test indicated a test for ordered alternatives showed that statistically significant difference between J=18,245, zj= - 4.129, pj = 0.000, rj = - male and female respondents in terms of 0.221, indicating a statistically significant the level of trust they place in trend of trust level decreasing with higher salespersons, z = - 1.985, p = 0.047. The education levels (pj< 0.05). effect size r = - 0.106 indicated a small ii. Complaint Intentions difference between the genders. The mean ranks (female = 164.46, male = 185.81) As shown in Table 3 below, implied females were less likely to trust while 65.7 percent of the respondents salespersons than males. were found to be unwilling to Kruskal-Wallis H Test showed that approach consumer courts/forums, the respondents’education level had a only 16.9 percent were willing to do statistically significant effect on their level so to resolve their complaints. of trust in salespersons, H(4) = 21.752, Further, 17.4 percent were undecided p= 0.000. Further, Jonckheere-Terpstra or ‘Neutral’ about this query. The
24 Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo median score was low at median = 2 willingness to approach the courts/ for both genders, indicating low forums overall. Table 3: Willingness to Approach Consumer Courts Do you agree to this statement: I am willing to approach the consumer courts or forums to resolve my complaints? Frequency Percentage (%) Rating Scale Male Female Total Male Female Total Strongly Disagree 27 34 61 7.7 9.7 17.4 Disagree 87 82 169 24.9 23.4 48.3 Neutral 30 31 61 8.6 8.9 17.4 Agree 33 18 51 9.5 5.1 14.6 Strongly Agree 4 4 8 1.1 1.1 2.3 Total 181 169 350 51.7 48.3 100
Further, as shown in Table 4 below, at median = 2 for both groups. 59.4 percent of all respondents did not However, the range of scores was much have intentions to complain while only wider for the male group. This implied 26 percent intended to complain when that male respondents were more dissatisfied with their consumption polarized in their responses than experience. The median score was low females. Table 4: Intention to make Complaints Do you agree with the statement- When dissatisfied, I intend to make my complaints known? Frequency Percentage (%) Rating Scale Male Female Total Male Female Total Strongly Disagree 12 23 35 3.4 6.6 10 Disagree 88 85 173 25.1 24.3 49.4 Neutral 25 26 51 7.1 7.4 14.6 Agree 51 31 82 14.6 8.9 23.4 Strongly Agree 5 4 9 1.4 1.1 2.6 Total 181 169 350 51.7 48.3 100 Mann-Whitney U-test indicated a a small difference between the genders. statistically significant difference between The mean ranks (female = 159.34, male = male and female respondents in terms of 190.59) implied females were much less their complaint intentions, z = -2.913, p = likely to have complaint intentions than 0.004. The effect size r= - 0.156 indicated males.
25 Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana
Also, Kruskal-Wallis H Test showed significant trend of complaint intentions that the age group a respondent belonged increasing with education level (pj< 0.05). to had a statistically significant effect on Hypotheses Testing the respondent’s complaint intentions, with H(4) = 28.927, p = 0.000. Further, The two hypotheses framed for the Jonckheere-Terpstra test for ordered present study were tested using bivariate correlation to determine whether alternatives showed J=27,409, zj= 4.739, significant relationships existed pj = 0.000, rj = 0.253, indicating a statistically significant trend of complaint between the variables and also to find intentions increasing with older age out the direction of such relationships. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient groups (pj< 0.05). (Spearman’s rho r ) was calculated for Education level also had a s each relationship. The results of the statistically significant effect on a respondent’s complaint intentions, H(4) = hypotheses tests are presented as 29.981, p= 0.000. Further, Jonckheere- follows: Terpstra test for ordered alternatives Hypothesis 1: There is a showed J = 28,106.50, zj= 5.331, pj = significant relationship between religiosity
0.000, rj = 0.285, indicating a statistically and trust in salespersons. Table 5: Relationship between Religiosity and Trust in Salespersons Correlations Spearman's rho Trust in Salespersons Correlation Coefficient .333* Scale: ROS Index Sig. (2-tailed) 0 N 350 * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
From the above Table 5, it can be seen the variation in trust tendency is that there is a significant and positive contributed by religiosity. correlation between total ROS score and Hypothesis 2: There is a the tendency to trust salespersons (r = s significant relationship between religiosity 0.333, p<0.01). This implies that as the and intention to complain in case of a level of religiosity increases, the tendency dissatisfactory consumer experience. to trust salespersons also increases significantly. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is accepted.However, the effect size = 11.09 Table 6: Relationship between percent implies that only 11.09 percent of Religiosity and Complaint Intentions
26 Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo
Correlations Spearman's rho Intent to Complain Correlation Coefficient -.163* Scale: ROS Total Index Sig. (2-tailed) 0.002 N 350 * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
From the above Table 6, it can be respondents who trust salespersons were seen that there is a negative and significant significantly less likely to lodge correlation between total ROS score and complaints against businesses. However, the effect size implied that only 2.19 the intention to complain in case of percent of the variation in complaint dissatisfactory experiences (r = - 0.163, s intention was contributed by trust in p<0.01). This implies that as the level of salespersons. religiosity increases, the intention to A series of Kruskal-Wallis H Tests register complaints decreases were also carried out. Education level significantly. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 is was found to have a statistically also accepted.However, the effect size = significant effect on willingness to 2.66 percent implies that only 2.66 percent approach consumer courts/forums with of the variation in complaint intention is H(4) =34.216, p = 0.000. Further, contributed by religiosity. Jonckheere-Terpstra test for ordered alternatives showed that J = 28,046.50,
Other Significant Findings zj = 5.591, pj = 0.000, rj = 0.299, indicating a statistically significant trend Correlation analyses indicated a of willingness to approach consumer statistically significant and negative courts/forums increasing with education level (p < 0.05). Age also had a relationship between ROS score and j willingness to approach consumer courts/ statistically significant effect on willingness to approach consumer forums (rs= - 0.119, p = 0.026). This implied that respondents with a high courts/forums with H(4) =12.021, p = religiosity score were less willing to seek 0.017. Further, Jonckheere-Terpstra test legal means to resolve their complaints. for ordered alternatives showed that J =
A statistically significant and negative 25,611, zj = 3.189, pj = 0.001, rj = 0.170, relationship also existed between trust in indicating a statistically significant trend salespersons and intention to complain of willingness to approach consumer courts/forums increasing with age (p < against unsatisfactory experiences (rs= - j 0.148, p = 0.005). This implied that 0.05).
27 Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana
The education level of the trust salespersons. This implies that as the respondent was, as mentioned earlier, level of religiosity increases, the tendency found to have a statistically significant to trust salespersons also increases effect on the score of the ROS total scale. significantly. This is in line with Christian There was a statistically significant trend teachings to trust in others. Businesses of overall religiosity decreasing with must take heed of this finding and invest higher education levels. Elçi, Sener and in improving the quality of their sales Alpkan (2011) also showed similar personnel through training etc. findings of religiosity decreasing with Since the present study is confined higher education levels. to a limited section of Mizo Christian Conclusions youth, the findings of this study, it must The findings of the present study be noted, are limited in scope and must confirm that highly religious consumers not be used as a basis for formulating are more forgiving, that is, less likely to generalizations about the Mizoram lodge formal complaints with consumer population as a whole. Comparisons courts/forums. However, this finding does between the youth and the older not bode well for the progress of consumer population may bring out more rights in Mizoram, even though the effect comprehensive findings. Further, size is small at 2.66 percent. As the comparisons with Christian youth from likelihood of heeding instructions from other cultures may also reveal remarkable church officials may rise with higher findings. Inter-religion studies are also religiosity levels, it is recommended that desirable. Furthermore, the relationship the church takes up the task of educating between religiosity and consumer Mizo consumers about their rights as behaviour was only analyzed through consumers and assuring them that bivariate correlation, which does not exercising those rights do not conflict with imply causal relationship. More Christian teachings about forgiveness. statistically rigorous analyses like structural equation modelling are desirable The findings also indicated a to find out the direct, mediating and statistically significant positive correlation moderating effects of the concerned between religiosity and the tendency to variables. References Allport, GW & Ross, J 1967, ‘Personal religious orientation and prejudice’, Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, vol.2, pp. 423– 443. Arli, D &Tjiptono, F 2013, ‘The end of religion?examining the role of religiousness, materialism, and long-term orientation on consumer ethics in Indonesia’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 123 no. 3, pp. 385-400.
28 Exploring the Influence of Religiosity on Apparel Shopping Behaviour among the Mizo
Bailey, JM &Sood, J 1993, ‘The effects of religious affiliation on consumer behavior: a preliminary investigation’, Journal of Managerial Issues, vol.5 no.3, pp.328- 352. Census of India, 2011, viewed on 18th November 2014, accessed from http:// censusindia.gov.in Choi, Y, Kale, R & Shin, J 2010, ‘Religiosity and consumers’ use of product information source among Korean consumers: an exploratory research’, International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol.34 no.1, pp.61-68. Clayton, RR & Gladden, JW 1974, ‘The five dimensions of religiosity: toward demythologizing a sacred artifact’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, vol. 13 no.2, pp.135-142. Delener, N 1990, ‘The effects of religious factors on perceived risk in durable goods purchase decisions’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol.7 no.3, pp.27-38. Directorate of Economics & Statistics 2014, Statistical handbook, Mizoram 2014, Government of Mizoram, Aizawl. Durkheim, E 1995, The elementary forms of religious life, trans. KE Fields, The Free Press, New York. Elçi, M, Sener, Ý &Alpkan, L 2011, ‘The impact of morality and religiosity of employees on their hardworking behavior’, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol.24, pp.1367-1377. Essoo, N &Dibb, S 2004, ‘Religious inûuences on shopping behavior: an exploratory study’, Journal of Marketing Management, vol.20, pp.683 – 712. Giacalone, R &Jurkiewicz, C 2003, ‘Right from wrong: the influence of spirituality on perceptions of unethical business activities’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol.46 no.1, pp.85-97, viewed on 24 October 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075090 Iannaccone, L 1992, ‘Sacrifice and stigma: reducing free-riding in cults, communes, and other collectives’, The Journal of Political Economy, vol. 100 no. 2, pp. 271- 291. Kamaruddin, AR 2007, ‘Religiosity and shopping orientation: a comparative study of Malaysia and Thailand consumers’, Journal of Global Business Management, vol.3 no.2, pp.1-13. Khraim, H 2010, ‘Measuring religiosity in consumer research from an Islamic perspective’, Journal of Economic & Administrative Sciences, vol.26 no.1, pp. 52-78.
29 Lalnunmawii Ralte & Laldinliana
KristianThalai Pawl 2015, Kumpuanthupuikaihhruaina- Krista tanadanglamngam’, Central Kristian Thalai Pawl, Aizawl. Laldinliana&Jyoti Kumar, NVR 2012, Consumer behaviour in a tribal economy of Northeast India: a focus on Mizoram,Akansha Publishing House, New Delhi. Litfin, D 2012, ‘Clothing matters: what we wear to church’, Christianity Today, 11th January, viewed on 10th April 2015, http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2012/januaryweb-only/clothingmatters.html Lloyd, JM 1991, History of the church in Mizoram, Synod Publication Board, Aizawl. McCullough, ME & Worthington, Jr., EL 1999, ‘Religion and the forgiving personality’, Journal of Personality, vol. 67 no.6, pp.1141-1164. McDaniel, SW & Burnett, JJ 1990, ‘Consumer religiosity and retail store evaluative criteria’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol.18 no.2, pp.101-112. Mizoram Presbyterian Church 2014, The Presbyterian handbook 2014, Synod Literature and Publication Board, Aizawl. Mizoram Presbyterian Church 2015, Kristian Thalai Pawl report 2014-2015, Aizawl. Mokhlis, S 2006, ‘The effect of religiosity on shopping orientation: an exploratory study in Malaysia,’ Journal of American Academy of Business, vol.9, pp.64–74. Pachuau, JLK 2014, Being Mizo: identity and belongingness in Northeast India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pohlong, B 2004, Culture and religion, Mittal Publications, New Delhi. Shin, J, Moon, M, Park, M, & Kim, M 2011, ‘Does religiosity affect on consumer’s socialization agent and shopping orientation?’, International Proceedings of Economics Development & Research, vol. 3, pp. 154-158. Siguaw, JA & Simpson, PM 1997, ‘Effects of religiousness on sunday shopping and outshopping behaviours: a study of shopper attitudes and behaviours in the American South’, The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, vol.7 no.1, pp.23-40, viewed on 17th November 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/095939697343111 Singhapakdi, A, Marta, JK, Rallapalli, KC &Rao, CP 2000, ‘Toward an understanding of religiousness and marketing ethics: an empirical study’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol.27, pp.305–319. Sullivan, P &Heitmeyer, J 2008, ‘Looking at Gen Y shopping preferences and intentions: exploring the role of experience and apparel involvement’, International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol. 32 no. 3, pp.285-295.
30 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Comparative Performance of Infrastructure Fund Schemes of Public and Private Sector Banks in India
Bhaskar Biswas*
Abstract Sector and Thematic Funds are generally referred to as single category funds and the funds cannot take exposure to multiple sectors or themes. Some of the Sector funds available in India include Banking, Pharmacy, IT, Technology, Infrastructure, FMCG etc. In this paper, an attempt has been made to evaluate the performance of six thematic infrastructure mutual fund schemes (three from public sector banks and three from private sector banks in India) by analyzing their returns, total risk, systematic risk, funds actual and expected performance and correlation between benchmark return and funds return to meet the expectation of investors by providing return in recent times. It may be concluded from the study that the comparative performance of thematic- infrastructure mutual fund schemes of private sector banks are better than their counterpart.
Keywords: Correlation, Sector fund,Total risk, Systematic risk.
Introduction Sector funds available in India include Banking, Pharmacy, IT, Technology, Infrastructure is the basic physical Infrastructure, FMCG etc. These funds are systems of a business or nation. usually launched on the belief that a Transportation, communication, sewage, particular sector will outperform the water and electric systems are all examples broader index and will generate higher of infrastructure. These systems tend to be high-cost investments; however, they are returns than the broader benchmark. Sector vital to a country’s economic development Funds fall in the high risk and high return and prosperity. Infrastructure projects may category of funds. If the particular sector be funded publicly, privately or public does well, then one can expect higher than private partnership. An extension of a market returns but if the sectors perform Sector Fund is a Thematic Fund that invests poorly then the returns are far less than the in stocks based on a particular theme. market. Sector and Thematic Funds are generally Review of Literature referred to as a single category fund which means they cannot take exposure to Several scholarly studies were multiple sectors or themes. Some of the conducted over the years on different
*Dr. Bhaskar Biswas is Assistant Professor in Commerce, Raja Rammohun Roy Mahavidyalaya 31 Bhaskar Biswas* dimensions of mutual funds by public & private sector mutual funds in academicians, researchers and India. Alekhya had evaluated the committees. Performance evaluation of performance of 3 public (HDFC, UTI, mutual funds is an area of research in the SBI) and 1 private sector (JM Financial) western countries for more than six Indian Mutual fund equity scheme of 3 decades. Research on evaluation of years past data from 2009 to 2011 to performance of mutual funds contributed examine the funds sensitivity to the market a lot to the wealth of knowledge with the fluctuations in terms of beta. To appraise help of the tools developed by Markowitz, investment performance of mutual funds Sharpe, Jensen, Treynor and others. with risk adjustment the theoretical Sharpe, William F (1966) developed a parameters as suggested by Sharpe, composite measure of return and risk. He Treynor and Jensen to rank the funds evaluated 34 open-end mutual funds for according to Sharpes, Treynors and the period 1944-63.Treynor (1965) and Jensons performance measure. Jain and Gangopadhyay (2012) analyzed the Sharpe (1966) have provided the performance of equity based mutual funds. conceptual framework of relative measure A total of 45 schemes offered by 2 private of performance of equity mutual funds sector companies and 2 public sector while Treynor used systematic risk. companies, have been studied over the Treynor measures the performance period April 1997 to April 2012 (15 years). portfolio in relative measure that ranks the The analysis has been made using the risk- funds in terms of risk and return. The return relationship and Capital Asset index is also termed as reward to volatility Pricing Model (CAPM).The overall ratio. Jensen (1968) developed a analysis finds that HDFC and ICICI have composite portfolio evaluation technique been the best performers, UTI an average concerning risk-adjusted returns. He performer and LIC the worst performer evaluated the ability of 115 fund managers which gave below- expected returns on the in selecting securities during the period risk-return relationship. 1945-66. Mishra (2001) evaluated performance over a period April 1992 to Objectives of the Study December 1996. The sample size was 24 • To study the concept of public sector sponsored mutual funds. The Infrastructure fund schemes of mutual performance was evaluated in terms of funds. rate of return, Treynor, Sharpe and Jensen’s measure of performance. The • To measure the return given by the study also addressed betas instability selected six infrastructure mutual fund schemes (three from public sector banks issues. The study concluded dismal and three from private sector banks in performance of PSU mutual fund in India, India) and measure the total risk and in general, during the period 1992-96. systematic risk associated with the return Alekhya (2012) evaluated performance of given by the funds.
32 Comparative Performance of Infrastructure Fund Schemes of Public and Private Sector Banks in India
Research Methodology Kotak Infrastructure and Economic Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G). Data Collection: Tools and techniques: This study is based on secondary data. The relevant sources of secondary In this study, statistical tools such as data are books, journals, magazines, the arithmetic mean and measure of newspapers, brochures and websites of dispersion such as Standard deviation, selected mutual Funds. All the relevant beta, alpha and RSQ have been applied. data is being collected from moneycontrol. For calculating beta and alpha and RSQ, com, mutualfundsindia.com for year 2011 the researcher has used the return given to year 2015. The present study measures by the NSE CNX NIFTY 50 treated as the common benchmark. and compares the performance of six infrastructure fund schemes of public and Limitations of the study: private sector banks in India : three from The study has some limitations, they are: public sector banks viz., SBI Infrastructure • The study is based on only six Fund-series I (G), Baroda Pioneer infrastructure mutual fund schemes (three Infrastructure Fund (G), CanaraRobeco from public sector banks and three from Infrastructure Fund (G) and three from private sector banks in India) due to the private sector banks viz., HDFC availability of the data. Infrastructure Fund (G), ICICI Prudential • The study is limited to period of five Infrastructure Fund- Retail Plan (G) and years due to the availability of the data.
Results and Discussion Table- 1 Absolute return (%) of the select Infrastructure funds of public sector banks and private sector banks in India from year 2011 to year 2015
Name of the Fund 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) -40.9 11.9 -15 42.7 0.2 -0.22 Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure Fund(G) -41 14.9 -7.1 47.1 -5.5 1.68 CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund(G) -21.9 20 -10.4 57.4 3.6 9.74 HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) -41.3 32.3 -14.7 61.3 -6 6.32 ICICI Prudential Infrastructure Fund- -34.5 22.2 -6.5 48.6 -6.7 4.62 Retail Plan (G) Kotak Infrastructure and Economic -22.2 17.2 -8.8 64.2 -2.9 9.5 Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) Source: moneycontrol.com
33 Bhaskar Biswas*
Inference: Table 1 exhibits the yearly and In years 2011, 2013 and 2015 all the five years’ average absolute return (%) of infra funds of private sector banks under the Infrastructure funds of public sector and consideration have given a negative private sector banks in India from year 2011 return. In 2012, HDFC Infrastructure Fund to year 2015. In 2011 and 2013 all the infra (G) has given the highest return of 32.3% funds of public sector banks under and Kotak Infrastructure and Economic consideration have given a negative return. Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) has given In 2012, CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund the lowest return (17.2%) among all the (G) has given the highest return of 20% infra funds of private sector banks under and SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) has consideration. In 2014, Kotak given the lowest return (11.9%) among all Infrastructure and Economic Reform the infra funds of public sector banks under consideration. In 2014 and 2015, Fund-Standard Plan (G) has given the CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund (G) has highest return of 64.20% and ICICI given the highest return of 57.4% and 3.6% Prudential Infrastructure Fund- Retail Plan respectively and Baroda Pioneer (G) has given the lowest return (48%). Infrastructure Fund (G) has given the Kotak Infrastructure and Economic lowest return (-5.5%). CanaraRobeco Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) has given Infrastructure Fund (G) has given the the highest five years’ average return highest five years’ average return (9.74%) (9.5%) and ICICI Prudential Infrastructure and SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) has Fund- Retail Plan (G) has given the lowest given the lowest five years’ average return five years’ average return (4.62%) among (-0.22%) among all the infra funds of public all the infra funds of private sector banks sector banks under consideration. under consideration. Table-2 Standard deviation of the select Infrastructure funds of public sector and private sector banks in India from year 2011 to year 2015 Name of the Fund 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) 3.54 6.64 12.9 16.91 6.71 9.34 Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure Fund(G) 3.53 7.01 9.31 15.32 6.06 8.25 CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund(G) 3.51 8.25 7.81 11.82 5.87 7.45 HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) 5.41 11.99 16.51 15.76 5.09 10.95 ICICI Prudential Infrastructure Fund- Retail 3.38 5.73 10.23 13.62 3.3 7.25 Plan (G) Kotak Infrastructure and Economic Reform 4.87 9.01 10.08 9.16 2.98 7.22 fund-Standard Plan (G) Source: Calculated data
34 Comparative Performance of Infrastructure Fund Schemes of Public and Private Sector Banks in India
Inference: Table 2 is showing the yearly and funds of public sector banks under five years average standard deviation of the consideration. Infrastructure funds of public sector and private sector banks in India from year 2011 In years 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and to year 2015. Standard deviation is the risk 2015, the standard deviation of return of of fluctuation of actual expected return HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) were from average return. In years 2011, 2013, highest and the standard deviation of return 2014 and 2015, the standard deviation of of ICICI Prudential Infrastructure Fund- return of SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I Retail Plan (G) for 2011, 2012 and Kotak (G) was the highest and the standard Infrastructure and Economic Reform Fund- deviation of return of CanaraRobeco Standard Plan (G) for 2013, 2014 and 2015 Infrastructure Fund (G) was the lowest were lowest among all the infra funds of among all the infra funds of public sector private sector banks under consideration. banks under consideration. In 2012, the Five years’ average standard deviation of standard deviation of return of HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) was the CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund (G) was highest and it was opposite for Kotak the highest and the standard deviation of Infrastructure and Economic Reform Fund- SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) was Standard Plan (G) among all the infra funds the lowest. Five years’ average standard of private sector banks under consideration. deviation of SBI Infrastructure fund-series In other words, the risk of fluctuation of I (G) was the highest and it was opposite actual expected return from average return for CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund (G). is the highest in case of HDFC The risk of fluctuation of actual expected Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) and lowest return from average return is the highest in in case of Kotak Infrastructure and case of SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) Economic Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) and the lowest in case of CanaraRobeco among all the infra funds of private sector Infrastructure Fund (G) among all the infra banks under consideration. Table- 3 Beta(β) of the Infrastructure funds of public sector and private sector banks in India from year 2011 to year 2015 Name of the Fund 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) 0.28 1.02 2.1 3.55 1.89 1.77 Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure Fund(G) 0.91 1.26 1.74 3.68 2.15 1.95 CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund(G) 0.33 1.48 1.44 3.08 2.03 1.67 HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) 1.06 2.11 2.95 3.94 1.27 2.27 ICICI Prudential Infrastructure fund- Retail 0.87 1.02 1.86 3.22 1.16 1.63 Plan (G) Kotak Infrastructure and Economic Reform 0.48 1.63 1.89 2.39 1 1.48 Fund-Standard Plan (G) Source: Calculated data
35 Bhaskar Biswas*
Inference:Table 3 is exhibiting the yearly of return of Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure and five years average beta of the Fund (G) was the highest and beta value Infrastructure funds of public sector banks of return of the CanaraRobeco and private sector banks in India from year Infrastructure Fund (G) was the lowest. 2011 to year 2015. Beta is the sensitivity In case of infrastructure funds of of the portfolio return with the benchmark private sector banks,the beta value of return. In case of infrastructure funds of public sector banks, the beta value of return of HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) return of Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure was the highest in years 2011 to 2015, and Fund (G) was the highest in the year 2011, five years’ average the beta value of return 2014 and 2015, while in 2012 the beta of HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) was the value of return of CanaraRobeco highest and average beta value of return Infrastructure Fund (G) and the beta value of the Kotak Infrastructure and Economic of return of 2013 SBI Infrastructure Fund- Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) was series I (G). Five years’ average beta value found to be the lowest. Table - 4 Alpha(α)of the Infrastructure funds of public sector banks and private sector banks in India from year 2011 to year 2015 Name of the Fund 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) -8.33 -3.6 -7.47 -14.62 1.92 -6.42 Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure Fund(G) -4.02 -4.44 -4.86 -14.48 0.76 -5.41 CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund(G) -3.25 -4.54 -5.15 -7.63 2.91 -3.53 HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) -3.08 -5.57 -8.89 -12.78 -0.24 -6.11 ICICI Prudential Infrastructure Fund- -2.69 -1.07 -4.91 -10.79 -0.53 -4 Retail Plan (G) Kotak Infrastructure and Economic -2.24 -6.21 -5.55 -0.95 0.26 -2.94 Reform fund-Standard Plan (G) Source: Calculated data Inference: Table 4 presents the yearly and positive value of all the funds depicts that five years average alpha of the all funds performed better than its beta. Infrastructure Funds of public sector banks The five years’ average negative value in India from year 2011 to year 2015. In (-3.53) of alpha was the lowest for case of infrastructure funds of public CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund (G) sector banks, the value of alpha of all the and highest (-6.42) for SBI Infrastructure funds are negative. This means that the Fund-seriesI (G). funds had underperformed in the years During the period 2011 to 2015, the 2011 to 2014 and in the year 2015 the value of alpha of all the funds are negative,
36 Comparative Performance of Infrastructure Fund Schemes of Public and Private Sector Banks in India this means that the funds had value (-2.94) of alpha was the lowest for underperformed to its beta value in case of Kotak Infrastructure and Economic Reform infrastructure funds of private sector Fund-Standard Plan (G) and highest (-6.11) banks.The five years’ average negative for HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G). Table- 5 R-Squared (RSQ)of the Infrastructure funds of public sector banks and private sector banks in India from year 2011 to year 2015 Name of the Fund 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) 0.1 0.95 0.99 0.85 0.78 0.73 Baroda Pioneer Infrastructure Fund(G) 0.79 0.99 0.98 0.83 0.93 0.9 CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund(G) 0.1 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.88 0.78 HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) 0.46 0.94 0.89 0.9 0.46 0.73 ICICI Prudential Infrastructure Fund- 0.79 0.97 0.92 0.8 0.9 0.88 Retail Plan (G) Kotak Infrastructure and Economic 0.12 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.82 0.78 Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) Source: Calculated data Inference: Table 5 displays the yearly and Fund- Retail Plan (G) is the highest (0.88) five years average RSQ of the and HDFC Infrastructure Fund (G) is the Infrastructure funds of public sector banks lowest (0.73). in India from year 2011 to year 2015. RSQ measures the correlation between Conclusions benchmark return and portfolio return. As It can be concluded from the above the values of RSQ from year 2012 to 2015 analysis that CanaraRobeco Infrastructure are nearly 1, it can be said that there is Fund(G) has given the highest five years’ high correlation between benchmark average return (9.74%) and SBI return and portfolio return. The average Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) has given value of the five years’ RSQ of the Baroda lowest five years’ average return (-0.22%). Pioneer Infrastructure Fund (G) is the Kotak Infrastructure and Economic highest (0.90) and SBI Infrastructure Reform Fund-Standard Plan (G) have Fund-series I (G) is the lowest (0.73). given highest five years’ average return As the values of RSQ from year 2012 (9.5%) and ICICI Prudential Infrastructure to 2015 are nearly 1, it can be said that Fund- Retail Plan (G) has given the lowest there is high correlation between five years’ average return (4.62%). The benchmark return and portfolio return. risk of fluctuation of actual expected The average value of the five years’ RSQ return from average return is the highest of the ICICI Prudential Infrastructure in case of SBI Infrastructure Fund-series
37 Bhaskar Biswas*
I (G) and lowest in case of CanaraRobeco negative value (-3.53) of alpha was lowest Infrastructure Fund (G). Among the for CanaraRobeco Infrastructure fund (G) infrastructure funds of private banks the and highest (-6.42) for SBI Infrastructure risk of fluctuation of actual expected Fund-series I (G) and for private sector return from average return is highest in banks five years average negative value case of HDFC Infrastructure Fund-series (-3.53) of alpha was lowest for I (G) and lowest in case of Kotak CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund (G) and Infrastructure and Economic Reform highest (-6.42) for SBI Infrastructure Fund- Fund-Standard Plan (G). Five years’ series I (G). The average value of the five average the beta value of return of Baroda years RSQ of the Baroda Pioneer Pioneer Infrastructure Fund (G) was Infrastructure Fund (G) is the highest (0.90) highest and beta value of return of the and SBI Infrastructure Fund-series I (G) is CanaraRobeco Infrastructure Fund (G) the lowest (0.73) and the average value of was lowest and five years’ average the beta the five years RSQ of the ICICI Prudential value of return of HDFC Infrastructure Infrastructure Fund-Retail Plan (G) is the Fund (G) was highest and beta value of highest (0.88) and HDFC Infrastructure return of the Kotak Infrastructure and Fund (G) is the lowest (0.73). So it can be Economic Reform Fund-Standard Plan finally said that performance of (G) was lowest. Five years’ average the infrastructure Fund of private sector banks beta value of return of Baroda Pioneer in India are better than its counterpart. Infrastructure Fund (G) was highest and Kotak Infrastructure and Economic Reform beta value of return of the CanaraRobeco Fund-Standard Plan (G) have performed Infrastructure fund (G) was lowest. For best among the six infrastructure Funds public sector banks five years’ average which have been taken into consideration.
References
Alekhya (2012): “A Study on Performance Evaluation of Public and Private Sector Mutual Funds in India”, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Management Review,vol 1, no.2, October. Bansal L.K (1996): Mutual Funds Management and Working, Deep & Deep Publications,New Delhi. Blake, Elton and Gruber (1993): “The Performance of Bond Mutual Funds”, Journal of Business. Cai, Jun and Yamada, K C Chan Takeshi (1997): “The Performance of Japanese Mutual Funds”, The Review of Financial Studies, pp.237-273. Guha, S. (2008): Performance of Indian Equity Mutual Funds vis-a-vis their Style Benchmarks. The ICFAI Journal of Applied Finance.
38 Comparative Performance of Infrastructure Fund Schemes of Public and Private Sector Banks in India
Gurusamy S (n.d.), Financial Services, McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Jain and Gangopadhyay (2012): “Analysis of Equity based Mutual Funds in India” IOSR Journalof Business and Management (IOSRJBM), Vol. 2, Issue 1 (July- Aug.). Jensen, M.C (1968), The performance of mutual funds in the period of 1945-1964, Journal ofFinance, vol 23, No 2. Pp.389-416. Krishnamurthi (n.d.), “Genesis of Mutual Funds in India”, Vision Books, New Delhi. Mishra (2001): “A Study of Mutual Funds in India”, unpublished research paper under the aegis of Faculty of Management Studies, University of Delhi. Muthappan, P.K andDamodharan, E (2006), Risk Adjusted Performance Evaluation of Indian Mutual Funds Schemes, Finanace India, vol XX (3), September. Sarkar, Jaideep and Majumder, Sudip(1994). Performance Evaluation of Mutual Funds in India, NMIS Management Review, vol VI , No. 2, July-December, Selvam, Murugesan and Palanisamy, Bhuvaneswari, (2011). Analysis of Risk and Return Relationship of Indian Equity (Dividend) Mutual Fund Schemes. Sharpe, William F (1966): Mutual fund performance, The Journal of Business, vol.39 no.1.
39 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes
K. Mallikarjuna Rao*
Abstract A mutual fund is an investment company that pools the resources from a large number of investors, who share common investment goals, and then diversifies its investment into the securities of different industrial sectors and companies in order to realize potential returns with reasonable safety. In the era of globalization, rapid price fluctuations are occurring in financial assets like equity shares, bonds and also in physical assets like real estate, gold silver etc. Therefore, an individual investor finds it difficult to keep track of ownership of his assets, investments, brokerage dues and bank transaction, etc. Thus, mutual funds have emerged as a better alternative investment avenue. This study focuses on the significance of socio economic factors such as gender, age, education, occupation, marital status, annual income, annual savings and family size over elements of investment in mutual funds in semi urban and rural area of Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. It also highlights that there is significant relationship between factors influencing investment in mutual fund schemes, source of information, experience in mutual fund investments and, the attitudes towards safety of the various investment avenues and socioeconomic factors. Key words: Mutual funds, Socio economic factors, Rayalaseema region, Investment avenues Introduction investors in making direct investment in Mutual funds are the most suitable capital market instruments led to the investment for a common man as it offers increasing importance of mutual funds. an opportunity to invest in a diversified, They have been playing a significant role professionally managed portfolio at a in financial inter-mediation, development relatively low cost. Anybody with an of capital markets and growth of the investible surplus of a few hundred rupees financial sector as a whole. The active can invest in mutual funds. Changes in the involvement of mutual funds in economic economic scenario, falling interest rates development can be seen by their of bank deposits, volatile nature of capital dominant presence in the money and market and recent bitter experience of capital market.
*Dr. K. Mallikarjuna Rao is Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce, Govt. Degree College, Zaheerabad, Telangana- 502220 40 Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes
Mutual fund industry started in India preference over switching of funds by with the establishment of Unit Trust of using Chi-Square test, Pearson’s India (1964), which was the only player correlation, mean and median. The study in the industry up to 1987. In 1987, the found that it has a significant relationship government allowed public sector banks between occupation of investors and mode and financial institutions to join the fray. of investment. Majority of the investors From 1993 onwards the industry was open have the knowledge of risk factors in for private sector and foreign players who mutual funds. started setting up mutual funds in India Sharma (2012) attempted to examine since then. the reasons responsible for lesser Review of Literature recognition of mutual fund as a prime Saha and Rama Murthy (1994) investment option. identified that return, liquidity, safety and Jani, Patel & Jain (2012) studied capital appreciation played an important how different demographical factors have role in the preference of the schemes by influenced the perception of customers. investors. The study suggested that, fund Majority of consumers of valsad city have managers could adopt portfolio selection positive perception towards mutual fund. techniques to make more informed The demographic factors (i.e. age, gender, judgments rather than making investments income, education etc.) have influence on on an intuition basis. investors’ perception. Rajeshwari and Rama Moorthy Prasad and Srinivas (2012) in their (2001) studied the financial behaviour and study identified that the selection of factors influencing fund/scheme selection mutual fund schemes by the investor are of retail investors. The survey revealed affected by different factors. The identified that the most preferred investment vehicle factors are infrastructure, reputation of is bank deposits and that the scheme fund, flexibility, transparency, additional selection decision is made by the facilities, and brand name. The Overall respondents themselves. Newspapers and Mean Score value towards financial magazines, brokers and agents, television, instruments (8.638 per cent) is greater in suggestions from friends and direct mail all financial instruments except shares and in that order are the other sources gold. influencing the choice of a mutual fund Rathnamani (2013) observed that scheme. many investors prefer to invest in mutual Vyas (2012) evaluated the forms of funds in order to have high return at low investment, mode of investment preferred level of risk, safety and liquidity. In the by investors. He has also examined the demographic profile most of the investors investor’s knowledge of risk and are willing to invest only 10 per cent in
41 K. Mallikarjuna Rao their annual personal income; around 39 Nagpur district of Maharashtra state. The per cent investors belong to age group of study revealed that demographic factors - 31 to 40 years. Investors showed age, gender, qualification, income and willingness to take moderate and low level occupation have significant influence on risk. The study concluded that most of the the investors’ attitude towards mutual investors belong to moderate investment funds investment. style. Rajkumar and Venkatramaraju Jani & Jain (2014) in their study (2014) in their study analysed whether attempted to examine the buying investors have chosen their funds based behaviour of rural investors for financial on liquidity rather than having chosen assets specifically focused on mutual fund. them on the basis of the level of safety. The study found that there is significant The study concluded that investors’ impact of demographical factors like age, preference for liquidity is possible through gender, occupation, education and income mutual funds and that open ended funds on the decision making process of buying offer more liquidity. the mutual funds. Sharma and Agrawal (2015) in their Khitoliya (2014) in his study research on buying behaviour of mutual conducted in Delhi found that only 49 per fund investors, sources investors rely more cent of respondents were aware of mutual while making investment and preferable funds despite the fact that 60 percent of mode to invest in mutual funds. respondents were post- graduates and 34 Objectives of the study per cent were graduates from a metropolitan city. Of the 95 respondents To analyze the relationship between who are aware of mutual funds only 57 the socio economic background of had invested in mutual funds. investors of mutual funds and their buying factors. Chaturvedi, Singh and Singh (2014) concluded that investors are seen to Research Design and Methodology primarily invest in the mutual fund The study is based on both primary without knowing the entire working of the and secondary data. The primary data has investment. The customers normally tend been collected from individual investors to invest in those areas where they have through a structured questionnaire. The faith and hence building of faith is very total sample size is 400 individual important. investors of semi-urban and rural areas Gaglani and Rao (2014) conducted from the four districts of Rayalaseema a study on the impact of various region - Chittoor, Anantapuram, Kurnool demographic factors on investors’ attitude and YSR Kadapa. A sample of 100 towards investment in mutual fund in individual investors each from the above
42 Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes four districts is used for this purpose. The Business Line, Economic Times and secondary data has been collected from Financial Express to know the risk and various investment periodicals, such as return of various mutual funds. Dalal Street, Capital Market, RBI Statistical inferences have been drawn Bulletin, RBI Reports, the SEBI Reports using statistical package for social and SEBI Bulletins, business science (SPSS). ANOVA and Chi-square newspapers like Business Standard, test are used in the study.
Results and Discussion Table 1: Socio Economic Profile of Investors in Four Districts
Profile Total Ananta- Chittoor Kurnool YSR particulars Number of puram Kadapa respondents Gender Male 346 86 86 90 84 (86.50) (86.00) (86.00) (90.00) (84.00)
Female 54 14 14 54 16 (13.50) (14.00) (14.00) (10.00) (16.00) Age Below 30 208 49 51 54 54 (52.00) (49.00) (51.00) (54.00) (54.00)
31-40 119 27 33 34 25 (29.80) (27.80) (33.00) (34.00) (25.00)
41-50 38 12 9 6 11 (9.50) (12.00) (9.00) (6.00) (11.00)
51-60 27 09 4 6 8 (6.80) (9.00) (4.00) (6.00) (8.00)
(Above 60 8 3 3 0 2 (2.00) (3.00) (3.00) (0.00) (2.00)
43 K. Mallikarjuna Rao
Level of Education Below 42 7 16 12 7 Graduate (10.50) (7.00) (16.00) (12.00) (7.00)
Under 224 51 55 65 53 Graduate (56.00) (51.00) (55.00) (65.00) (53.00)
Post-Graduate 110 32 28 20 30 (27.50) (32.00) (28.00) (20.0) (30.00)
Professional 15 6 1 2 6 (3.80) (6.000) (1.00) (2.00) (6.00)
Any other 9 4 0 6 4 (2.30) (4.00) (0.00) (6.00) (4.00) Marital Status Married 298 79 68 72 79 (74.50) (79.00) (68.00) (72.00) (79.00)
Single 102 21 32 28 21 (25.50) (21.00) (32.00) (28.00) (21.00) Occupation Agriculture 43 9 13 12 9 (10.80) (9.00) (13.00) (10.80) (9.00)
Salaried 79 21 14 20 24 (19.80) (21.00) (14.00) (19.80) (24.00)
Business 181 42 53 46 40 (45.30) (42.00) (53.00) (46.00) (40.00)
Professionals 71 21 13 19 18 (17.80) (21.00) (13.00) (19.00) (18.00)
Retired 26 7 7 3 9 (6.50) (7.00) (7.00) (3.00) (9.00)
44 Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes
Annual income (in Rs.) Up to 2,00,000 181 43 38 50 50 (45.30) (43.00) (38.00) (50.00) (50.00)
2,00,001- 115 23 36 34 22 3,00,000 (28.80) (23.00) (36) (34.00) (22.00)
3,00,001- 61 14 21 14 12 4,00,000 (15.30) (14.00) (21) (14.00) (12.00)
4,00,001- 15 4 5 2 4 5,00,000 (3.80) (4.00) (5.00) (2.00) (4.00)
5,00,001- 17 9 0 0 8 6,00,000 (4.30) (9.00) (0.00) (0.00) (8.00)
Above 6,00,000 11 7 0 0 4 (2.80) (7.00) (0.00) (0.00) (4.00) Annual Savings Up to 1,00,000 289 65 73 80 71 (72.30) (65.00) (73.00) (80.00) (71.00)
1,00,001- 80 19 25 20 16 1,50,000 (20.00) (19.00) (25.00) (20.00) (16.00)
1,50,001- 20 10 2 0 8 2,00,000 (5.00) (10.00) (2.00) (5.00) (8.00)
2,00,001- 7 4 0 0 3 2,50,000 (1.80) (4.00) (0.00) (0.00) (3.00)
2,50,001- 4 2 0 0 2 3,00,000 (1.00) (2.00) (0.00) (0.00) (2.00)
Source: Computed from primary data Note: Figures in parenthesis denote percentages
45 K. Mallikarjuna Rao
The socio economic characteristics of per cent); and family size of the respondents 400 respondents of Rayalaseema region in is found to be 3 to 4 members in a family. Table 1 shows that most of the respondents The relationship between various socio are males (86.5 per cent) and the respondents economic factors and investment patterns is who are married constitute 74.5 per cent and analysed with the help of Chi-square test. unmarried are 25.5 per cent. 52 per cent of mutual funds investors are in the age group Factors Influencing Investment in of below 30 years, followed by 29.8 per cent Mutual Fund Schemes from 31-40 years and 9.5 per cent from 41- Table 2 shows the factors influencing 50 years of age. Thus, most of the investment in mutual funds by the respondents are found to be relatively young. respondents from four districts of The educational level of the respondents Rayalaseema region. Out of 400 respondents, shows that 56 per cent are undergraduates, 74.3 per cent of the respondents invested in 27.5 per cent are postgraduates and 10.5 per mutual funds due to good returns, followed cent are below under- graduates. by safety of investment (58 per cent). The dominant occupational Respondents felt that their investment in background of the respondents is: business mutual funds was safe and not risky. The other group (45.3 per cent), followed by 19.8 per reason for investing in mutual funds was cent from salaried group, and professionals capital appreciation (46 per cent). Only 33 are 17.8 per cent. The annual income per cent of the respondents prefer mutual among respondents are up to Rs. 2,00,000 funds due to diversification benefit provided (45.3 per cent); 2,00,001 to 3,00,000 (28.8 by them. Table 2: Factors Influencing Investment in Mutual Fund Schemes Good Capital Professional Safety Liquidity Flexibility Tax benefits Diversification Districts Return appreciation Management No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes 48 52 61 39 65 35 30 70 52 48 57 43 54 46 68 32 Anantapuram (48.0) (52.0) (61.0) (39.0) (65.0) (35.0) (30.0) (70.0) (52.0) (48.0) (57.0) (43.0) (54.0) (46.0) (68.0) (32.0)
43 57 57 43 59 41 22 78 59 41 51 49 55 45 64 36 Chittoor (43.0) (57.0) (57.0) (43.0) (59.0) (41.0) (22.0) (78.0) (59.0) (41.0) (51.0) (49.0) (55.0) (45.0) (64.0) (36.0)
38 62 55 45 63 37 22 78 54 46 60 40 54 46 70 30 Kurnool (38.0) (62.0) (55.0) (45.0) (63.0) (37.0) (22.0) (78.0) (54.0) (46.0) (60.0) (40.0) (54.0) (46.0) (70.0) (30.0)
39 61 61 39 68 32 29 71 51 49 58 42 57 43 66 34 YSR Kadapa (39.0) (61.0) (61.0) (39.0) (68.0) (32.0) (29.0) (71.0) (51.0) (49.0) (58.0) (42.0) (57.0) (43.0) (66.0) (34.0)
168 232 234 166 255 145 103 297 216 184 226 174 220 180 268 132 Total (42.0) (58.0) (58.5) (41.5) (63.8) (36.3) (25.8) (74.3) (54.0) (46.0) (56.5) (43.5) (55.0) (45.0) (67.0) (33.0)
Source: Computed from primary data Note: Figures in parenthesis denote percentages
46 Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes
Table 3: Relationship between Socio Economic Factors and the Factors that Influence Investment in Mutual Funds Socio economic F value Sig. Value Sig or not sig factors Gender 0.24 0.887 Not significant Age 2.912 0.021 Significant Marital status 1.684 0.195 Not significant Education 8.672 0.000 Significant Occupation 7.001 0.000 Significant Annual income 6.026 0.000 Significant Annual savings 5.295 0.000 Significant Family size 3.227 0.013 Significant ANOVA test has been applied to find Experience of investors in investment if there is any significant relationship is an important factor for successful investing. between socio economic factors of the The experience of investors in the field of investors and factors influencing investment brings out changes in investment investment in mutual funds. It is clear, attitude and their preference towards from Table 3, that except for gender and investment avenues and the extent of marital status of the investors, other socio diversification in investment. Lengthy years economic factors have a significant of experience helps investors understand the relationship with the investor’s attitude complex behaviour of the market and to with regard to the factors that influence investment in mutual funds. implement suitable strategy for investment. The level of experience is confined to less Experience in Mutual Fund than one year, 2 to 5 years, 6 to 10 years, 11 Investments to 15 years and more than 15 years (Table 4). Table 4: Experience in Mutual Fund Investment (District-wise) Experience in Mutual Fund Investments Districts 1 year and 2 to 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 15 years Total below years years years or more 35 39 14 5 7 100 Anantapuram (35.0) (39.0) (14.0) (5.0) (7.0) (100.0) 32 50 17 0 1 100 Chittoor (32.0) (50.0) (17.0) (0.0) (1.0) (100.0) 40 46 13 1 0 100 Kurnool (40.0) (46.0) (13.0) (1.0) (0.0) (100.0) 38 38 11 6 7 100 YSR Kadapa (38.0) (38.0) (11.0) (6.0) (7.0) (100.0) Total 145 173 55 12 15 400 (36.3) (43.3) (13.8) (3.0) (3.8) (100.0) Source: Computed from primary data
47 K. Mallikarjuna Rao
The years of experience among the years of experience are 13.8 per cent to investors of Rayalaseema region are two the total. One significant observation from to five years, and below one year which the table is that only 3 per cent of investors constitute 43.3 and 36.3 per cent. The have 11 to 15 years of experience in numbers of investors who have six to ten investing in mutual funds.
Table 5: Relationship between the Socio Economic Factors and Experience in Mutual Fund Investment Socio economic F value DF Table Sign. Sig or not sig factor value value Gender 25.054 4 9.49 4.000 Significant Age 60.082 16 26.3 0.000 Significant Marital status 16.100 4 9.49 0.003 Significant Education 59.749 16 26.3 0.000 Significant Occupation 51.791 16 26.3 0.000 Significant Annual income 128.061 20 31.4 0.000 Significant Annual savings 45.368 16 26.3 0.000 Significant Family size 28.232 16 26.3 0.030 Significant
Chi-Square Test, at 5% significance Advertisements, Annual reports, level, has been applied on the data Newspapers, Magazines and Friends & collected to find whether these socio Relatives are identified as different economic factors have significant sources to create awareness on mutual relationship with the period of investment. funds. The result of the test is given in Table 5. Table 6 reveals that the sources of The test clearly revealed that all the socio information on mutual funds were economic factors have significant almost similar for respondents of all relationship with the period of investment. four districts of Rayalaseema region. Source of Information on Mutual Out of 400 respondents, 229 (57.3 per Funds cent) got the information from The sources from where one can newspapers, 196 respondents (49 per acquire awareness would also be a crucial cent) from brokers/agents, 136 element in the process of investment respondents got the information from decision making. The degree of magazines, and only 58 respondents information may vary from source to collected the information from source. Brokers/Agents, Prospectus, prospectus (14.5 per cent).
48 Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes
Table 6: Source of Information on Mutual Funds
Brokers/ Advertise Annual Friends and Prospectus Newspapers Magazines Districts Agents ments Reports Relatives No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes 57 43 89 11 83 17 73 27 46 54 60 40 79 21 Anantapuram 57.0% 43.0% 89.0% 11.0% 83.0% 17.0% 73.0% 27.0% 46.0% 54.0% 60.0% 40.0% 79.0% 21.0% 46 54 79 21 81 19 67 33 40 60 70 30 79 21 Chittoor 46.0% 54.0% 79.0% 21.0% 81.0% 19.0% 67.0% 33.0% 40.0% 60.0% 70.0% 30.0% 79.0% 21.0% 47 53 84 16 86 14 76 24 41 59 73 27 86 14 Kurnool 47.0% 53.0% 84.0% 16.0% 86.0% 14.0% 76.0% 24.0% 41.0% 59.0% 73.0% 27.0% 86.0% 14.0% 54 46 90 10 83 17 76 24 44 56 61 39 80 20 YSR Kadapa 54.0% 46.0% 90.0% 10.0% 83.0% 17.0% 76.0% 24.0% 44.0% 56.0% 61.0% 39.0% 80.0% 20.0% 204 196 342 58 333 67 292 108 171 229 264 136 324 76 Total 51.0% 49.0% 85.5% 14.5% 83.3% 16.8% 73.0% 27.0% 42.8% 57.3% 66.0% 34.0% 81.0% 19.0% Source: Computed from primary data
ANOVA test has been applied to find if on mutual funds. It is clear from Table 7, there is any significant relationship that all the socio economic factors (except between socio economic factors of the age) have a significant relationship with investors and the source of information the source of information on mutual funds. Table 7: Relationship between Socio Economic Factors and Sources of Information on Mutual Funds Socio economic F value Sig. Value Sig or not sig factors Gender 13.503 0 significant Age 1.533 0.192 Not Significant Marital status 22.659 0 significant Education 3.179 0.014 Significant Occupation 4.333 0.002 Significant Annual income 3.825 0.002 Significant Annual savings 4.004 0.003 Significant Family size 2.949 0.02 Significant
Attitudes towards various Investment Provident Fund (53 per cent). Another Avenues significant observation is that 39.75 per cent respondents are feeling reasonably It is observed from Table 8, that 90.5 safe with investment in gold, followed by per cent of respondents are having positive mutual funds (36 per cent), Public attitude towards safety of bank deposits, Provident Fund (30.25 per cent), shares postal deposits (65.25 per cent) and Public (25.5 per cent), Insurance (23.25 per cent)
49 K. Mallikarjuna Rao and Real estate (19.25 per cent). On the not safe, followed by shares (26.00 per cent), other hand, 153 respondents (38.25 per insurance (12.25 per cent), gold (12.00 per cent) found that investment in real estate is cent) and mutual funds (10.75 per cent).
Table 8: Attitude towards various Investment Avenues Sl. No Financial Assets Absolutely Reasonable Somewhat Not Don’t Total safe safe Safe Safe Know 1 Saving 362 36 2 0 0 400 Bank/Fixed (90.5) (9.00) (0.5) (0) (0) (100) Deposit 2 Gold/Silver 83 159 100 48 10 400 (20.75) (39.75) (25.00) (12) (2.5) (100) 3 Shares/Debentures 12 102 158 104 24 400 (3.00) (25.50) (39.50) (26.00) (6.00) (100) 4 Postal savings 261 88 26 18 7 400 (65.25) (22.00) (6.5) (4.5) (1.75) (100) 5 Mutual funds 93 144 120 43 0 400 (23.25) (36.00) (30.00) (10.75) (0.00) (100) 6 Real estate 36 77 100 153 34 400 (9.00) (19.25) (25.00) (38.25) (8.5) (100) 7 Insurance 151 93 98 49 9 400 (37.75) (23.25) (24.50) (12.25) (2.25) (100) 8 P.P.F/G.P.F 212 121 24 6 37 400 (53.00) (30.25) (6) (1.5) (9.25) (100) Source: Computed from primary data Note: figures in parenthesis denote percentages
Table 9: Relationship between Socio Economic Factors and Attitude towards various Investment Avenues Socio economic Factor F value Sig. Value Sig / not sig Gender 5.064 0.025 significant Age 0.801 0.525 Not Significant Marital status 0.433 0.101 Not Significant Education 6.375 0 Significant Occupation 0.491 0.742 Not Significant Annual income 4.342 0 Significant Annual savings 6.02 0 Significant Family size 2.949 0.02 Significant
50 Socio Economic Background of Mutual Funds Investors and its Relationship with Buying Factors and Attitudes
ANOVA Test, at 5% significance But these avenues do not offer the benefit level, has been applied on the data of investing in capital market and the real collected to find whether these socio purchasing power of the investors is likely economic factors have significant to decline with these investments when relationship with the attitudes toward the rate of inflation rises. Further, the various investment Avenues. The test interest rates on these avenues have been (Table 9) reveals that most of the socio slashed down from time to time with a economic factors such as gender, view to channelize the savings to capital education, annual income, annual savings market and thereby regain the confidence and family size have a significant of investors which they have lost since relationship with the attitudes toward 1992 due to stock market crises/ debacle various investment avenues. On the other in 1992, 2001 and 2008. hand, socio economic factors like age, marital status and occupation have no It also revealed that except for significant relationship with the attitude gender and marital status of the investors, towards various investment Avenues. other socio economic factors have a significant relationship with the investor’s Conclusions attitude with regard to the factors that Mutual funds have emerged as an influence investment in mutual funds. All appropriate investment vehicle and a the socio economic factors have a preferred investment destination. Retail/ significant relationship with the period of small investors used to rely more on investment whereas with age, marital investment avenues like bank deposits, status and occupation there is no post office savings etc., which provide significant relationship with the attitude liquidity, assured returns and tax benefits. towards various investment avenues.
References Chaturvedi, Shailendra Kumar; Singh, Arvind Kumar; and Singh, Karan Veer (2014). A Roadmap of Customers Perception Towards Mutual Funds In Uttar Pradesh With Special Reference to Lucknow City, International Journal of Scientific Research and Management (IJSRM).vol. 2(11). Pp: 1724-1730. www.ijsrm.in. Jani, Dhimen J. and Jain, Rajeev (2014). Measuring buying behavior of rural investors for mutual fund. IMPACT: International Journal of Research in Business Management (IMPACT: IJRBM) Vol. 2, Issue 8, Pp: 19-24. Jani, Dhimen Jagdishbhai; Patel, Bhautik Alpeshkumar & Jain, Rajeev V (2012). Consumer’s Perception towards Mutual Funds as an Investment Option specially focused on Valsad City Located in Gujarat. International Journal of Business Management & Research (IJBMR) vol. 2 issue 4 Pp: 59-66.
51 K. Mallikarjuna Rao
Gaglani, Hetal and Rao, Smita (2014). An Analytical Study on Investors’ Attitude Towards Mutual Fund Investment. Sai Om Journal of Commerce & Management, A Peer Reviewed National Journal, vol. 1, issue 6. Pp: 38-42. Khitoliya, Preeti (2014). Investors Awareness and Perceived Risk Attitude towards Mutual Fund: An Empirical Study in Delhi. IRACST – International Journal of Commerce, Business and Management (IJCBM), vol. 3, No. 3. Pp: 450-456. Mutual Funds gaining in popularity for Indian investors”: Nielsen India News-Press Releases- 14, August, 2007,
52 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management:A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram
S.Vanlalpekropuia* A. Muthulakshmi**
Abstract The Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme is embracing the philosophy of forest conservation and livelihood improvement through cooperation between state and civil society. It has emerged over the past decades both as a specific paradigm of forest governance in India and as India’s largest community forestry. The JFM programme in India has a vast relevance for developing nations, which have been predominantly agrarian economy and their population being dependent upon forests for subsistence. Currently, there has been a paradigm shift but the need is to have a holistic approach to forest and natural resource management with development of concept of livelihood initiatives through people’s participation for forest enrichment.Livelihood promotion is linked to basic human needs of providing shelter, clothing, clean water, education and health care. The present study is based on exploratory design; the data were collected by using mixed method approaches. The primary data were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. For the area of the study, two villages were selected i.e. Sairang and Tuirial of Aizawl forest division, Mizoram. A total of hundred households were selected from two villages by adopting purposive non-probability sampling method. The households are covered under the study areas that belong to the forest protection committee under JFM Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram. The paper evaluates impacts of protection on forest productivity and on the livelihood of local communities. It also suggests strategies for its revival and making JFM further contribute effective toward forest conservation and enhanced livelihood opportunities in the future. Key words:Forest, Management, Livelihood promotion. Introduction 2011). The forest cover alone amounts to India’s current forest and tree cover 69.20 million ha, against the recorded is estimated to be 78.29 million ha, forest area of 76.95 million ha. Out of total constituting 23.81 percent of the forest cover, 12.06 percent is very dense geographical area of the country (ISFR, forest (more than 70% crown density),
*S. Vanlalpekropuia is M.Phil Scholar, Department of Public Administration, Mizoram University, Aizawl – 796 004, Email: [email protected] **Dr. A. Muthulakshmi is Associate Professor, Department of Public Administration, Mizoram University, Aizawl – 796 004, Email:[email protected] 53 S.Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi
46.35 percent is moderately dense forest tree cover. In terms of forest canopy (40 % to 70 % crown density) and the density classes, the state has 138 sq. km remaining 41.59 percent is open forest very dense forest, 5,900 sq. km, (10% to 40% crown density). As per the moderately dense forest and 13,016 sq.km India State of the Forest Report (ISFR) open forest. Mizoram is situated in 2011, forest cover has declined by 367 between longitude 92.15 E to 93.29 E and sq.km compared to the forest cover in the latitude 21.58 N to 24.35 N. Mizoram has preceding ISFR in 2009. a total length of 277 kilometers from north to south and 121 kilometers from East to Due to the various factors such as West. It has a population of 10, 97,206 critical livelihood – forest linkage of a huge according to 2011 census. There are eight forest dependent population (FSI, 2011; districts, ten forest divisions, 23 towns and Davidar et al., 2010), demand and supply 26 rural development blocks. gap of forest products, resulting in Livelihood System exploitation beyond its carrying capacity (Agarwall et al., 2009) and forest fires, The livelihood system means overgrazing, illegal cutting down of trees, developing the forests in a manner that the and diversion of forest land for various outputs from the forest provide the purposes (FSI, 2011; Davidar et al, 2010; community with substantial economic Agarwall et al., 2009; MoEF, 2009; MoEF, benefit in perpetuity to attain a satisfactory 2006). In the forested landscape of India, level of life (Figure 1). the livelihoods of the people living close Figure 1 Livelihood Initiatives to forest and within the forest are through Forest Enrichment (LIFE) inextricably linked to the forest ecosystem. People depend on the forest for a variety of forest products for food, fodder, agriculture, housing, and an array of marketable minor forest produces which can potentially degrade forest if harvested unsustainably. Therefore, the livelihood concerns of the millions of poor people living in and around forests contribute to forest degradation along with other factors.
Profile of Mizoram Source: Singh, M.K. (Ed.) 2003. The state of Mizoram with Proceedings of the International Workshop geographical area of 21,081 sq. km has a on JFM: a decade of Joint Forest forest cover area of 19,054 sq. km which Management - retrospection and is 91.44 percent of the state’s geographical introspection. Dehradun, Indian Council of area and 2.44 percent of India’s forest and Forestry Research and Education. 400 pp.
54 Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management:A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram
Statement of the Problem JFM in Mizoram At present the forest cover in As per the guidelines issued by the Mizoram has been depleting at a fast rate MoEF, GoI, the Government of Mizoram due to many reasons such as persistence responded to the National guidelines by of traditional shifting cultivation, issuing circular for JFM on 18.9.1998 uncontrolled fire, unregulated felling etc. notification NO B. 11011/36/95-FST. leading to failure of Joint Forest Plantation was carried out in 1, 84,482 Management (JFM) in Aizawl forest hectares of land. The JFM programme was division, Mizoram. The actual problem started in Mizoram for the first time in faced by JFM in Mizoram is not on the 2003 in some of the selected villages in part of lack of finance but due to the Aizawl forest division and Mamit forest institutional constraints arising out of the division as a pilot project. The Aizawl village forest development committee at forest division has a total geographical the grassroots level as well as with the area of 1,683.66 sq. km, having five ranges implementation of JFM due to un- namely: Aibawk, Aizawl, Sairang, Saitual controlled fire causing damage to the and Seling. There are 52 JFMC existing forest area. Another alarming problem is in Aizawl forest division; however there the rate of labour employment rate are only 17 active JFMC as on today. The dissimilarity between Ministry of Aizawl forest division has 55 villages with Environment & Forest, Government of a total population of 4, 04,054. A total area India (MoEF) and Mizoram. The cost of of 4,750 hectare plantation has been labour wage has been fixed at Rs. 220 per carried out in Aizawl forest division, day by the MoEF for whole India, but the Mizoram. local rate is at Rs. 300 in Mizoram. These lead to shortage of labour when needed Objectives by the VFDC (Village Forest District The main objectives of the present Council) which required labour force, study are as follows:- since the local villagers do not like to be under-paid. i) to study the socio economic conditions of local community members participating in The involvement of party politics in JFM Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram and the election of VFDC has created hurdles to have effective JFM. In this backdrop, the ii) to assess the benefits and impacts of researcher selected two villages of Aizawl the programme in terms of livelihood, forest division, Mizoram i.e. Sairang and institutional, vegetation and level of Tuirial for the purpose of the study. Sairang participation. was selected for study due to its success in Methodology implementing JFM and Tuirial was selected due to its meager success in JFM as The present study is on exploratory compared to Sairang village. in design; the data was collected by using
55 S.Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi mixed method research design. The (66%) of the respondents were male primary data was collected both in whereas 32 percent were female. The table quantitative and qualitative methods. The shows that in both the villages, more than quantitative data was collected through two-third of the respondents were male and field study, semi-structured interview one third female, which shows clearly that schedule from the sample households. The female participation is less. qualitative data was collected by using The age of the respondents was is case study method and focus group divided into four groups namely: youth discussion from both households as well (18-29 years), adults (29-40 years), middle as the field staff of Environment and age (40-60 years) and old age 60 years and Forest Department. A total of hundred above. Among the respondents, the households were selected from the two majority forty percent belong to the middle villages of Sairang and Tuirial by adopting age group (40-60 years) in which more purposive non-probability sampling than one third of the respondents method. represented both the villages. Almost one The households covered by the study third (32%) of the respondents were adults are from areas that are member of forest (29-40 years) in which one third of them protection committee under JFM Aizawl were equally distributed in both the forest division, Mizoram. The secondary villages. While the age group of youth and data was collected from books, articles, old age category represented less than one journals, magazines, different internet fifth. The mean age of the respondents is websites etc. The collected data was thus 45 years. processed by using SPSS package From the table, the data shows that presented in the form of simple middle age group respondents constitute percentages, proportions, averages and the majority whereas the youth (18-19 cross tabulations. years) constitute the lesser percentage due Results and Discussion to the family household paying attention to JFM, and apart from that the youth Demographic Profile of the engage themselves more in other type of Respondents: works such as quarrying, labour works The demographic profile of the under private sectors, and also due to lack respondents is presented in six categories of interest towards management of forest. viz., gender, age, marital status, education, The reasons for representation of middle occupation and income as shown in Table age group in JFM being more is that it is 1. Among the respondents more than good for their livelihood promotion as two-third (68%) of them were male out of well as due the fact that most of them which seventy percent of them belong to participate as leaders in civil society Sairang village. In Tuirial village, two third organizations such as Young Mizo
56 Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management:A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram
Association (YMA), Mizo Hmeichhe responsible for livelihood activities in Insuihkhawm Pawl (MHIP), village order to lead the family. council etc. They thus have more Education is an important variable awareness on JFM programme as in order to assess the knowledge on any compared to other age groups. In most aspect. The educational status of the cases the youth did not answer the respondents are divided into six groups questions asked by the researcher. The namely: Illiterate, Primary, Middle, High middle age group were more interested school, higher secondary and Post since they have better knowledge about graduate. More than half of (56%) of the the JFM programme. respondents belonged to middle school With regard to marital status, more education and the illiterate accounted for than three-fourth (89%) of the respondents 2 percent of the total respondents with 2 were married while only 11 percent of the illiterate at Tuirial and nil in Sairang. respondents were unmarried. The data There were no graduate persons among reveals that married persons were more the respondents. Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents Village Sl.No Characteristics Sairang Tuirial Total n=50 n= 50 N=100 I Gender 35 33 68 Male 70.0% 66.0% 68.0% 15 17 32 Female 30.0% 34.0% 32.0% II Age 18 -29 years 9 2 11 (Youth) 18.0% 4.0% 11.0% 29 -40 Years 14 18 32 (Adults) 28.0% 36.0% 32.0% 40 - 60 Years 21 19 40 (Middle Age) 42.0% 38.0% 40.0% 60 and above 6 11 17 (Old Age) 12.0% 22.0% 17.0% Mean ±Std.dev 45.83±15.56 III Marital Status Married 41 48 89 82.0% 96.0% 89.0%
57 S.Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi
Unmarried 9 2 11 18.0% 4.0% 11.0% IV Education Primary 7 16 23 14.0% 32.0% 23.0% Middle 30 26 56 60.0% 52.0% 56.0% HSLC 6 4 10 12.0% 8.0% 10.0% HSSLC 3 2 5 6.0% 4.0% 5.0% Post-Graduate 4 0 4 8.0% 0.0% 4.0% Illiterate 0 2 2 0.0% 4.0% 2.0% V Occupation Labour 24 30 54 48.0% 60.0% 54.0% Farmer 11 4 15 22.0% 8.0% 15.0% Gov't Servant 1 1 2 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% Self employed 11 15 26 22.0% 30.0% 26.0% Teacher 3 0 3 6.0% 0.0% 3.0% VI Income Rs. 20,000 - 50,000 2 9 11 4.0% 18.0% 11.0% Rs.50,000 - 1,50,000 40 23 63 80.0% 46.0% 63.0% 1,50,000 -3,00,000 6 12 18 12.0% 24.0% 18.0% 3,00,000 -4,00,000 0 3 3 0.0% 6.0% 3.0% 4,00,000 and Above 2 3 5 4.0% 6.0% 5.0% Source: Primary data.
58 Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management:A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram
From the table, we come to know that servants account for the lowest segment persons with middle school education with only 2 percent of the respondents constitute the largest percentage. since they are busy with their service/ Moreover, most of the local community official duties and have less time to members engaged in JFM programme participate effectively in forest because they were mostly confined to management. labour work activities whereas JFM The annual income of the provides employment opportunities respondents is divided into five groups as through entry point activities (EPA). follows: Rs. 20,000 - Rs. 50,000, Rs. The occupational structure of the 50,000- Rs. 1,50,000, Rs. 1,50,000 - respondents is categorized into Labourer, 3,00,000, Rs. 3,00,000 - Rs. 4,00,000 and Farmer, Government Servant, Self- Rs. 4,00,000 and above. Among the employed and Teacher. Among the respondents almost two third (63%) of respondents more than half (54%) of them them belong to the income range of were labourers in which 24 respondents Rs. 50,000 - Rs. 1, 50,000 of which more (48%) belong to Sairang and 30 than three fourth (80%) belonged to respondents (60%) belong to Tuirial. Less Sairang whereas more than one third than one fifth (15%) of the total (40%) belonged to Tuirial village. Only 5 respondents were in the category of percent of the respondents’ income range farmers out of which 11 respondents was 4 lakhs and above. (22%) belong to Sairang and 4 From the data analysis we come to respondents (8%) belong to Tuirial. More understand that the income range of the than one fourth (26%) of the respondents respondents between Rs. 50,000 - 1, were self-employed out of which 11 50,000 is the majority in both the villages. respondents (22%) were from Sairang and In this income group most of them are 15 respondents (30%) from Tuirial. The labourers, who are engaged in other types remaining were government servants and of labour work apart from the labour teachers. employment generated through JFM The table shows that majority are programme. Whereas the income ranging labourers by occupation the reason being in between Rs 3,00,000 - Rs 4,00,000 is that they engage more in JFM through less in percentage because the local entry point activities (EPA) as labour work community members in this income group force such as clearing land and planting are either self-employed in fisheries, trees and also, they are more participative gardening, commissioning sand, compared to other occupant groups. The businesses etc. or government servants JFM programme is basically labour work who do not participate satisfactorily as in nature and significantly helps to compared to other income groups since contribute towards this. Government they engage in other type of work and have
59 S.Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi a better income for livelihood/primary improve due to implementation of JFM income than just depending on labour representing 46 percent of both the villages. employment generated through entry point More than one fourth (30%) of the activities under JFM programme. respondents said that livelihood of their Table 2 indicates that the livelihood of family improved due to implementation of families improved due to implementation of JFM in which more than one third (44%) of JFM. About half of the respondents (46%) respondents belonged to Sairang and less than said that livelihood of thwir family did not one fifth (16%) belonged to Tuirial village. Table 2. Livelihood of family improved due to implementation of JFM by Village Village Family improved Total Sairang Tuirial Yes 22 8 30 44.00% 16.00% 30.00% No 23 23 46 46.00% 46.00% 46.00% Don't Know 5 19 24 10.00% 38.00% 24.00% 50 50 100 Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% Source: Primary data.
Almost a quarter (24%) of the implementation of JFM in Sairang more respondents said they did not know if the than Tuirial. livelihood of their family improved due Table 3 shows reasons for successful to implementation of JFM. By analyzing implementation of JFM by local the data we come to know that majority community members. The table depicts of the respondents reveal that livelihood Sairang only excluding Tuirial because the of the family did not improve due to former is located outside reserved forests implementation of JFM, and also that the area whereas the latter is located within livelihood of the family improved due to the reserved forest area.
Table 3 Reasons for successful implementation of JFM by Village Village Reasons Sairang Tuirial Forest field staff were efficient in 31 31 performing their duties 60.00% 31.00% Not satisfied with the regularity of 1 1 field staff 2.00% 1.00%
60 Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management:A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram
18 18 Don't know 36.00% 18.00% 50 100 Total 100.00% 100.00%
Source: Primary data.
Almost two-third of the the regularity of forests field staff and less respondents (60%) at Sairang state that than one-fifth (18%) don’t know. Thus, it forests field staff were efficient in is evident from the above table that the performing their duties, whereas 2 percent forests field staff at Sairang was efficient proclaimed they were not satisfied with in performing their duties. Table 4 EPA under JFM served as improvement for socio-economic conditions of local community members
EPA under JFM served Village Total socio-economic conditions Sairang Tuirial 40 46 86 Served 80.00% 92.00% 86.00% 5 2 7 Don't served 10.00% 4.00% 7.00% 5 2 7 Don't know 10.00% 4.00% 7.00% 50 50 100 Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Source: Primary data.
Table 4 reveals that Entry Point said that EPA under JFM said they did not activities (EPA) served as improvement for know. Vast majority (92%) of the socio-economic conditions of local respondents at Tuirial stated that EPA under community members, more than three- JFM served for improvement while 4 percent stated that EPA under JFM did not fourth (80%) of the community members and 4 percent of the respondents did not at Sairang stated that EPA under JFM know. Thus, the data revealed that in both served to improve socio-economic the villages the entry point activities served conditions, whereas 10 percent stated that for the improvement of socio-economic EPA under JFM did not, and 10 percent conditions of local community members.
61 S.Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi
Table 5 shows that vegetation after implementation of JFM at Sairang increased after implementation of JFM, while more than one-fourth (28%) more than half (52%) of the respondents disagreed and one-fifth (20%) said that agreed that vegetation cover increased they don’t know. Table 5. Vegetation increases after implementation of JFM by Village Vegetation cover increased Village Total after implementation of JFM Sairang Tuirial 26 6 32 Agree 52.00% 12.00% 32.00% 14 36 50 Disagree 28.00% 72.00% 50.00% 10 8 18 Don't know 20.00% 16.00% 18.00% 50 50 100 Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% Source: Primary data.
At Tuirial 12 percent of respondents land has to be made productive and cattle agreed that vegetation cover increased have to be healthy. A combination of short after implementation of JFM while 72 and medium rotations and coppice system percent disagreed and 16 percent don’t needs to be evolved for a variety of tree know. The table shows that majority of species being planted under JFM for faster the respondents disagreed that vegetation economic gains by which productivity in cover increased which is a clear indicator the forest can be increased to meet the of decreased vegetation cover. challenges of growing fuel wood, fodder Conclusions and timber demand. Participatory forestry programmes must develop an instrument Joint Forest Management provides to distribute benefits down to individuals, opportunities for the poor to utilize the households and targeted groups within traditional knowledge in sustainable communities to play a meaningful role in management of forests with the help of livelihood promotion activities. Moreover, the Forest Department and Government we have to put governance in mission of India. Livelihood promotion activities mode for a more pragmatic approach to will ultimately reduce pressure on forests JFM. producing an increase in forest cover in future. Livelihood promotion is fulfilling Awareness campaign: Awareness the basic human needs of providing campaign and training programme is shelter, clothing, clean water, education needed to be held regularly for more and health care. To achieve more progress, effective implementation of Joint Forest
62 Livelihood Promotion through Joint Forest Management:A Case Study of Aizawl Forest Division, Mizoram
Management in Aizawl forest division, Forests and Climate change, GoI, after Mizoram. Fund allocated for ‘awareness plantation in an area where JFM is carried and training’ should be increased out, this will help to ensure a better result considerably and spent effectively to reach in forest management than the current four the primary targets. year term. Utilization certificate: Cultivators Non-timber forests products:Timber who cultivated within the area of JFM forest products needs to be encouraged but plantation, they usually do not receive on the other hand non-timber forest fund for clearing, plantation and burning products such as mango, amla, jack fruit, of cultivated land within a reasonable passion fruit, guava etc. needs to be time. The fund allocated for this has to be encouraged too. They can help in forests utilized effectively in time without any creation as well as give economic benefits lapse, reaching the primary target in order to the local community members since to produce the utilization certificate to let their products can be sold in the market. the cultivator receive fund within Penalize theft practices: Penalty appropriate time. needs to be given against any person JFM term needs to be made longer: involved in theft practices of trees and Four years is too short for plantation to bamboos whether it be a forest official or get matured in a plot of land where local community member, and rewards be plantation is carried out. If the term of JFM given to the committed officials as well can be made at least 10 years with as community members. This can help to continuous fund flow for management ensure a better JFM in Aizawl Forest from the Ministry of Environment & Division, Mizoram.
References Amtzis, J. and Bhatia, A. (1996). Building partnerships in community forestry: A regional forester’s forum in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, Kathmandu Nepal: International Centre for integrated mountain development. Aggarwal A, Paul V, and Das S. (2009). Forest Resources: Degradation, Livelihoods, and Climate Change, pp. 91-108 in Datt D and S. Nischal, 2009, Looking Back to Change Track. New Delhi: TERI pp. 219 Bhattacharya,(2008). Joint forest management in India. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publisher and distributors. Davidar P, Sahoo S, Mammen P C, Acharya P, Puyravaud J P, Arjunan M, Garrigues J P, and Roessingh K. (2010). Assessing the Extent and Causes of Forest Degradation in India: Where do we stand? Biological Conservation 43(12): 2937–2944 Dasgupta, S. and Debnath, D. (2008).Community forestry in tribal states of India. Delhi:International book distributors.
63 S.Vanlalpekropuia & A. Muthulakshmi
Deka, M.M. (2002).Joint Forest Management in Assam. New Delhi: Daya Publishing House. Forest Survey of India(2011). India State of Forest Report. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Pp286. Gaur, Mahendra, (2008).TheForest Right of Tribal’s. New Delhi: Alfa publications. Gupta, K. (2006).Joint forest management policy, participation, and practices in India. Dehradun: International book distributors. Hill, I. and Shields, D. (1998).Incentives for joint forest management in India: Analytical methods and case studies.World Bank Publications. India State Forest Report (2011).Ministry of Environment and Forests: Government of India. Kant, S, Singh N.M, and Singh K.K. (1991).Community based forest management systems: case studies from Orissa, Indian Institute of Forest Management. New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (2006). Report of the National Forest Commission. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.Pp. 421 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009), Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II: India Country Report. Working Paper No. APFSOS II/WP/2009/06. Bangkok: FAO pp. 78. Poffenberger, M. (1998).Villages voices, forest choices: Joint forest management in India. New Delhi: Oxford University press. Mizoram Pollution control Board (2012).Mizo-Envis: Newsletter of Mizoram Pollution Control Board. Aizawl: 7(1), 3-6. State Forest Report (2005). Ministry of Environment and Forests: Government of India.
64 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Performance of Political Parties in Village Council Election 2015 in Mizoram: A Gender Perspective
Zonunmawia*
Abstract Election is the symbol of democracy. The process of modernization for the Mizo people actually started after the coming of Christianity. Lushai Hills became a district of Assam since colonial era. Mizo people became aware of democracy and election since 1952. In the patriarchal set up of Mizo society, share of women is minimal in the decision making process. In the contemporary political history of Mizoram, the election of village council 2015 has made a history for introducing 33 percent seats reservation for women. This election was conducted under Mizoram (Constitution of State Election Commission) Rules, 2008. The paper attempts to analyse the perspectives of 2015 village council election and the status of women. Key words: Women, Reservation, Political parties, Village Council Introduction what political parties have more The paper will focus upon village representation for women in the village council election of 2015 in six districts1 but council seats; and to give an assessment of 2015 VC election with special focus on Sixth Schedule area is not included in this reservation of seats for women. election.2 The election was held on 30.4.2015. Based on the records provided Status of Women in Six Districts by State Election Commission Office, INC The six districts include the study won in 303 Village Councils (VC), MNF area such as - Aizawl, Lunglei, Champhai, won in 165 Village Councils, ZNP won in Kolasib, Serchhip and Mamit district. The 6 Village Councils, BJP won in 5 Village total number of population in the six Councils, independent candidates won in districts is 19, 22,738. Out of this, males 44 villages, and there were 45 village constitute 4, 66,146 which comprises 50 councils where no political party got percent of the population. At the same majority.3 The paper has the following time, females are 4, 56,592 which objectives - To study women representation comprises 49 percent from the total in the village council election 2015 in population of six districts. Female literacy general; to study voter turnout at the village percentage in Mamit district is 80.35 level on gender basis, district-wise; to study percent, Kolasib district is 92.38, Aizawl
*Zonunmawia is Research Scholar in Dept. of Political Science, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram. Email: zotea.biate @gmail.com 65 Zonunmawia district is 97.89 percent, Champhai district jurisdiction of Lushai Hills District is 94.59 percent, Serchhip district 97.53 Council. It also provided that the number percent and Lunglei district is 85.49 of village councils would vary from percent. Overall Mizoram literacy village to village depending upon the percentage – Males: 93.35 percent and number of houses. The first election to the Females: 89.27 percent. The percentage village council was held from April 23 to gap between males and females is 4 July 7, 1954.5 Accordingly, the village percent. Literacy percentage of rural areas administration was vested in the is different from urban. In rural areas male democratically elected village councils, literacy percentage is 88.16 percent and which infact started functioning from female is 79 percent. The percentage gap August 1954 within the respective is 9.15 percent which means women jurisdictions of the councils. These Acts did literacy is much lower than male literacy not provide seat reservation for women.6 percentage in rural areas. At the same time, urban male literacy percentage is 97.98 The Government of Mizoram adapted and female is 97.27 percent.4 It can be the Lushai Hills District (Village Councils) learnt that there is no percentage gap in Act, 1953 in 1972 to carry out the village urban area. It is to be remembered that the administration in its respective areas. The lower the level, the lower the level of Village Council (VC) is a democratically political participation. elected body whose provisions can be amended by the executive/administrative Participation of Women in Village orders of the Government of Mizoram Council Elections under the Local Administration Just after Indian Independence, the Department. The Act does not have Lushai Hills Autonomous District Council nomination or reservation seat for women. (later on the Mizo District Council) and But women can fight the election through Pawi-Lakher Regional Council were general seats. Therefore, since 1954 there created under the Six Schedule of the have been some women members who got Constitution of India in 1952 and in 1953 elected as members of village councils in respectively. The chieftainship was the state.7 abolished by an Act of the Assam Lushai Hills District (Acquisition of Chiefs In the General Election to Village Right) in 1954. Both the Councils Councils held in February 2006, there democratised the village administration were 556 village councils against 2036 by enacting the Lushai Hills District VC seats within the six districts of (Village Councils) Act, 1953 and the Mizoram excluding the two districts Pawi-Lakher Autonomous Region (Village lying within the Autonomous District Councils) Act, 1954. The Act empowers Councils. In this election, out of a total of the District council to form a village 2036 VC seats, only 33 (i.e. about 1.09%) council in every village within the women were elected. During the General
66 Performance of Political Parties in Village Council Election 2015 in Mizoram: A Gender Perspective
Election to village councils for the term of Government of India in October 2008 2009-2012 which was held in February included 33 percent seat reservation for 2009, total women contestants were 84. Out women as per the 73rd and 74th CAAs. They of this, 34 women were elected, which is also demanded to provide 33 per cent seats the highest number ever recorded of women reservation for women in the village council VC Members in Mizoram. In this election, Act and the same must be included in the there were 557 village councils having 2071 party election manifestos to cause women VC seats within six districts of the state. empowerment in Mizoram. They even Women voters had out numbered their male submitted representation to field women in counter parts even in this election as was these elections to all leaders of political experienced in the past. This increasing parties so that each party could field potential number of women VC Members is due to women candidates at least not less than 33 the intervention of the Core Committee of percent to the selections of MLA and Village Panchayat Mahila Shakti Abhiyaan Councils.11 8 (PMSA) to women at maximum number. The Mizoram Government has Recent Developments for Women passed the Lushai Hills District (village Reservation in Mizoram council) Amendment Act, 2015. This The village council which is repealed and amended the Lushai Hills considered a democratic institution at the District (Village Council) Act, 1953.This grass root level is largely dominated by amendment changed the term of the males. Though women are not debarred for village council members which is from contesting the election of VC, they three to five years. Moreover, reservation (women) were not encouraged to join the of seat for women in the village council 12 political arena. Since this is the case in the election was added in the amendment. state of Mizoram, the women of the state Thus, the enactment of this Act was an especially women NGOs like Panchayat important landmark taken up by the Mahila Shakti Abhiyaan (PMSA), All Mizoram Government to make women 13 Mizoram Women Federation and Mizo politically empowered. In Village Hmeichhe Insuihkhawm Pawl (MHIP) are Council Election 2015, the Mizoram State exerting pressure on the political party leaders Election Commission has made certain to make room for women by reserving seats changes in the number of village council and by nominating women with party tickets. seats provided in the Lushai Hills Village Initiative for reservation of seats for Council Act, 1953. This modification is women was championed by PMSA based on The Lushai Hills District Village (Panchayat Mahila Shakti Council Amendment Act 2014. Abhiyaan(PMSA).9 This Core Committee The Lushai Hills District Village in their State Charter of Demands10 submitted Council Amendment Act 2014 provides to the Government of Mizoram and to the that -
67 For villages not exceeding 200 female candidates.With regard to symbol, households, there shall be 3 (three) elected those who have party affiliation may use members, of whom 1 (one shall be reserve symbol as provided in The woman); Mizoram Election to Village Council Rules, 2014. For villages with more than 200 households, but not exceeding 500 Overall Performance of Political households, there shall be 5 (five) Parties: Village Council Election, 2015 members, of whom 1 (one) shall be a In the village council election which woman; was held in 2015, the Indian National For villages with more than 500 Congress has the highest score. It can be households, but not exceeding 1000 assumed that forming ministry at the state households, there shall be 7 (seven) level had repercussions in the election of elected members, of whom 2 (two) shall Village Councils. INC took 270 village be women; councils and won 1080 seats, MNF took 125 village councils and won 676 seats, For villages with more than 1000 ZNP took 6 village councils and won 88 households and above, there shall be 9 seats, BJP took 5 village councils and won (nine) elected members, of whom 3 31 seats, MPC could not get solid village 14 (three) shall be women. council but won 21 seats. Independent Based on the above amendment act, Candidates took 45 village councils and females are to be elected from the female won as many as 258 seats. There were reserved seats through popular election. hung village councils in 50 villages where This condition necessitates direct no political party got majority in the involvement of women in the decision village council election.Table 1 highlights making process as well as in politics.The the score of different political parties in provision also provides for different the village council election and number colours of ballot papers for male and of seats won by each political party. Table 1 Seats Won by Political Parties in VC Elections, 2015 No.of winning Sl. No Name of Political Party No.of seats Winning Village council 1 Bharatia Janata Party (BJP) 5 31 2 Indian National Congress (INC) 270 1080 3 Mizo National Front (MNF) 125 676 4 Mizo Peoples Conference (MPC) 0 21 5 Zoram Nationalist Party (ZNP) 6 88 6 Others 98 258 TOTAL 504 2154 Source: Compiled from State Election Commission, Mizoram, and Researcher own Calculation. General Elections of Village Council, 2015 - held on 30th April, 2015
68 Male and Female Voter Turnout: level of women participation in grassroots District-wise Analysis level politics has shown an improvement In five districts, Aizawl, Lunglei, and women participation has increased Champhai, Kolasib and Serchhip, the over the years. percentage share of female voters turnout In Mamit district, percentage share is higher than male voters turnout. It is of male (51 percent) exceed female voter evident from the fact that in Aizawl turnout (48 percent). Mamit district is the District, male percentage is 49 percent and only district, having higher male voter female is 50 percent. In Lunglei district, turnout percentage than female voter male percent is 49 and female is 50 percent. In Champhai district, male turnout percentage.Thus, it is evident from percent is 49 and female is 50 percent. In the above that the level of women Serchhip district, male percent is 49 and participation is higher than male female is 50 percent. In Kolasib District, participation in five districts. The table male percentage is 48 percent and female highlights that women participation at is 51 percent. In all the above districts, village level election is encouraging and percentage share of women voters turnout positive. Details of voter turnout in six is higher than male. This exhibits that the districts are demonstrated in Table 2. Table 2 Voter Turn Out in VC Elections, 2015 Abstract of Voter Turn Out Sl Name of Total No. of Voters Total No. of Votes cast Percentage of voters No District Male Female Total Male Female Total Male FemaleTurnout Total 1 Aizawl 29274 30164 59438 23917 24223 48140 49.68 50.31 80.99 2 Lunglei 48861 49296 98157 20940 21085 42025 49.82 50.17 42.81 3 Serchhip 21332 22169 43501 16243 16484 32727 49.63 50.36 75.23 4 Champhai 39530 39885 79415 27967 28494 56 383 49.6 50.53 71 5 Mamit 24953 24156 49109 20477 19592 40069 51.1 48.89 81.59 6 Kolasib 22164 23276 45440 16392 17141 33533 48.88 51.16 73.8 TOTAL 186114 188946 375060 125936 127019 252877 67.67 67.23 67.42 Source: Compiled from State Election Commission, Mizoram, and Researcher own Calculation. General Elections of Village Council, 2015 - held on 30th April, 2015 Representation of Women: District- seat reservation and elected were 80. The wise Performance percentage of male representation was 73 percent and the percentage share of In Aizawl District, there are 69 women was 26 percent. In Lunglei village councils having 299 seats. Out of District, there are 145 village councils, out this, male candidates were 219. At the of the total number of village council seats same time, women candidates based on of 589, male representation was 430 and
69 female representation was 159. The of women was 25 percent. In Kolasib percentage share of male representation District, there are 46 village councils was 73 percent and the percentage share having 230 seats. Out of this, male of women was 26 percent. In Serchhip candidates elected were 172. At the same District, there are 107 village councils. time, women candidates based on seat Out of the total number of 522 seats, reservation and elected were 58. The women occupied 140 seats and male percentage of male representation was 74 occupied 382 seats. The percentage share percent and the percentage share of of male was 74 percent and the women women was 25 percent. percentage share was 25 percent in 2015 village council election. In Champhai In the six districts, the total number District, there are 49 village councils, out of seats was 2256, and total number of of the total number of 256 VC seats, women representation was 593. The women occupied 66 seats and male percentage share of women in the said occupied 191 seats. The percentage share district was 26 percent. The male of male was 72 percent and the women representation was 1663, which is 73 percentage share was 26 percent in 2015 percent. It is evident that introduction of village council election. In Mamit District, reservation of seats for women has there are 87 village councils, out of the encouraged level of women political total number of village council seats of participation in Mizoram. Abstract of six 357, male representation was 267 and districts are given in the table below. It is female representation was 90. The evident that percentage share of women percentage share of male representation in each district has not yet reached 30 was 74 percent and the percentage share percent (Table 3). Table 3. Gender Comparison in VC Elections, 2015 District-wise Abstract Sl. Details Aizawl Lunglei Serchhip Champhai Mamit Kolasib No District District District District District District 1 No. of Villages 69 145 49 107 87 46 Total No.of male candidates and elected 2 219 430 191 382 267 172 Total No.of female candidates based on 3 80 159 66 140 90 58 seat reservation and elected 4 Percentage of women representation 26.75 26.99 25.63 26.71 25.2 25.21 5 Percentage of men representation 73.24 73 74.31 72.9 74.78 74.78 6 Total No.of seats 299 589 257 524 357 230 GRAND TOTAL 2256 Village council seats Source: Compiled from State Election Commission, Mizoram, and Researcher own Calculation. General Elections of Village Council, 2015 - held on 30th April, 2015
70 Women Representation: Performance Zoram Nationalist Party (ZNP): In of Political Parties Aizawl District, ZNP won 4 seats Indian National Congress (INC): which is 5 percent out of the total In Aizawl District, INC won 30 seats number of female seats. In Lunglei which is 41 percent out of the total district, ZNP won 4 seats which is 2 number of female seats. In Lunglei percent. In Serchhip District, ZNP won district, INC won 75 seats which is 50 2 seats which is 3 percent. In Champhai percent. In Serchhip District, INC won District, ZNP won 4 seats which is 3 37 seats which is 59 percent. In percent. In Mamit District ZNP won 5 Champhai District, INC won 72 seats seats which is 7 percent. In Kolasib which is 57 percent. In Mamit District, District, ZNP won 3 seats which is 5 INC won 35 seats which is 50 percent. percent. Aggregate score of ZNP was In Kolasib District, INC won 28 seats 22 seats, which comprised of 4 percent. which is 48 percent. Thus, 277 (51 Mizoram Peoples Conference percent) women representation in the (MPC): In Aizawl District MPC won 2 six districts are from INC. Thus, the seats, which is 2 percent out of the total Indian National Congress (INC) has number of female seats. In Lunglei highest women representation among district MPC won no seats. In Serchhip the political parties operated in District, MPC won 3 seats which is 4 Mizoram. percent. In Champhai District, MPC Mizo National Front (MNF): In won barely 1 seat. In Mamit District Aizawl District MNF won 26 seats, MPC won no seats. In Kolasib District, which is 36 percent out of the total MPC won 2 seats which is 3 percent. number of female seats. In Lunglei The aggregate score of MPC is 8 seats, district MNF, won 47 seats which is 31 which is a mere 1.4 percent. percent. In Serchhip District, MNF won Bharatia Janata Party (BJP): In 18 seats which is 29 percent. In Aizawl District BJP did not win a single Champhai District, MNF won 34 seats seat. In Lunglei district BJP won 1 seat which is 26 percent. In Mamit District, which is 0.6 percent. In Serchhip District, MNF won 24 seats which is 34 percent. BJP won no seats. In Champhai District, In Kolasib District, MNF won 20 seats BJP won no seats. In Mamit District BJP which is 34 percent. Altogether, MNF won 2 seats which is 2 percent. In Kolasib won 169 seats (31 percent) from six District, BJP won 1 seat which is 1 districts. It stood second place for percent. Details of performance of having 169 women representation in political parties are presented in Table 4 Village Council Election 2015. and Figure 1.
71 Table 4. Details of Performance of Political Parties in VC Elections, 2015 Performance of Political Parties in Village Council Election, 2015 Aizawl Lunglei Serchhip Champhai Mamit Kolasib Name of Sl. Political No of % women No of % women No of % women No of % women No of % women No of % women No Parties women representa women representat women representat women representat women representa women representa elected tion elected ion elected ion elected ion elected tion elected tion 1 INC 30 41% 75 50% 37 59% 72 57% 35 50% 28 48% 2 MNF 26 36% 47 31% 18 29% 34 26% 24 34% 20 34% 3 ZNP 4 5% 4 2% 2 3% 4 3% 5 7% 3 5% 4 MPC 2 2% - - 3 4% 1 0.70% - - 2 3% 5 IND 10 13% 21 14% 2 3% 15 11% 4 5% 4 6% 6 BJP - - 1 0.60% - - - - 2 2% 1 1% Source: Compiled from State Election Commission, Mizoram, and Researcher own Calculation. General Elections of Village Council, 2015 - held on 30th April, 2015.
Figure 1: Performance of Political Parties in Village Council Election, 2015.
Conclusions councils. The other political parties such In all the six districts, Indian as: MPC, ZNP and BJP share in winning National Congress (INC) has highest village council seats are relatively low in women representation among the political comparison to the aforesaid two political parties. The Mizo National Front (MNF) parties.With regard to the voter turnout in has the second highest representation of all the six districts, female voter turnout women. In this connection, it can be said exceeds male voter turnout. This has that share of women in the political parties exhibited that the level of women are concentrated in two major political participation in the village council election parties, they won most seats of the village was quite impressive. The total number
72 of women in Village Council Election of making it more accountable, transparent 2015 was 536. It constitutes 26 percent. and corruption free”. Writing in Harijan At the same time, male percentage share on 21 April 1946, he emphasized the need is 73 which means males still dominate to ‘‘enroll women as voters, impart or the politics at village level. It is an have imparted to them practical undeniable fact that the present education, teach them to think independently, release them from the introduction of reservation of seats for chains of caste that bind them so as to women has resulted in the increase of bring about a change in them…If they will percentage share of women in village level do this, they will purify the present administration. In support of women, unclean atmosphere.’’1 He prophetically Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation said, “as long as the women of India do once said that “Women have to play a not take part in public life, there can be much more meaningful role in politics, no salvation for the country”.xvi Endnotes 1Six districts include-Aizawl, Lunglei, Champhai, Mamit, Kolasib, Serchhip district 2Six Scheduled areas- Lawngtlai and Saiha District are exempted 3 Mizoram State Election Commission reports on Results of Village Council Election, 2015. 4Mizoram Statistical Handbook, 2014 published by Directorate of Economics and Statistics, government of Mizoram. 5Patnaik, Jagadish K, Mizoram: “Dimension &Perspectives, Society, Economy and Polity”, New Delhi:Concept Publishing Company, 2008, pp287-288 6Lalneihzovi, “Political Empowerment of women in Mizoram”, IndianJournalofPublicAdministration Vol.l X,No.3,July-September,2014. 7 Ibid., Lalneihzovi 8Charter of Demands from Elected Women Representatives of Mizoram under Core Committee-Panchayat Mahila Shakti Abhiyansubmitted to the Government of India and Government of Mizoramin October, 2008.p.5. 9Inpursuance of Government of India’s Ministry of Panchayati Raj’s D.O.Letter -No.R-12012/ 31/2007-P-J Dated 21/1/2008, the Governor of Mizoram Constituted Core Committee for Mizoram for the purpose of successful implementation of Panchayat Mahila Evam Yuva Shakti Abhiyan through Mizoram Gazette Extra ordinary and Published byAuthority. 10Charter of Demands from Elected Women Representatives of Mizoram under Core Committee-PanchayatMahila ShaktiAbhiyansubmitted to the Government of India and GovernmentofMizoraminOctober,2008.p.5. 11 Ibid., Lalneihzovi
73 12Lalchatuanthangi, “Historical Development of Local governance in Mizoram”, Proceeding of 2015 International Seminar on Governance in India; Problems and Prospects,Lengchhawn Offset, Aizawl, 2015, pp360-361 13Saroj Arora, “Women’s Access and Ownership of land: A case study of Mizoram”, Proceedings of International Seminar on Governance in India: Problems and Prospects, Lalneihzovi, SrinibasPathi, Lalrintluanga (edited), Lengchhawn Press, 2015, pp. 289- 300 14 www.lad.mizoram.gov.in 15 “What about Women?”in Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.90, 25 February-19 May 1946, p.231. 16Speech at Women’s Conference, Sojitra, Gujarat in Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.30, 27 December 1924 - 21 March 1925, p.108.
References Hrahsel, Lalchhuanawma, “Mizoram Statistics”, 2014, SB offset Printing Press, Aizawl, 2014. “Historical Journal of Mizoram”, Vol. XIII, Mizo History Association, November, 2012. Khiangte, Laltluangliana, “Property rights with Special reference to inheritance rights of women in Mizo Society”, Mizoram Public Administration Association (MIPPA), Aizawl, Mizoram, 2002. Lalhriatpuii, “Economic participation of women in Mizoram”, Concept Publishing Company Pvt.Ltd.New Delhi, 2010. Lalneihzovi, “Changing Status of women in North Eastern India”, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2009. Lalengruali, “MizoHmeichhialeh Politics”, Bethesda Publishing House, Chaltlang, Aizawl, 2009. Mizoram State Election Commission reports on Results of Village Council Election, 2015. Patnaik, Jagadish K, “Mizoram: Dimension &Perspectives, Society, Economy and Polity”, New Delhi; Concept publishing Company, 2008. Proceedings of International Seminar on “Governance in India: Problems and Prospects”, Lalneihzovi, Srinibas Pathi, Lalrintluanga (edited), Lengchhawn Press, 2015. Ray Raka, “Handbook of Gender”, New Delhi, Oxford University Press Publication, 2012. Sharma Anita, “Modernisation and changing Status of working women in India”, 1st Edition, new Delhi, Mittal Publications, 1990. “Statistical Handbook Mizoram (2014)”, Directorate of Economic and Statistics, Governemnt of Mizoram. Sinha Hirendra, Lalrinchhani B, “Women in Mizo Society”, New Delhi, Mittal publications, 2013 Vanlaltlani T., “MizoHmeichhiateKawngzawh”, Mizoram Publication Board, Aizawl, 2005. www.vanglaini.org/tualchhung/30054, Tuesday, 20th January 2015.
74 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Role of the Chief in Administration of Traditional Village System: A Study of Thangkhal Village in Manipur
S. Haukhanlian Mate*
Abstract The Thangkhals are one of the many tribes found mostly in Manipur state especially in Churachandpur district. They evolved their own traditional administrative institution. Their village administration was looked after by the chief who was called “Hausa”. He was the man who established the village for the villagers. The chief was helped in his day to day administration by a few selected elders. Theoretically, all the powers in the village are vested in the chief and he is a despot. But in practice, he administered the village as advised by members of the village council who are selected by the chief from the people whom he favoured. He also had the right to dismiss any of his village council members at any moment without assigning any reason thereof. He presided over the meetings of the council which were generally held in his house.They took all the decisions in the village which are followed by the villagers. In this paper, an attempt is made to give an elaborate account of the role played by the Thangkhal chief in the administration of traditional village system. Key words: Thangkhal, Chief, Village, Tradition, Administration. Introduction the control of one person called ‘Hausa’ The Thangkhals are one of the many which means chief. His post is not elective tribes found mostly in Manipur state but hereditary and is passed on from father especially in Churachandpur district. They to his eldest son, who otherwise is known belong to the Mongoloid stock of the as ‘Upa’(Gangte, 2003). Without a chief, Kuki-Chin-Mizo group of tribes. They no village can be established. It was the chief who established or founded the also belong to the Tibeto-Burman family, village and havs the supreme power in the speaking the Tibeto-Burman language. village. The chief was helped in his day They claimed their origin from ‘Khul’ to day administration by a few selected which means cave, a place which has not elders. Theoretically, all the powers in the been ascertained to any degree of certainty, village belong to the chief and he is a as their traditional home. despot. But in practice, he administered Like any other tribal group, the the village as advised by the village traditional Thangkhal village was under council who are selected by the chief from
*Prof. S. Haukhanlian Mate, Director, College Development Council, Mizoram University, Aizawl- 796004 75 the people whom he favoured. He also had were made by the chief and his councilors the right to dismiss any of his Upas at any based upon the customs and traditions of moment without assigning any reason the people. Those who disobeyed were thereof (Sangkima, 1992). He presided punished and even expelled from the over the meetings of the council which village (Rao, et al, 1987). were generally held in his house A Thangkhal chief was responsible (Malsawma, 2002). Decisions were for taking care of the poor, orphans, usually taken by the consensus of this widows, sick and any needy people in the council (Hluna, 1992). However, he village. He had to provide food and shelter usually ruled the people according to the to those people. He also had the right to customary law of the Thangkhals as his receive and protect any criminal who took subjects can desert him if he rules shelter in his house. By accident or despotically and move to other villages as intentionally, if someone killed another they were free to move and shift to any village as they wished. This check on his person, to escape punishment, such power, however, did not diminish the persons can take shelter in the chief’s importance of the chief in his village house (Nunthara, 1996) and no one can (Rualkhumzo, 2004). harm him until his case was heard in the chief’s court and final decision was made. A Thangkhal chief was succeeded by his eldest son, that is his legitimate son. If The chief was also empowered to he had no legitimate son, his eldest meita work as the dispenser of social justice in (son of concubine) succeeded to his his village. His court functioned as the chieftainship.Thus, this paper throws some highest legal authority in the village light on the role played, and privileges (Sharma, 1992). Cases like murder, theft, enjoyed by the traditional Thangkhal Chiefs adultery, seduction, etc. are settled by the in administering his village. chief and his councilors. His verdict was final and binding on both the parties. The Role of the Chief council can discuss any matter. It tried The Thangkhal chief was both civil and criminal cases. The responsible for the control of the village appellant would bring a jar of rice beer at administration. He along with his council the court as a court fee to file a law suit. members worked for the welfare of the Only after this, the council including some villagers .The welfare and security of the of the elder people in the village will people were the prime concern of the discuss and decide the case. In such cases, chief. It was the duty of the villagers to if any member of the council including obey the orders and decisions of the chief the chief had any connection with the with his councilors. All matters relating impending case, they did not participate to the issue of orders, framing of rules and in the deliberation, nor would interfere regulations and important instructions with the findings or decisions
76 (Niangdeihnuam, 2008). The council was the confiscated properties will be taken by the only court and there was no other court the chief. of appeal. The court would take up all the It was also the duty of the chief to cases and its decision was final and welcome distinguished visitors to the village. binding on the people. The village court He had to take care of the visitors during his acted as a court of compromise within the or her stay in the village (Chambers, reprint society (Ralte and Malsawmliana, 2011). 2005). It was also his duty to provide food, After the case has been heard, the court shelter and safety to the visitors during their imposes fine upon the guilty party. A fine sojourn in the village. of salam (a pig) and zubel (a pot of rice beer) was imposed on the guilty party In the traditional Thangkhal village, according to the customary law of the the chief with his council members looked Thangkhal if the case is not serious. after the administration of the village. However, if the case is a serious one, the Theoretically, all the powers are vested in guilty party will be fined salam, zubel and the chief. He decides all the cases in sialpi (a mithun). The mithun will be given consultation with his council members. to the winner party. The chief and his Upas All the village officials like the Manchillis, - the elders would usually spend the salam Tangsam, Sikkheng, Siampu were on a feast. The salam and the zubel are appointed by him. They all worked the privileges enjoyed by the council. together for the welfare of the village. However, all these are done not to hurt Privileges of the Chief any party but to bring compromise among the parties in particular and in the society A Thangkhal chief had certain in general. privileges for looking after the village. As he was busy in looking after the village In a Thangkhal village, the chief was administration, he had some privileges. virtually the proprietor of the entire village All that the village contained belonged to land called Gam (Rao, et al, 1987). It was the chief and he could call upon his people his duty to make allotment of lands for to furnish him with anything that he house building and cultivation among the required. The privileges enjoyed by the villagers in consultation with his council Thangkhal chief in his village are: members. If anyone from other villages want to migrate to the village, he or she Saliang: It is the right leg of an has to ask permission for settling in the animal killed or caught in trap by the village from the chief. Again, the chief villagers in a jungle hunt. It is a must for also had the power to banish any subject every villager to give this saliang to the from his village if they do not obey the chief (Rao, et al, 1991). In case the villager rules and regulations of the village and he failed to pay this tax, he had to pay a fine can also confiscate all the properties of sialpi (a mithun) and salam (a pig ) as (Niangdeihnuam, 2008). In such cases, all compensation to the chief.
77 Tangseu : It is paddy given by the villagers of the Hausa to see that every villager is to the chief every year which is a bamboo protected from external aggression and basketful containing about 3 tins. The danger (Gangte, 2003) amount may differ from village to village. Limitations and Check on the Chief It is likely that the Manchillis and widows were exempted from this due. Those who Theoretically, the chief enjoyed did not pay Tangseu would be fined Sialpi enormous powers in his village. He was and Salam by the chief. For giving all in all in the village and no one could Tangseu, a particular day was fixed. On question his authority. However, in reality, that particular day, the villagers would his powers were not without limitation. bring the fixed amount of paddy to be He had to act according to the customary given to the chief. In return, the chief laws. If he becomes too tyrannical, his would feed the whole village with rice subjects could leave and migrate to other beer called Tangseu zu or Buh seu zu in villages and seek shelter under another return for what he got from the villagers chief (Rao, et al, 1991). They had the right by way of tax. His councillors also to migrate to any village of their choice. contribute or donate pots of rice beer on Even if the chief did not allow, he could move stealthily at night (Paite in Mizoram, this day (Chinminlian, 2011). 2011). As his power also depended on the Manual labour (Free construction of number of houses over which he ruled, house): Another important right of the he had to look after the welfare of the chief was to have his house built by the people and not be too tyrannical. He also villagers without payment of any cost had to take into account the advice and either for labour or collection of building opinions of the councillors who were there materials when his house needed to be to help him in any decision making. repaired or to be newly constructed. For Sometimes, if the chief was inefficient and this, at least one person from each incompetent, there were chances of household will come for constructing the reducing him to a mere puppet and his chief’s house. It was, however, customary councillors overruling him. for the chief to give a feast to the villagers Conclusions when the house was completed (Chatterji, reprint 2008). The Thangkhals who belong to the Mongoloid stock of the Chin-Kuki-Mizo Thus, in return for the services group of tribes are mostly found in the rendered by the villagers, free of cost and southern part of Manipur. Traditionally, the tributes paid as token of loyalty, they were under the rule of a chief called recognition, obedience and solidarity, the Hausa (chief). The post of the chief was Hausa has to protect their interests by hereditary and passed on to the eldest providing security socially, politically and legitimate son. As he spent most of his economically. It is also the bounded duty time in looking after the welfare of his
78 subjects he was given privileges like However, he was bound by the customary Saliang, Tangseu and free construction or laws or else his subjects could leave and repair of his house. Theoretically, the chief migrate to other villages and seek shelter enjoyed enormous powers in his village. under other chiefs.
References Chambers, O.A.(2005). Hand Book of the Lushai Country, Tribal Research Institute, Aizawl, Mizoram. Chatterji, N (2008). The Earlier Mizo Society, Tribal Research Institute. Aizawl, Mizoram. Chinminlian,T (2011). A Study of Christianity among the Thangkhal Community, B.Th. Dissertation (unpublished), Asian Baptist Bible College, Bible Hill, Rengkai, Churachandpur, Manipur. Gangte, T.S (2003). The Kukis of Manipur: A Historical Analysis, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi. Hluna, J.V (1992). Education and Missionaries, Spectrum Publications, Guwahati, Assam. Malsawma, H.L (2002). Sociology of the Mizos, Spectrum Publications,Guwahati, Assam. Niangdeihnuam (2008).The Study of the Thangkhal Tribe of Manipur,M. Phil. Dissertation, Department of History. Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal, Manipur. Nunthara,C (1996). Mizoram: Society and Polity, Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. Paite in Mizoram (2011). Tribal Research Institute: Aizawl, Mizoram. Ralte, Benjamin & Malsawmliana (2011). Social, Economic and Political History of the Mizos, EBH Publishers, Guwahati, Assam. Rao,V.Venkata, Thansanga, H. & Hazaika, Niru (1987). A Century of Government and Politics in north East India, Vol.III-Mizoram. S.Chand & Company (Pvt), Ltd. New Delhi. Rao, V.Venkata, Gangte, T.S. and Devi, Ksh. Bimola (1991). A Century of Government and Politics in North East India, Vol. IV- Manipur. S.Chand & Company (Pvt). Ltd. New Delhi.
79 Rualkhumzo (2004).Traditional Administrative system and Customary Laws of the Hmars in Manipur, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Political Science, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal, Manipur. Sangkima (1992). Mizos: Society and Social Change, Spectrum Publications, Assam. Sharma, Vijay Prakash (1992). The Hmars of Manipur: Anthropological Exploration, Anmol Publications. New Delhi.
80 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
India’s Connectivity with Bangladesh with reference to Tripura : Prospects and Challenges
Sanjoy Roy*
Abstract The North-East Region (NER) of India has borders with Myanmar in the East, Tibet and Bhutan in the North and Bangladesh in South-West. The NER has more proximity with other countries than with the rest of the India. But the region is still isolated and lack development though it is rich in natural resources with large and small river systems and treasure house of flora and fauna. Problem of connectivity hinder the growth potential of the region both nationally and internationally. Thus improving all forms of connectivity such as road, rail, air, water including inland water, telecom etc. is paramount for this region. The present paper focuses on India’s connectivity with Bangladesh with special reference to Tripura. The present analyzes the achievements in connectivity during the recent times, prospects and challenges of connectivity with the emphasis on areas where Tripura can March ahead if better connectivity is established in NER particularly through Bangladesh. This paper focuses the connectivity of NER with Bangladesh for deriving tangible dividends to Tripura regarding movement of essential commodities and transportation of heavy goods. Tripura is destined to be a hub of trade and commerce in NER given the proper implementation of existing projects and policies of NER and agreements between India and Bangladesh governments. Key words: Road connectivity, Water connectivity, Transportation cost, Border trade
Introduction chicken corridor of Siliguri, but it is The North-East Region (NER) of having a 5300 km length of border with India has borders all along Myanmar in other countries of the subcontinent the East, Tibet and Bhutan in the North i.e.Myanmar , Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh in the South-West. North and China. The region is rich in natural East India has more proximity with other resources, covered with dense forests, has countries than with the rest of the India. the highest rainfall in the country, with This frontier region has a mere 27 km link large and small river systems nesting the with the rest of the country through the land and is a treasure house of flora and
* Sanjoy Roy is Principal, Netaji Subhash Mahavidyalaya, Udaipur, Gomati District, Tripura, Pin 799114, Email: [email protected] 81 fauna. The partition of India in 1947 not Kaladan Multimodal project, Trilateral only took the region backwards, but also Highway, Trans Asian Railway and the placed hurdles on future economic Asian Highway Network could be game progress. It isolated the region, sealed both changing projects for the development of land and sea routes for commerce and NER redefining the strategic and business trade, and severed access to traditional dynamics of the region. Chief Ministers markets and the gateway to the East and of various NER states emphasize on South-East Asia – the Chittagong port in improving road, railway, air connectivity East Bengal (now Bangladesh). Poor and improvement of inland water transport infrastructure and governance is combined within the region for bringing about all with low productivity and market access. round development. Improved There is overwhelming dependence for connectivity will not only bring about all resources on the Central Government, round development of the NER but also public investment in the region has sub- bring the region closer to the mainstream. optimal productivity due to weakness of It may be mentioned that FICCI stressed forward and backward linkages on reviving the preparation trade and (MoDONER, 2008). Most of the multi-model connectivity including commercial products used in the NER are surface, air, rail and most important river manufactured outside the region and in the region that includes not only north supplying these products to this region is east India but also Bangladesh and another problem due to poor roads and Myanmar too. The Act East Policy, infrastructure. While developing current installation of democratic government in roads and infrastructure should be a Myanmar, cordial relation with priority for India, alternative sea route via Bangladesh and the growth of South Asian Myanmar, Bangladesh must be developed Economic engine are all set to give an by exploring mutual benefits and areas of additional mileage to the NER during the cooperation with these countries. Having next few years if adequate infrastructure only a small enclave connection with north particularly connectivity is created. Thus east India can be very risky if by chance improving all forms of connectivity such India goes on a state of war with China, as road, rail, air, water including inland while securing it should be another priority water, telecom etc is paramount for this (Shrivastava, 2013). Thus, poor region. The present paper focuses on connectivity hinders the development India’s connectivity with Bangladesh with potential of NER. special reference to Tripura. Connectivity The award of road projects for Rs. 1 comprises land (road and rail networks) lakh crore in NER in the next five years and water (sea, port and inland water and declaration of 18 national waterways ways). Further, the study intends to are some of the highlights bearing the explore collaboration in the field of energy testimony of focus that NER carries. The (natural gas, electricity), coordination in
82 border management to facilitate a fillip to the whole economy, which inter movement of people across the Border alias, include the following: States. The present paper analyzes the Road connectivity saw a sea change connectivity achievements during the over the few years. In 1990 India and recent times, prospects and potential areas Bangladesh opened bus service be- where Tripura can march ahead if better tween Kolkata and Dhaka and in connectivity is established in NER 2001 between Dhaka and Agartala particularly through Bangladesh. The but the introduction road connectiv- paper is based on secondary data namely ity between Agartala and Kolkata via reports, articles, newspapers, websites of Bangladesh was a long standing de- governments, and other available mand. On June 2015, the first trial publications. run of bus service between Agartala to Kolkata via Dhaka commenced. Recent Developments of Connectivity Agreement provides for operation of Tripura is a tiny state in North East passenger buses directly between India with a population of 36 lakh as per Agartala and Kolkata with one stop- 2011 census. The state is also rich in page at Dhaka reducing the distance natural, mineral and human resources by 560 Km from Kolkata to having a significant strategic location. It Agartala.The proposed construction is surrounded on three sides by of a bridge over Feni River in Bangladesh with 856 Km long Sabroom will connect the international border. Geographical Chittagong port of Bangladesh isolation, industrial backwardness, soaring closer and facilitate the transship- unemployment, lackluster infrastructure, ment of goods at ease for the state poor communication and low capital as well as whole NER. With better formation are some of the pitfalls of the road and infrastructure, the transpor- state. Tripura’s location and socio- tation cost is likely to be lower. economic linkages with Bangladesh In September 2016, petroleum makes the state a potential hub for trade products reached Tripura via with and through Bangladesh for the entire Bangladesh to mitigate the crisis of northeastern region of India and other petrol and diesel due to deplorable adjoining countries – Nepal, Bhutan, condition of National Highway 44. Myanmar and China. Act East policy of Ten vehicles including seven diesel, Government of India is not only a two kerosene tankers and one LPG stimulus to the NER but it has also given vehicle reached Tripura’s bordering a significant boost to the prospects of town Kailasahar through Chatlapur development in Trade and industry in the check post in Bangladesh. According state. The connectivity of state through to drivers, they entered through Bangladesh during recent times has given Meghalaya’s Dauki border and then
83 after crossing Sylhet, Moulavibazar, in NER with other states like Shamshernagar, entered Kailasahar Manipur, Mizoram and Siliguri etc. through Chatlapur check post of • Water connectivity is also impacting Bangladesh.The journey took about the economy of Tripura. Agreement five hours for a distance of 138 km on Coastal Shipping between India and the road is stated to be much and Bangladesh was signed during better than Tripura and they could the visit of Prime Minister on 6 June save both time and fuel. 2015. The move by the two Nearly seven decades after Partition, governments was aimed at reducing trains are set to run from Kolkata to the cost of EXIM cargo and bringing Agartala through Bangladesh. India advantages for cargo slated to reach is building Rs 1,000 crore, 15 km India’s Northeast through inland railway line connecting Agartala waterways from the Chittagong port with Akhaura in Bangladesh which ( Chatterjee et al., 2016). The present is expected to reduce the distance arrangement has facilitated between Agartala and Kolkata to 499 enormous benefit to the whole NER km from the existing 1,590 km route and now smaller vessels may be via Badarpur, Lumding, Guwahati connected through sea ports of India and New Jalpaiguri. The project was and Bangladesh and regular plying recently inaugurated by Indian of vessels became feasible reducing Railway Minister with his time approximately to 10 days as Bangladesh counterpart in Agartala well as cost. Tripura has reaped huge on July 31, 2016. benefits from the coastal agreement which facilitated easy transportation • Agartala became India’s third of heavy equipment for OTPC internet gateway after Mumbai and Palatana Power Project in Tripura. Chennai when the Prime Minister of Tripura now transports heavy goods India and the Bangladeshi Premier and essential commodities via inaugurated an Internet connectivity Ashugunj Port, Bangladesh, proving project between the two South Asian both time and cost effective. It may countries in March 2016. The leasing be mentioned that efforts towards of the Internet bandwidth from strengthening bilateral economic co- Akhaura in Bangladesh to Agartala, operation between India and will not only help the people of Bangladesh became resplendent Tripura to access reliable Internet when a cargo vessel from Calcutta, connectivity, but it will also improve carrying a consignment for Tripura, internet speed in the entire reached Ashuganj port on the northeastern region. Thus Tripura Meghna River in Comilla district. becomes a gateway to development The ship anchored and 1,000 tonnes
84 of iron and steel sheets were port as well as land terrain to ship unloaded and put into Bangladeshi food grains to the North-east after trucks. From Ashuganj port, around foreign minister Sushma Swaraj’s 100km from Dhaka, the Bangladeshi recent successful visit to Dhaka. trucks set out for Tripura, taking the Thus another non-conventional route route along the Agartala-Akhaura through Bangladesh from Andra border. The biggest advantage of the Pradesh is explored easing the two countries agreeing to allow the movement of goods at reduced cost. transit facility is that the cost of • With a view to boosting the people transportation will come down to people contact, border haats are drastically. It is a fact that the cost of opened in Tripura. Tripura will have transportation to the Northeast is at six more border haats (markets) least two-and-a-half times more than along its 856 km long border with to other parts of India (Purohit, Bangladesh to boost trade and 2016). For example, a truck has to commerce between the two travel around 1,600 km to reach countries. It may be mentioned that Agartala from Calcutta, taking a two border haats, one in Srinagar circuitous route through Siliguri and under Sabroom sub-division of Meghalaya. With the introduction of South Tripura and another in Kamala the transit facility through Sagar under Bishalgarh sub-division Bangladesh, the distance comes of Sipahijala district, have been down to 500 km. The travel time gets functioning. Located at the zero line, decreased to 10 days from one the haats allow commodities to be month. exchanged in local currency or on • Further, the facilitation of barter basis. Each person is allowed transportation of rice stocks from to purchase commodities to the Vishakhapatnam port to Tripura via extent reasonable for personal or Ashugunj Port, Bangladesh is also family consumption and its value favourable for Tripura. First should not be more than $100. No consignment of Food grains for local tax is imposed on the trading Tripura has reached in Aug 2016 via and both Indian as well as Ashuganj river port of Bangaladesh Bangladeshi currencies are from Vizag of India. The Food accepted.The items permitted for Corporation of India took the trade include local agricultural and initiative to ship 10,000 MT of rice horticultural products, spices, minor to Tripura from its Vishakhapatnam forest produce (excluding timber), silo via the Ashuganj port in fresh and dry fish, dairy and poultry Bangladesh. India has begun using products, cottage industry items, a new trade route via a Bangladeshi wooden furniture, handloom and
85 handicraft items. There has been an Tripura including the North-Eastern increasing demand for certain items States would be able to move the goods by people on both sides. This at a cost much lower than that being includes demand for hilsa fish from incurred presently. This would not only Tripura while baby food, sugar, help consumers’ interest but also attract printed sarees, jackfruit, pineapple, investment in the North-Eastern region. dry fish, biscuits, utensils, and Direct transit route through Bangladesh’s cosmetics are the most popular items territory would remove one of the major from Bangladeshi side. bottlenecks for the progress and prosperity of the North-Eastern region and link this Prospects region more closely with the mainstream The trade between India and ASEAN of the Indian economy. Massive (Association of South East Asian Nations) investment on road, rail air and water is mostly manufacturing products and is connectivity in Tripura is destined and it restrictive towards agricultural products. will facilitate the speedy movement of Therefore the NERstates do not have the goods from one place to another within a comparative advantage in India’s export reasonable period of time. to ASEAN. In order to take the advantages Tripura’s Cane and Bamboo of the growing trade alliances, effort handicrafts are considered to be among the should be on improving inter-state best in the country for the exquisite designs, connectivity and market integration wide range of products and artistic appeal. (Saikia , 2011) .The NER needs to This industry has a great export potential participate in the growing trade with as well. The exquisite bamboo products ASEAN countries, particularly in locally have been referred to by Union Railway produced items like bamboo and other Minister at the inauguration ceremony of wood products, ores, rubber products, broad-gauge railway from Agartala on 31st horticulture and food products, refined July 2016 as bamboo is ideologically and petroleum products, silk products, other ecologically supportive. Preferring bamboo non-metallic mineral products, chemicals products would be ideological as bamboo and chemical products, pharmaceutical is a grass product and not a timber product. products and preparations, etc (De and Railways will facilitate easy export of Majumder, 2014). Connectivity will bamboo and bamboo products from the improve the border trade immensely and state at much lower cost and bamboo has this has been referred to many experts on an immense scope. Indo Bangladesh relations. According to the experts the ongoing border trade The setting up of food processing between Tripura and Bangladesh had units always possesses good prospects in enhanced towards sustainable livelihood Tripura. Major Fruit Crops of Tripura are of Tripura farmers. pineapple, jackfruit, orange, cashew,
86 coconut and the agro-climatic conditions causing more expansion of market and are favourable for growing various fruits consequently rubber production in the and horticultural crops that are well known state. for delicious quality as green/ ripen form Immense reserves of natural gas are or processed form. There is ample scope present in non-associate form in Tripura. for the expansion of cultivation under The gas is of high quality, with high organic spices cultivation in Tripura. methane content of up to 97%. The natural Major spices include ginger, turmeric, gas is available in the northeast at almost chilli, black pepper, cinnamon, and half the price compared to other parts of tezpatta. But except for NERAMAC, a the country. Concessional Gas pricing and Government of India Undertaking, no vast reserve create potential for setting up private investor has seriously came industries in this sector. Natural Gas is forward to promote and add value with presently used mainly for generation of the agri-produces of Tripura. Lack of proper marketing and value added policies power and to some extent in domestic, have marred the prospects of growers industrial, commercial and transport immensely. So is the fate for the sector. It needs no mention that Tripura agriculturists opting vegetable cultivations has been exporting 100MW power daily in the state. It is expected that better to Bangladesh from gas-based combine connectivity either through rail, road etc cycle plant at Palatana in Udaipur of would widen marketing avenues as Gomati District. Another gas based power transport cost is likely to come down plant at Monarchak in West Tripura is significantly. going to be operational very soon with 100 MW capacity productions. Tripura There is enormous potential for government has expressed its willingness setting up rubber –based industries in the to sell another 100MW power to state. Natural rubber based activities has Bangladesh from the state’s thermal power already been declared as thrust sector in plant at Monarchak in West Tripura as Tripura because of its special significance. there is no industrial demand in the state Till now, bulk portion of rubber are going following repeated demands from outside the state due to inadequate rubber Bangladesh and the government of India industries in the state. Problem of value has agreed to the proposal. addition is still a fundamental flaw for which the rubber growers at large are On the other hand, connecting NER deprived of getting expected return. Better with national gas grid and regional gas connectivity will lead to enormous scope grid has substantial potential for Tripura. of investment in sectors like auto parts, To ensure gas supply and connect demand footwear, tread rubber, vulcanized rubber, centers in the Northeast, the current route rubber band, rubber cushion and mattress, of the national gas grid needs to be latex thread, textile fabric, hoses etc extended beyond Barauni-Siliguri-
87 Bongaigon-Guwahati. The proposed route economic prosperity and cultural contact, of the grid spans 800-900 km, at an the feeling of inclusion will deepen. expected cost of Rs 3,600-4,050 crore. As Connectivity of north east is also expected Mizoram, Manipur and Tripura will be to pose a restraint on NE terrorists and major production centres, these states increased flow of tourists will uplift the must be linked to the grid on priority. In socio-economic conditions of people and the first phase, Agartala should be will create additional employment connected to Bongaigaon through generation besides revenue generation in Guwahati (800 km) via Silchar and the respective states. Shillong along the NH-44 route (Ministry Challenges of Petroleum, 2016). In third phase Myanmar to Agartala Gas line is proposed It is unequivocally true that NER to be constructed. To improve supply of states could not capitalize the geo strategic LPG, another route for importing LPG, advantage of sharing international borders which is Chittagong- Sabrum-Agartala is with several key economies of the world. proposed at an estimated cost of Rs 450 One of the primary reasons for such failure crore. At present, LPG is imported is the absence of adequate road, railway, through the Paradip/Haldia terminal and air and water connectivity with other parts then transported to the Northeast through of the country as well as the neighbouring Siliguri. Given the above, it may be countries. Tripura is one of the states in mentioned that the connectivity of gas grid NER, which, prior to its merger with with other NER states and Myanmar and Union of India, had the connectivity with Bangladesh will bring changes in erstwhile East Pakistan through rail, river economic fortune of local people. and road. After partition, the state became Besides tourism, skill development, landlocked and road connectivity with the textiles, clothing and information rest of the country was restored through technology etc. would also attract Assam. This was the backdrop why the investment resulting in revenue generation state lagged behind to improve the road and employment generation in the state. connectivity through hilly areas with the According to Bibek Deb Roy, Advisor paltry budgetary support. The progress NITI Ayog, four sectors where investment especially in road connectivity started can happen are not manufacturing sectors rolling mainly in last two decades. ‘In but service sectors and these include Tripura there are about 20,818 Km roads higher education, health or medical higher of which 646 km is National Highway , end, bio-technology, IT and tourism 509 Km is state highway , 90 km is Major (Business Standard, 2016). It is also that District road while 1218 is other district connectivity will boost people to people roads and balance are village roads contact of north east with main land as maintained by RD/ADC and PWD , IBP well as East Asians. With greater road (Tripurainfoway, 2015).
88 Road connectivity remains awfully speedy completion of the projects. poor during the rainy season and cost of Absence of assured network, broadband essential goes up high when NH 44 remains and internet connectivity and lesser disrupted. Air connectivity in this region teledensity in the NER are also the factors is not up to the mark. Except Guwahati and to reckon with. Threat of internal security Manipur, no other state capital of the NER from terrorism, narcotics and entry of is connected with Agartala by Air. Broad- foreign goods particularly cheap Chinese gauge Railway connectivity is just goods including the arms from across the commenced with the services to Silchar, border is a point to remember. Media Kolkata and New Delhi. Inland water ways reports indicate that Tripura is already is hardly available from Tripura. In a nut becoming a narcotic corridor. Tripura’s shell it may be mentioned that the narcotics business is fueled by drug- connectivity of Tripura within the NER and mafias, Islamic fundamentalist groups outside is poor. The presence of national along Sonamura-Boxnagar region, highway is also negligible as in most of the Tripura-Mizoram border -smuggling tons NER. Land acquisition is a major of brown sugar, marijuana, contrabands hindrance, mostly because of the lack of (Tripurainfoway, 2016). Thus ‘if the land records. Many other projects to Guwahti – Kunming corridor is develop roadways are still on paper and materialized for any sub – regional co- have not been implemented or have failed operation such as the Bangladesh, China, to operationalize. Under the NLCPR India and Myanmar (BCIM), Association scheme during 2010-11 the central of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), government introduced around 151 South Asian Association for Regional infrastructure projects. It has been reported Cooperation (SAARC) and Greater that till now only 25 projects have been Meknog Sub Region Co-operation completed. Most of these infrastructure (GMS), then drugs and small arms may projects have failed due to the geographical sneak into the north east in huge quantities condition of the region and the problem of jeopardizing the peace and stability of the transferring heavy construction materials region’ (Pattnaik, 2015). So the impact on from far flung area (Saikia). Inability of people, culture and bio-diversity of this various ministries to spend 10% of region should be considered critically if budgetary allocation meant for NER states north east borders are opened for trade and is also a reason for the development of transit under the framework of Bangladesh connectivity in this region. China India Myanmar Economic Besides problems of insurgency, Cooperation. periodic political instability and Border trade including both formal corruption, shortage of competent and informal is not free from limitations. contractors, lack of adequate skilled There exist various issues related to labour have also stood in the way of regulations, infrastructure and trade
89 services which hamper trade between the other important cities and particularly two countries. ‘Gross inefficiency in the Dhaka is the need of the hour. Connecting existing trade systems and infrastructure Gomati River with Megha River would of India and Bangladesh, has encouraged facilitate the movement of cargo at and nurtured informal trade, which is shortest time with reduced cost. Poor and estimated to be as huge as half the volume unsatisfactory telecom services need of formal trade. Because per unit trade cost immediate overhaul and for quicker (including transportation, warehousing, ramification for telecom connectivity, testing and documentation) is rather high, latest technology and equipment need to traders adopt the informal mode of trading. be installed. The existing system of transit There is large portion of people who are visa through pass port need to be reviewed involved in such activities, varying from for quicker mobility as a majority of small children, women to cattle (CUTS, people living in Tripura is without 2014). But the ominous side of the International Passport which retards the informal trade is the dispatch of drugs, success of Agartala– Kolkata bus service phensidile, corex, ganja, opium etc. Cost via Dhaka. Increasing the capacity of local of doing trade is high between India and contractors, engineers and other Bangladesh mainly due to lack of trade stakeholders is essential as involvement facilitation. Almost all border crossings of the stakeholders in the construction of lack in modern skillful infrastructure. It is highways and infrastructure would result a fact that most of the land custom center in new employment opportunities. To in Tripura except Agartala are far from reduce traffic congestion double-laning / capital and roads, either state highway or four laning of NH-44, maintenance of NH national highway are not so wide and 44 particularly in Lowairpoa area of developed. Other NTBs like regulatory Assam during the rainy season and measures and lack of trade services have immediate commencement of Sabroom to also resulted in hindering the bilateral trade. Kukital are crying need for smooth Conclusions movement of goods,which will also Connectivity forms an indispensable improve the border trade through element of the 3C of ‘culture, commerce Bangladesh. People to people contact can and connectivity’ which will promote be enhanced manifold through the economic engagement and strengthen frequent visits of artists in various fields, people to people, cultural and civilization academics and skilled personnel etc.. contacts between two regions (Sajjahar, People to people contact may be 2015). There is an urgent need of strengthened by increased sharing of the developing the road connectivity in the common food, culture, language, weaving state and between Tripura and motif and other practices. Exchange of neighbouring Bangladesh in order to bring faculties and students, artists and skilled boon to NER states. Air connectivity with personnel between educational institutes of
90 Tripura and Bangladesh should be involvement of people to resolving the facilitated. Promotion of Bengali language regulatory framework, bureaucratic in higher and technical education through bottlenecks, promotion of entrepreneurs collaboration, folk songs of both regions, and willingness of the investors to establish hands on training in Jamdani Saree and industries particularly in Tripura are keys delicious Bangladeshi foods and cuisine, for pushing the local economy to higher introduction of Agartala-Dhaka flight economic growth aimed at mitigating the services, facilitating transit visa on Aahaar soaring unemployment as well as or Voter Identity card for NER people alleviating the standard of living of people instead of international passport, increasing in the state. However the security of the the competence of traders to opt for formal country should not take a backseat for trade through mass awareness should also which border management should be be some steps in this direction. effective to block the illegal entry of drugs, It may be mentioned that special foreign goods , arms etc and combat the efforts are being made by Government of insurgency , drug, human trafficking and India on connectivity to develop a coherent cattle smuggling in this region. It is strategy particularly for linking ASEAN expected that latest initiatives of with the NER. Measures, including Government of India particularly ‘Act East building transport infrastructure, policy’and allocation of Rs. 1 lakh crore encouraging airlines and waterways for the road connectivity in NER will go a internet connectivityin the region, long way in ushering a new era not only in facilitating gas pipe line connectivity, improving the economic ties in contacts between academic and cultural neighbouring countries in NER particularly institutions are underway. It is also a fact Bangladesh but also bring a significant that mere efforts of the Government can’t contribution to economy of the state and make the connectivity rewarding. Rather that Tripura would be a hub of international composite efforts beginning from the trade and commerce in the near future.
References Business Standard (2016), Agartala:Reviving Pre-partition connectivity with Bangladesh discussed at North East Connectivity Summit, September 22, 2016. Chatterji, Rakhahari. Chaudhury, Basu Ray, Anasua.& Banerjee Sreeparna (2016) ,India Bangladesh Connectivity: A year after Modi’s Visit, ORF special Report 14, New Delhi. De, Prabir and Majumdar, Manab( 2014), Developing Cross-Border Production Networks between North Eastern Region of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar: A Preliminary Assessment, Research and Information System for Developing Countries, India Habitat Centre, New Delhi 110 003.
91 http://www.cuts-citee.org/ibta-ii/pdf/india-bangladesh_trade_potentiality- an_assessment_of_trade_facilitation_issues.pdf, dt of access 2/10/2016. Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, North Eastern Council (2008), North Eastern Region Vision 2020, North Eastern Council, shilling. Ministry of Petroleum (2016), Government of India, Hydrocarbon Vision 2030 for North East India, http://petroleum.nic.in/docs/visiondoc2030.pdf(date of access 9/10/2016). Pattnaik , K.Jayati (2015), Act East through the North East, The Mainstream, Vol Liii , No 16, April 11, 2015. Purohit, Devadeep (2016), Opened, Bangla short cut for Northeast cargo, The Telegraph, June 17. Saikia,Panchali (2011), Linking India’s Northeast with Southeast Asia: Significanceof Internal Connectivity & Backward Integration, http://www.ipcs.org/issue-brief/ southeast-asia/linking-indias-northeast-with-southeast-asia-significance-of-internal- connectivity-175.html(3/10/2016). Sajjanhar, Ashok(2016). Taking Stock of India’s Act East Policy, ORF issue Brief, Issue no 142, May. Sanskar Shrivastava(2013) North East India and India’s Look East Policy, The world Reporter, http://www.theworldreporter.com/2013/06/northeastindiaandindiaslookeastpolicy ( date of access 25/9/2016). Tripurainfoway (2015); Union Minister Green Signals New National Highways for Tripura – Assam under BharatMaa Project , http://www.tripurainfoway.com/news-details/TN/ 31115/union-minister-green-signals-new-national-highways-for-tripura-assam-under- bharatmala-project.html ( date of access 5/10/2016). Tripurainfoway(2016),Tripura becoming NE’s narcotics corridor,http://tripurainfoway.com/ news-details/TN/66546/tripura-becoming-ne-rsquo-s-narcotics-corridor-young- smuggler-held-with-brown-sugar-from-mafia-dominated-agartala-gol-chakkar-border- area-ne-bangladesh-mayanmar-drug-cartels-hit-tripura.html( date of access ,1/10/2016).
92 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
The South China Sea Dispute: Understanding the On-Going Maritime Rivalry and its Implications for India
Henry Malsawmtluanga*
Abstract The territorial dispute in the South China Sea has attracted global attention and has the potential to inflict a larger regional instability. The claimant states engage in strategic conflict over the control of the islands in the South China Sea and its waters which is known to contain huge reserves of oil and gas. The situation got worsened by the involvement of outside powers in the dispute which can cause larger conflict. The recent aggressive stand taken by China and its activities in the South China Sea has complicated the situation as other claimants protested strongly against these moves. In this situation, India is expanding its reach in the South China Sea and its larger involvement is becoming a crucial factor in Indian foreign policy. India has become more vocal in expressing its interest in the freedom of navigation and peaceful resolution of disputes in the region. This paper examines the on-going maritime rivalry of the South China Sea in general and India’s interest and strategy in particular and highlights India’s policy initiative in the region. Keywords: South China Sea, Maritime security, Conflict, China, India, Territorial disputes Introduction complicated. China has claimed almost the The South China Sea territorial entire region of South China Sea through disputes have become a major flashpoint the so-called ninedash line map which was in Southeast Asia. Several littoral countries submitted to the United Nations on May 7, including China, Taiwan, Vietnam, 2009. The recent Chinese activities like Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and dredging and creating artificial islands Brunei have made competing territorial particularly in the hotly contested Spratly claims over this region. Such disputes have Islands and its deployment of surface to air been regarded as one of the world’s most missile on Woody Islands in the Paracels potentially dangerous points of conflict. began to flare up the issue to a much larger The territorial claims over this region are extent. These recent Chinese actions and not subjected to easy legal resolution and behaviours have led leading more regional with the increasing importance of the and global players to engage directly in the region, things have become more and more issue.
* Henry Malsawmtluanga is Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Email: [email protected] 93 As the South China Sea is a major the South China Sea: the Pratas Islands in shipping route, almost all countries of the the northeast, the Paracels to the north, the world have a stake in it and any measure Spratlys to the South, and Scarborough which can disturb the freedom of Shoal in the central east. All of these navigation in the region will have a huge islands are claimed by both China and implication in world’s seaborne trade and Taiwan, while Vietnam claims the commerce. Many claimants believe that Paracels and Spratlys, and the Philippines the sea hides bountiful oil reserves in claims many features of the Spratlys and addition to the plentiful fish resources.The Scarborough Shoal. dispute is also marked by nationalist Although the area is largely propaganda whereby the claimants attach uninhabited it is rich in marine resource symbolic value to the South China Sea and and is believed to have huge potential of its islands which often exceeds their oil and natural gas. The Ministry of objective material wealth. This region is Geological Resources and Mining of the also tinged with great power politic People’s Republic of China estimate that whereby China and the United States South China Sea may contain 17.7 billion begin to jostle each other for control of tons of crude oil. According to the US the region. The recent announcement by Energy Information Administration the United States of its ‘Asia Pivot’ policy (EIA)’s profile of the South China Sea is to a great extent influenced by its desire region, a US Geological Survey estimates to make a more prominent role in the puts the region’s discovered and South China Sea. In this intricate situation, undiscovered oil reserves at 28 billion Indian policy makers are also dealing with barrels, as opposed to the Chinese figure the issue with utmost care by considering of 213 billion barrels. The same EIA all its implications for the country’s own report also points to the wide variety of national interest. natural gas resource estimations, ranging Why the South China Sea Matters from 900 trillion cubic feet (25.5 trillion cubic meters) to 2 quadrillion cubic feet The South China Sea is a marginal (56.6 trillion cubic meters) The sea is also sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean a major shipping route where more than surrounded by several countries. It extends half of the world’s commerce that travels from the Strait of Malacca in the by sea and about half of the world’s oil Southwest, to the Strait of Taiwan in the tanker shipments pass through its waters. Northeast. It is estimated that over 500 Freedom of navigation through the South million people in China, Taiwan, the China Sea is thus essential in order to link Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, North East Asia’s seaborne trade with the Singapore, Cambodia, Thailand and rest of the world. The importance of the Vietnam live within 100 miles of its region lies ascertained by the fact that it coastline. There are four island groups in furnishes living and mineral resources to
94 the littoral states. Almost 50 percent of the seaborne attacks on several islands. China protein requirement of the population seized several features of the Paracel bordering the South China Sea is met by islands from the control of South Vietnam the abundant fishing activity in the region. during a brief war known as The Battle of Background of the South China Sea the Paracel Islands which took place on Dispute January 19, 1974 where several Vietnamese soldiers were killed. South The region during the first half of the and North Vietnam responded to this by twentieth century was largely quiet as its reinforcing their remaining garrisons and littoral states focused their attention to seized several other unoccupied features. other issues and problems. Till the end of Violence flared up once again in 1988 the Second World War, no claimant state when China moved into the Spratly occupied a single island in the entire South Islands and occupied the Johnson Reef China Sea. However, in the year 1946 and whereby they killed several Vietnamese 1947, China established itself on several sailors in the process. parts of the Spratlys and Woody Island (which is a part of Paracel island chain) In 2002, ASEAN and China signed respectively. China captured Woody Island the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties two weeks before the French and in the South China Sea. Under this Vietnamese intended to send troops to declaration, the parties promised “to capture it. However, even at this stage, the exercise self restraint in the conduct of South China Sea was not considered as a activities that would complicate or priority area by the claimants because they escalate disputes and effect peace and were engaging in some other issues and stability including among others, conflicts which they considered more refraining from action of inhabiting on the important. presently uninhabited islands, reefs, shoals, cays, and other features and to The next half century, however, saw handle their differences in a constructive accelerating interest in the South China manner”. This declaration had for some Sea. In the year 1955, China and Taiwan period put the conflict at bay. However, established themselves on several key this calm situation was put to an end in islands. However, these efforts cooled 2009 with the submission of a map by down till 1970. By early 1970s, interest China containing the “Nine-Dash Line” of the claimants in the South China Sea to the United Nations. By this map, China began to flare up which was primarily claimed all the land features in the South spurred by several indications that the China Sea and vast majority of its waters. South China Sea contained significant Since the publication of this nine-dash amount of oil and gas reserves. The line, tensions are flaring up once again. Philippines moved first and shortly China is becoming more assertive in followed by China which launched dealing with the issue in the South China
95 Sea and the other claimant countries However, China had boycotted the particularly Vietnam and the Philippines proceedings, and called the ruling “ill- view the recent Chinese activities in the founded” and it says that it will not be region with unease and with suspicion. bound by the ruling.Chinese foreign Recent Developments ministry spokesman Lu Kang had spoken out on this issue threatening “decisive The 2002 Declaration on the response” if anyone took “any provocative Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea action against China’s security interests was signed with a hope that it would based on the award’. provide long term stability in the area and create mutual understanding between the In recent years, satellite imagery has claimant countries. However, the shown China’s increasing efforts in Declaration does not define what kind of reclaiming land and constructing artificial activities could be considered to islands on the South China Sea. In addition complicate or escalate a dispute. As a to this, China has constructed military result, claimant countries continued to installations, ports and airstrips in the construct structures in the disputed region which created rising fear of features of the South China Sea. militarization of the South China Sea. In response to the Chinese military build-up Being the most powerful claimant in the region, the United States in October country, China’s behaviour and attitude 2015 sailed a guided-missile missile towards the South China Sea determines destroyer within 12 nautical miles of the the nature of the dispute. Since the artificial islands – an act by which the publication of the nine-dash line map, United States planned to assert freedom China became more and more aggressive of navigation in the region. China in dealing with the issue. In July 2012, responded this action by giving a warning China established the city of Sansha, an to the US that it should “not act blindly or administrative body with its headquarters make trouble out of nothing”. US Defence in the Paracels which oversees Chinese Secretary Ashton Carter said on 29th territory in the South China Sea .This September 2016 that the US will “sharpen move triggered strong protest from our military edge” in Asia and the Pacific Vietnam and the Philippines. In January in order to remain a dominant power in 2013, Philippines announced that it was the region. The Pentagon Chief also taking China to a UN tribunal under the described what he called the next phase auspices of the UN Convention on the of a US Pivot to Asia, which stands for a Laws of the Sea, so as to challenge its rebalancing of American security claims. On July 12, 2016, the Permanent commitments in Asia after years of heavy Court of Arbitration in The Hague issued focus on the Middle East.This clearly a ruling on this claim by the Philippines, highlights the grave danger of superpower ruling in favour of the Philippines. rivalry and competition in the South China
96 Sea region which could ultimately lead to in 1990s which was reinvigorated in 2014 armed conflict and large scale by Prime Minister Narendra Modi as Act confrontation. East Policy and seeks for India’s larger China and Russia in September 2016 engagement in South East Asia. ASEAN conducted war games in the South China has become India’s fourth largest trading Sea. The eight-day joint exercises include partner and the India-ASEAN trade stood a focus on “seizing and controlling” at approximately US $ 76.53 billion in islands and shoals and is intended to 2014-15. Stability of the Southeast Asia expose the military capabilities of both the is therefore vital for India because any countries. major conflict in the South China Sea region is bound to impact India’s What’s at Stake for India at the South economic interests. India is of the view China Sea? that the South China Sea region is a key Although India is a non-claimant to its energy security, and that the conflict country of the South China Sea Islands, it must be resolved peacefully as per is concerned with the development in the international laws. South China Sea. The South China Sea is India’s has been actively engaging strategically important for India both in with Vietnam in the exploration of oil and terms of trade and other economic gas in the South China Sea region. Indian perspectives. It is estimated that nearly 55 state-owned company ONGC Videsh per cent (and growing) of the sea bound Limited (OVL) had in 2006 signed a trade of India passes through the South contract with Petro Vietnam to jointly China Sea. Due to this reason, freedom of explore sector 127 and 128 in the Phu navigation in the South China Sea is of Khanh Basin. Later in September 2011, it utmost importance for the sustenance of signed three deals to jointly explore oil the growing Indian economy. India is and natural gas in these blocks. Vietnam worried that if the situation arises whereby accounted for nearly a quarter of OVL’s China controls this region, it will dictate total hydrocarbon output of 5.4 million maritime traffic both civilian and military. tonnes (mt) and 3.3 billion cu. m. (BCM) Former India’s External Affairs Minister of gases in 2014-15. However, this oil SM Krishna argued in 2012 that theSouth exploration projects off the Vietnam coast China Sea is the property of the world and has been objected by China asserting that thus nobody has a unilateral control over the blocks are under their sovereign it. He also stressed that India is capable control and are within the nine dash line enough of safeguarding its interests area claimed by China. Although this was ` India considered its relation with the case, OVL decided to restart the oil ASEAN as an important factor which exploration after a brief gap claiming that could spur her economic growth. For this the area was under the sovereign control reason, it launched the Look East Policy of Vietnam and contend that the blocks
97 lie within Vietnam’s Exclusive Economic China is maintaining that Indian Ocean Zone and Continental Shelf. It is does not belong to India alone, India can unfortunate that China viewed India’s equally contend that the South China Sea growing bilateral relationship with too does not belong to China alone. Even countries like Vietnam, Indonesia and its though India could not prevent China’s strategic cooperation with Japan as an entry into the Indian Ocean, it can exert attempt by India to consolidate and assert counter pressure on China by engaging its power in China’s own backyard. herself in the South China Sea. It can be seen that India is not India has an active naval presence interested in seeking any confrontation in the South China Sea since its first with China, however, just as China has deployment there in 2000. These increased its presence in India’s deployments also include bilateral naval neighbouring countries, India too is exercise, friendly port calls and transit attempting to build a strong trade and through these waters. Indian Navy had economic partnership with ASEAN and conducted bilateral SIMBEX naval East Asian countries so as to secure its exercises with the Singapore Navy since markets and transportation linkages 1993 and often attends friendly port calls through the security of the sea lanes. The to littoral countries such as Brunei, security and stability of the South China Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Sea region is also vital from the Indian Vietnam which bring Indian Navy to the naval perspective because of the strategic disputed water. An important policy location of the South China Sea between undertaken by India to strengthen its the Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific. linkages with the littoral countries of the India is now operating closely with United South China Sea is the MILAN naval States and Japan and therefore its secure exercises which were held since 1995. In access to the Western Pacific through the this naval exercise, a number of littoral South China Sea is truly vital. David Scott countries including Thailand, Malaysia, (2013) had argued that China is not yet an Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Vietnam, Indian Ocean power but is investing a lot and the Philippines were participating. in building up infrastructure in and around This forged greater engagement and the Indian Ocean which some Indian friendship between India and these analysts termed as “String of Pearls” countries which is vital for India’s larger Policy aimed at encircling India role in the South China Sea. particularly in the South Asian region. In retaliation to this, India, which is not a The Malabar Joint Naval Exercise power in the South China Sea, is conducted annually by India and US since attempting to project itself as one; and this 1992 was joined by Japan in the year 2014. power projection is the crux of the Sino- It acted as an instrument of assertion of Indian strategic rivalries. In this way, while India’s growing engagement with the
98 United States and Japan and was viewed force to resolve competing claims. Third, by China with suspicion. The 2016 version India considers freedom of navigation in of this exercise was held near Okinawa the region as vital and therefore this Island in Japan which is about 400 freedom should be maintained. Fourth, kilometres from the contested Senkaku India insists on peaceful resolution of Islands. Besides anti-submarine warfare, disputes in accordance with international the three navies will be enacting scenarios law, including the United Nations of anti-surface warfare and air defence Convention on the Law of the Sea which amounts to recreating a scenario (UNCLOS). Fifth, India’s interest in the where a belligerent Chinese military needs South China Sea is purely commercial and to be countered. sixth, freedom and safety of the sea lanes of communication (SLOCs) should be The increasing naval exercises has maintained as per the international law. been complemented by the expansion of the Andaman and Nicobar (Southern) India’s stand on the South China Sea Command with the establishment of the dispute is also highlighted in the Joint ‘Naval Air Station’ called INS Baaz in Statement between India and United States Campbell Bay on 31 July 2012, which is during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s located closely from the Malacca Strait visit to the US in September 2014. This (which connect Indian Ocean with the statement was of great significance for the South China Sea) and is considered as reason that it for the first time India made India’s ‘window to East and Southeast a direct comment regarding the dispute Asia’. This move is a strong signal of resolution in the South China Sea. The India’s concerns over the current state of Statement read that “The leaders affairs in the Indian Ocean Region and expressed concern about rising tension South China Sea. over maritime territorial disputes, and affirmed the importance of safeguarding India being a non-claimant country maritime security and ensuring freedom on any part of the South China Sea is not of navigation and overt-flight throughout a party to the dispute. However, given the the region, especially in the South China importance of the South China Sea for Sea”. This draws heavy criticism from the India, India does not turn a blind eye on Chinese side. the dispute. India’s stand on the South China Sea dispute can be clarified with Conclusions six main points. First, the South China Sea The South China Sea dispute unless dispute being a ‘sovereignty’ issue must solved in a meaningful manner can bring be resolved by the claimant countries that about larger rivalry and tension which can are party to the dispute. Second, India harm not only regional but also global favours peaceful resolution of disputes, affairs. The involvement of powerful and opposes the use of threat of use of countries like the United States and China
99 in the dispute create a dangerous Convention on the Laws of the Sea atmosphere whereby the security of the (UNCLOS) in particular. whole region can be disturbed. The With the strategic importance of the Chinese power posture in the region and South China Sea for India still growing, its aggressive actions resulted not only India must increase and extend its in tensions, mistrust and conflict but partnership with the Southeast Asian also resulted in increasing militarization countries. Expansion and modernization in countries such as Vietnam and the of naval infrastructure is also necessary Philippines. These countries felt to secure India’s interest in the South insecure with the rising aggressive China Sea. However, as India’s interest in Chinese behaviour and were under the South China Sea is purely commercial, pressure to modernize and upgrade their it is necessary that it refrains from direct military capabilities. In order to confrontation and conflict with the ameliorate the rising tension China must claimant state especially China. The stop its activities like militarization of present India’s stand of freedom of the islands, land reclamation policy etc., navigation in the region, peaceful and disputes must be solved through resolution of disputes and strict adherence peaceful dialogue which is in to the international law must be upheld consonance with the UN Charter in and maintained for India’s best interest in general and the United Nations the region.
References Bagchi, I. (2016, May 3). India and the South China Sea Dispute.Retrieved 24 August 2016, from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/china/India and the South China Sea dispute/ articleshow/52095847.cms. Chakraborty,M. (2015). South China Sea: Conflicting interface in the Sino-India-Vietnam Strategic Triangle. World Focus, 07, 52-57. Cooley,B. (2012). A sea change or a wave of backlash? The South China Sea and the changing power dynamics in Southeast Asia, Global Security Studies, 3(4), 78-96. Cyrill, M. (2012).Murky waters: Politics in the South China Sea. Retrieved 24 August 2016 from http://www.idsa.in/backgrounder/Murky Waters Politics in the South China Sea_mmcyrill111212. Fravel, M.(2011). China’s Strategy in the South China Sea, Contemporary Southeast Asia, 33, 292-319. Kumar, C. (2013). Maritime rivalry in the South China Sea- Territorial disputes, risks and diplomacy, World Focus, 01, 60-66. Malik, M. (2013 June).Historical Fiction: China’s South China Sea Claims. Retrieved
100 5 August 2016,from http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/historicalfictionchina %E2%80%99ssouthchinaseaclaims. Majumdar, M. (2013).India’s stake in the South China Sea, Indian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(13), 242-247. Panda, J.P. (2013). South China Sea: ASEAN wants India to Counter China. World Focus, 01, 32-35. Puri, R., &Sahgal, A. (2011). The South China Sea Dispute: Implications for India, Indian Foreign Affairs Journal, 6(4), 437-448. Q&A: South China Sea dispute. Retrieved 20 August 2016, from http://www.bbc.com/news/ worldasiapacific13748349. Scott, D. (2015). India’s incremental balancing on the South China Sea. Retrieved, 25 August 2016, from http://www.eir.info/2015/07/26/indias incremental balancing in the south china sea/. Scott, D. (2013). India’s Role in the South China Sea: Geopolitics and Geoeconomics in Play. India Review, 12:2, 51-69. Singh, T.(2012). South China Sea: Emerging Security Architecture, IPCS Special Report 132, August 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2016, from http://www.ipcs.org. South China Sea tensions will not deter offshore pursuits: OVL, Retrieved 1 September 2016, from http://www.livemint.com/Industry/PZ1G9xbKFWbL8aWxWhYJnK/South-China- Sea-tensions-will-not-deter-offshore-pursuits-O.html. To counter China, US to ‘Sharpen Military Edge’ in Asia, Retrieved 1 September 2016, from http://m.ndtv.com/world-news/to counter-china-us-to-sharpen-military-edge-in-asia- 1468294. US-India Joint Strategic Vision for the Asia Pacific and Indian Ocean Region.Retrieved 24 August 2016, from http://mea.gov.in/bilateraldocuments.htm?dtl/24728/ USIndia_Joint_Strategic_Vision_for_the_AsiaPacific_and_Indian_Ocean_Region. Vinh, V.X. (2013). India’s Stand on the East Sea/South China Sea Disputes and Its Implications.World Focus, 01, 20-24. Weimar, N. (2013, February 22). Sino Indian power preponderance in maritime Asia: a (re)source of conflictin the Indian Ocean and South China Sea. Retrieved 24 September 2016, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14781158.2013.761192 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea adopted by the Foreign Ministers of ASEAN and the People’s Republic of China at the 8th ASEAN Summit in Phnom Penh, Cambodia on 4 November 2002. Retrieved 24 August 2016, from http:// www.aseansec.org/13163.htm.
101 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Collective Consciousness and Female Seafarers’ Stress Who have passed through the Port City of Durban
Mariam Seedat Khan* Gunasekharan Dharmaraja** Belinda Johnson***
Abstract Stress, Anxiety, Depression, Borderless waters and emptiness of sea gift women seafarers the hollowness. The economically driven women take up this gender biased job amidst all these psychological traumas in the maritime industry. The proneness towards loneliness due to male dominated work force push them to get into new short time relationship leaving behind the family on shore. Interviews with the female seafarers from Italy, Philippines, China, India, Africa and Korea who have passed through the Port City of Durban are the standing examples for this mental trauma. The collective consciousness of their homes and contemporary male dominated demanded situations jeopardized them in socio economic and psychotical dilemmas. This paper examines psychological issues that women seafarers experience due to economic reasons. Key words: Depression, Gender bias, Maritime industry Introduction Women engage in work on board in the dining room, they are found in ships, accompanied by long absences from cleaning rooms, in the galley and below their families in order to support them deck (Chin, 2008, p. 21). Seafarers on financially. According to Klein (2004) cruise and passenger ships are often paid they are forced to leave their children in substandard wages and live under a the care of surrogate caregivers; mothers, system which does not guarantee work grandmothers or close relatives. They (2008, p. 113).These seafarers arrive on often find themselves in entry-level ships for work,mostly from India, Asia, positions on board ships. These poor Eastern Europe, Africa, Central America employment opportunities, a result of poor and the Caribbean (Chin, 2008). The ITF skills, alongside low levels of education reports that below decks on virtually all propel them into gendered, domestic work cargo vessels, passenger and cruise ships, on board ships. Women who work as there is a hidden world of long hours, low seafarers can be found in occupations at pay, insecurity and exploitation all levels on board ships, but the majority (Prabhudas, 2004). of women who work on board are found
*Mariam Seedat Khan is Senior Lecturer, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa **Dr. Gunasekharan Dharmaraja is Associate Professor of English, Tamil Nadu National Law School, Tirichirappalli, T.N., India, Email- [email protected] 102 ***Ms. Belinda Johnson is Ph.D. Scholar & Lecturer, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa Research Methodology The interviews lasted up to three hours. The findings that are presented in Follow up interviews were made very this paper are drawn from qualitative difficult to establish, due to the interviews conducted over a six-month participants short visits to the port and period from September 2012 – January therefore not possible for this paper. 2013 with female seafarers ranging from However, more participants’ will be the age of twenty to the age of fourty five gathered using the snowball technique as years old at the Port City of Durban. reaching out to women seafarers is Women in this study represent a wide comparatively difficult. According to range of nationalities, race, religions and Babbie (1995, 287), “snowball sampling cultures. They are all mothers. The is a technique that begins with a few Southern African International Sailors relevant subjects that you’ve identified Society (SAISS) were instrumental in and expands the sample through referrals”. helping to gain access to the research Davies (2007, 56) further explains that the participants. With the arrival and researcher has no control over who falls departure of cruise liners at the Port City into the sample (size, race and gender) and of Durban, many hours were spent consequently the researcher has no means investigating the places which female of knowing to what extent the information seafarers frequented, when and if they you get or the opinions that are expressed were allowed to leave the ship while in do or do not reflect the total ‘population’- the port. Email contact was made with or even what that ‘population’ might female seafarers in other countries and consist of. their experiences were documented with Point of Contact, Gaining Entry permission. A Facebook page was set up The international Sailor’s Society of in November 2012 and we have Southern Africa (SAISS) has a branch established on going communication with located in Bayhead, Durban. SAISS was seafarers from across the globe. From the established in the Port City of Durban in contacts made through the Facebook 1877 (SAISS, 2012). It is a place of refuge forum, several women indicated that they for seafarers visiting the Port (SAISS, were interested in participating in the 2012). It began when Marie Schultz the research. This was a twofold process, wife of a local doctor took pity on the firstly through the use of a semi-structured sailors who arrived at port and she kindly ‘social networking chat site’ in addition began to visit them with books and supplies to an online survey posted onto of tobacco to make them feel welcome Facebook’s‘seafarers’ forum. The original when they arrived (SAISS, 2012). responses from all the participants are used in the paper. Although all The Durban Port was officially respondents were conversant in English, recognised with the appointment of the this was not always their mother tongue. first Port Master in the 1940s
103 (Ports&Ships, 2012). Since then the port use of recruitment agents. If they live in a has shown substantial growth, a new port coastal city, they are often tempted by the that has only been recently approved, will beauty and the glamour of the cruise extend services and be found, south of liners; they are also lured into employment the current port (Ports&Ships, 2012). The because of payment in US or European current facilities off the port offer three currencies. These currencies are valuable hundred and two railway lines to when converted into the local currencies transport goods to-and-through from the of India, Asia, Eastern Europe, Central harbour, ship repair facilities, a dry dock, America and Africa. The employment a privately owned floating dock, docking agent plays an important role in the life of facility, docking facilities for sea cruise the seafarer, that person is often the one ships and container facilities (Ports & that “forwards money to the workers Ships, 2012). The port also offers a single family.” The use of an agent is a costly buoy mooring which caters for Very exercise, and workers are often in debt Large Crude Carriers (VLCC) that are too before they have even started working. large to enter the port (Ports & Ships, Paying off the debt can take a long time. 2012). All of these facilities need A cook employed on the ship gave a personnel to ensure that the port facilities Bombay agency $2000 US dollars which run effectively. Thus, the port is the included airfare. That sum was almost a largest employer in KwaZulu-Natal third of the $7000 he would make during (Ports & Ships, 2012). Few ships are his 10-month contract (R. A. Klein, 2002). registered in South Africa, most are registered in foreign countries (Hutson, Vulnerable women and men from all 2012). According to Ruggunan (2008, p. over the world owe money before they 288) there are very few South African have started to earn. The promise of registered ships. The vessel is said to be earning in US dollars on board in the flying a Flag Of Convenience (FOC) world’s finest cruise liners propels them (Sharda, 2012). The shortage of South to pay shipping agents a fee to secure African registered ships has led to the employment. It is reported that an agency lack of interest in promoting seafaring as in Romania “charges $500 for an a career choice for young South Africans interview and an additional $1000 to in addition to the lack of ships for confirm employment” (R. A. Klein, 2002). seafarers to train on (Ruggunan, 2008, Lloyds List reported that “prospective p. 288). shipboard employees were charged $57 to receive and transmit their resume to Meet the Agent potential employees”(R. A. Klein, 2002). It is not uncommon for both men and International Labour Regulations require women who secure employment on board that the above mentioned fees are meant cargo vessels, passenger ships and cruise to be covered by the cruise liners. This is ships to access employment through the often overlooked and the seafarers cover
104 these costs in order to secure employment (ITF, 2005c). She graduated after ten years (R. A. Klein, 2002). of studying in 2004, and became the first This makes women seafarers not to woman captain to be appointed in give up jobs though they face gender bias Argentina (ITF, 2005c). But success did or suffer from home sickness. It is not only not come easy to Natalia, as she argued the economic burden they have on their that her superiors expected her to work shoulders, but also the burden of their harder than the male seafarers (ITF, debts owed to the seafaring agents that add 2005c). more to their psychological strains. When I began to work, I also Women Board the Ships experienced discrimination from some higher officials. Women need to make a The 25000 women currently double effort in order to be accepted. They employed as seafarers (Thomas, 2004, p. are always being tested, and they work 309) are recruited from developed or developing countries and their under greater pressure. These realities stop participation varies according to the region them from taking on this career and may (Ruggunan, 2008). Female seafarers may discourage them from staying in it. (ITF, find that they do not have equal access to 2005c) facilities and equipment available to male The same treatment was repeated in workers (Finke, 2012; ITF Seafarers, the case of Vanesa. When Vanesa Soto 2012f). This limited access can stepped on board Global Mariner it was compromise their privacy, health, her first time on board a ship (ITF, 2005c). opportunities for advancement, abilities to In July 1998, the Global Mariner sailed communicate with family and socializing away from London, travelling through 86 opportunities. ports in 51 countries on a trip around the Natalia Prosdocimi made a world that lasted 20 months. In total, conscious choice as a young girl to select 750,000 visitors attended the exhibitions a profession as a seafarer (ITF, 2005c). She about life at sea. Vanesa was one of them is from Argentina and was faced with the (ITF, 2005c). This journey was a catalyst challenges of entering a male dominated in her becoming a seafarer and she went sector and as the barriers of gender began to Naval School for three years and to be dismantled globally her chance committed to a life and career at sea (ITF, improved for a life at sea (ITF, 2005c). 2005c). Vanesa was and continues to be ‘To a large extent, we have to thank trade an advocate for women on board ships unions for this law, which gave women (ITF, 2005c). She has witnessed two cases the right to graduate as deck or engine of women colleagues being sexually officers’, says Natalia. Natalia was the harassed at work. As for herself, she is the only women in her class when she joined only woman among 13 men on her ship the naval school, a pioneer in her field and after some mishaps in the beginning,
105 she has now found a friendly workplace I am lonely, depressed and isolated (ITF, 2005c). every day of my life when I am on board Welcome to My World the ship. I work to feed my mother and my daughter. I work so I can send my It is estimated that there are currently daughter to school. I have no job at home; 25 000 women seafarers (ITF, 2005c). the jobs that I can find at home do not pay While women continue to enter the enough for my family to survive. If I did seafaring profession at its lowest rungs, not work on the ship, my family would their presence is becoming increasingly starve to death. I stay up worrying about visible on cruise ships, cargo vessels and my 60-year-old mother and my 6-year-old at ports around the world (ITF Seafarers, daughter. What would happen to my child 2012f). In the 2000 SIRC/ILO survey if my mom died? Who would take care of conducted, researchers found that only six her? What would happen to them if I died? per cent of these women were employed I cannot see any hope; I cannot see any on cargo ships, while 68% of the women change. (Female Seafarer no. 7 worked on ferries and the remaining 26% Interviewed, 20 November 2012) were employed on cruise liners (Anon, 2003). Christine Chin (2008) believes that Men Own the Sea it is becoming common in a changing Women have always played an environment for an increasing number of important role in the industry, however women to be gainfully employed in the small. In 1603 four German captains were industry on either cruise ships, passenger women; WWII/ the Second World War ships or ferries. There are specific saw women leading war ships into battle problems that women seafarers experience (Anon, 2003, p.7), 1997, saw one women on board. chief officer employed by BP Shipping, The extract given below is from an supposedly one of the most progressive interview with a female seafarer who companies in the UK (Couper, Walsh, worked onboard cruise liners that passed Stanberry, & Boerne, 1999, p. 21). But through the Port City of Durban in 2012/ unfortunately the society reflects what the 2013. The extracts best describe the mode of production reflects with nothing loneliness and isolation that female new or contrary. The maritime industry is seafarers experience when they are in no way opposite to the shore where separated from their children for extended male domination prevails. The seafaring periods. The long absence from their industry has been deemed to be home is one of the major contributing historically male dominated (Chin, 2008, factors that results in larger numbers of p. 21). One of the challenges that women women not choosing to pursue a career at face is accessing employment on board sea (N. Singh, 2011). One of the women ships. In some countries maritime seafarers interviewed says: institutions are not allowed to recruit
106 women (ITF Seafarers, 2012f). In the policies which has steered in the direction 1980s China’s largest shipping company of women and they have been actively stopped employing women on cargo ships. recruiting women since 2000 (Anon, They had been employed on cargo ships 2003, p. 13). Despite these efforts and for extended periods of time, prior to the advances, few women are employed in 1980s (Chin, 2008, p. 11). Women who senior positions amongst the deck and complete navigation courses (ITF engine rooms (Couper et al., 1999, p. 21). Seafarers, 2012f) face discrimination from Women’s participation in the industry is prospective employers who are reluctant being actively encouraged by Maritime to employ women (Finke, 2012). Evident programmes (DUT, 2012;Maritime- in male dominated industries is female Executive, 2010; SAMTRA, 2013). seafarers receiving lower rates of According to an International Labour remuneration for equal work (Finke, 2012; Publication, Women Seafarers: Global ITF Seafarers, 2012f). Employment Policies and Practices, In India in 1998, statistics indicate maritime and nautical school enrolments that there were 43000 seafarers registered. in 1998 indicate that for every 95 males Of these seafarers, only 3 were women registered at a maritime college five (Anon, 2003). In China, one of its leading females are registered in Germany and 96 shipping companies was renowned for the male students are admitted to four females employment of women only, with only in the Netherlands and the United female officers onboard (Anon, 2003, p. Kingdom (Anon, 2003, p. 13). 11). Today the landscape has changed; the It can be argued that the doors of the very same company now only employs seafaring profession have swung open for 150 women and they are largely women due to the current shortage of concentrated in the hospitality sector on labour at sea (ITFSeafarers, 2003e). The ships (Anon, 2003, p. 11). Women’s entry of women into the industry is a result inclusion and exclusion in the maritime of the shortage highlighted in 2000. ‘The sector is often dictated by gender 2000 BIMCO/ISF reported a 4% shortage constructs, labour demand and low wages. of officers at sea’ (Thomas, 2004, p. 309). These trends are similar to those seen in This shortage of officers will experience other traditionally male oriented sectors, further growth if the marine industry does where women are the first to be fired and not adhere to the call for a new rank to be the last to be hired. The maritime added in order to fill a need created by the industries are also the best replica of the increased administration (Singh, 2013). male dominated societies on shore. These changes are due to the Welcome Back to the Female Seafarers modifications to the shipping company’s administration and the accountability of In China the lack of suitable male senior officers on ships (Singh, 2013). candidates have altered recruitment Additional reason for shortages is
107 unprecedented levels of economic growth of jobs for women at sea (George, 2011). in Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Because of the low pay and easier Africa (Anon b, 2010. P10).The direct accessibility to employment on FOC result has been the expansion of the world registered vessels, women who seek maritime cargo movement and increased employment here tend to be younger, and world commercial fleets (Anon b, fewer are officers than their male crew 2010).According to the SIRC/ILO survey, mates (ITFSeafarers, 2012f). Women pressure from global forces and a change seafarers work mainly on Flags Of in political direction towards empowering Convenience (FOC) vessels (Couper et al., women in the 1990’s saw the face of the 1999, p. 21). FOC vessels are described changing maritime industry (Anon, 2003). as a ship that is ‘one that flies the flag of a Employers who have hired female country other than the country of seafarers have indicated a high level of ownership’ (ITFglobal.org, 2012a). By satisfaction with them (Thomas, 2004, p. registering as an FOC vessel, the owners 309). A report that some employers are are able to avoid lengthy bureaucratic encouraging women to enter the profession processes and avoid high financial in large numbers is not always true. accountability and liability (Sharda, 2012). This avoidance can result in human rights If the labour shortage is to be and human labour exploitation; mainly addressed female seafarers need to be seen because the labour laws in the FOC states as an untapped resource that is currently are relatively flexible and high levels of being under-utilized. Thomas (2004) unemployment are evident (Sharda, indicates that female seafarers can be the 2012). Ship owners can avoid strict labour solution to the labour shortage in the laws and minimum wages regulations set seafaring profession. The challenge is that by the maritime industry of the said ‘home most of these women are confined to state’ (Smita, 2011) vulnerable jobseekers gendered roles on board the ships (Chin, 2008, p. 21). Women are usually employed are exploited. to work in the servicing division of the These FOC registered vessels cruise liners, such as receptionists and present a challenge for female seafarers waitresses (Chin, 2008, p. 21). Thomas seeking employment on board ships which (2004), Chin (2008) and Ruggunan (2008) provide a living wage (ITFglobal.org, have all indicated that most women are 2012b). FOC registered vessels can have found employed in the hotels on board a significant impact on the quality of life passenger and cruise liners. for seafarers both at sea and on land; they Women Seafarers and Flags of are often accused of having poor living Convenience conditions on board, paying low wages and offering little job security Employment on FOC vessels is (ITFglobal.org, 2012b). On board these amongst the worst paid and least protected vessels, working hours are longer, the
108 crew is smaller and people employed on end at loss for female seafarers. The legal board vessels are at times coerced into system protecting women differs nation doing the work of port workers. to nation and booking the culprits and (ITFglobal.org, 2012b). When seafarers violators under justice is like a sort of are expected to assume or perform the metaphysical activity for women duties of port workers, this can result in seafarers. The following testimony given tension between the two and this in turn below from a woman seafarer is standing can result in large numbers of port workers example of gender bias and sexual losing their jobs (ITFglobal.org, 2012b). harassment. In most instances when this occurs, it is When you are at sea, you get the women port-workers who are the first to lose their jobs (Thomas, 2004). extremely lonely as a woman. Men are very lonely and make many advances on Gender Bias and Sexual Harassment women. Sometimes your best protection The low number of women on board when you are on board a ship is to find a cargo, war and merchant vessels is a male partner, as a way of protection contributory factor to women’s against the other men. For me this has been vulnerability on board these vessels and the way that I cope. If I am on a ship for they are subjected to discrimination and nine months, I often find a boyfriend. harassment (ITF Seafarers, 2012f). Unions When the other men on board the ship for seafarers are actively involved and they know that you are with someone, they will are well aware of the vulnerable position not make sexual advances towards you. I of female seafarers on board these vessels know what you must think, but I have to and efforts are being made to ensure their do this. I would rather have a short-term protection and wellbeing (Finke, 2012). relationship with one man than be But to what extent, it has been harassed by all the men (Female Seafarer implemented and what steps are taken or no. 6 Interviewed, 19 September 2012). to be taken to prevent these gender bias, As Lenin says “There is no standard discrimination and sexual harassment are moral values”, here the prevailing questionable. Even on land where women situation forces them into short term get immediate access to police and legal aids, these discriminations still continue relationships; though they want to be loyal and so no wonder about its continuance to their husbands, the vulnerability of on board which is a separate island where being a woman forces them into short term access to legal aids is not immediately relationship with a male on board to avoid possible. When ships take a long time to unnecessary encounter with other males. reach the shore, the on board officers seek The collective consciousness of their the way of peaceful compliance between family and their relationship with their the offenders and oppressed which always husbands and security driven short term
109 relationships here on board put them in (ITFglobal.org, 2012d). ITF continues to the mental dilemma that causes severe fight for adequate regulation in the depression that often lasts for the rest of shipping industry which in turn protects their lives. The fight between the need and the interests and rights of the seafarers the moral values cum love completely (ITFglobal.org, 2012d). Nautilus pushes them to be a psychological patient International and ITF affiliated union have and the remnants of this lasts long and very strong policies that protect women leaves its imprints forever in their lives. seafarers (Nautilus, 2012d). It not only Trade Unions and Women Seafarers strives for equal opportunity for women, they also acknowledge that women are In the ship, though no unions can be exposed to different stressors whilst active to demand the rights of women, working on board ships. This union has a trade unions on shore play a vital role in dedicated telephone line, managed by doing so. Their role is limited, but female union employees, that assist with effective. Trade Unions have played an gender specific issues (Nautilus, 2009e, important role in the protection, arrival p. 31). It is committed to attracting an and continued presence of women increasing number of female seafarers into seafarers on ships at sea (ITF Seafarers, the maritime industry and hasincentivised 2012f). After the slow and continued women with the Victoria Drummond decline of worldwide oppression, gender Award. This is awarded every four years biased employment, and other forms of to a female seafarerfor significant discrimination, different forms of prejudice achievement in any of a wide range of are gradually being confronted head on. skills within the maritime industry Women are beginning to enter areas of (Nautilus, 2009e, p. 62). Although unions work that were historically reserved for represent women at sea, there are still their male counterparts (Anon, 2003). several challenges they face in a male Trade unions play an important role in dominated environment as discussed here opening up the seafaring profession to in this paper. women along with trying to securing the rights that they can access as unionized Men and Women on Board Ships employees at sea (ITF Seafarers, 2012f). Hansen and Jensen (1989) find that The International Transport Workers’ engine rooms are male-dominated with Federation (ITF) has been in existence high levels of alcohol and tobacco since 1896 and represents, alongside ITF consumption. The consumption of alcohol affiliated unions, over 600,000 seafarers increases the risk of onboard fatalities (ITFglobal.org, 2012d). (Hansen & Jensen, 1989). When small The ITF is represented nationwide numbers of female seafarers enter these and its aim is to improve conditions for male dominated areas on the ship they seafarers of all nationalities and gender often adopt the very same unhealthy and
110 risky male behaviour. The assimilation of pressure arising from familial separation masculine strategies is used to present is certainly an issue. Moreover the gender themselves in a more acceptable way to bias that is among the seafarers pushes the their fellow male workers.Unhealthy women seafarers into this fatal decision behaviour and substance abuse can be a immediately. When a seafarer was problem for both genders. A female interviewed, she described the suicide of seafarer who was interviewed said that the her colleague from the Philippines. men and women drink and smoke heavily I have also known and heard of on board the ship. It is a way of escaping suicides on board the ships that I have the loneliness and forgetting. Few women worked on I once worked with a women seafarers do not smoke or drink because from the Philippines, she was 30 years old it is expensive and they wanted to save and she was the sole breadwinner in her money for their family. family. She received news that one of her The number of fatal accidents both children had died in a fatal car accident at sea and on land is high among female and the next day she was found in her seafarers (Hansen & Jensen, 1989). This quarters dead. She left a note for her may be as a result of them being family. I knew the women well, she talked influenced by their occupation towards about her children all the time, her 17 year hazardous behaviour and a high risk old son was her only hope for her family, lifestyle, but people with a high risk he was bright and she knew that he would lifestyle may just be attracted by or forced become a doctor. After his death, she lost into high risk jobs such as traditional male all hope and killed herself. I often think jobs at sea (Hansen & Jensen, 1989). Both of killing myself, but I know that it will women and men in the maritime not solve anything for my family or me profession also are in a high-risk group (Female Seafarer no. 9 Interviewed, 24 for suicides (Burr, 2007). An Australian September 2012). based research study indicated that the Gender biggest cause of stress resulted from the relationship between home and work and Women have always been, and that family problems were also the root continue to be, important contributors to cause for suicide amongst seafarers at sea the seafaring profession.Their roles are (ITF, 2002h). Suicide risks among critical in the transformation of the seafarers are thought to be linked with industry. Women have faced challenges in easy access to a means of suicide both historical and current context when (drowning), selection effects in people occupying professions in the maritime who go to sea, long-term separation from sector. In particular, women from India, family and social networks, heavy alcohol Philippines, China, South Korea, South consumption and psychoses (Burr, 2007, America and Asia face difficulties in terms p. 54). The risk of suicide due to emotional of unfamiliar cultural contexts when
111 embarking on a profession at sea (Thomas, them I would not be able to leave for work. 2004, p. 311). The perceived I give my brother everything I earn. Every incompatibility of a career at sea, the role month 80% of my salary is paid to him. I of motherhood, the women’s gendered receive 20% in cash on the ship. I save role within the family and her role as a everything. I have to hide this money from wife and mother places an additional my brother. I am saving this money to start burden and stress on female seafarers. a shop at home in a few years. Sometimes Despite woman seafarer’s absence from I receive tips on board the ship and I save her home for a long time, she must come this. I do not buy toiletries, when I clean home to take over when she is here. She the room after a cruise people leave things should use the time to rest, but there is no behind and I collect this and use it. I do rest for her. She must work on the ship not use the laundry facilities on the ship; I and she must work at home. wash my own clothes by hand and iron The double-burden that women are them myself (Female Seafarer no. 5 forced to bear is in negotiating the Interviewed, 19 November 2012). demands placed upon them at work and The colour of the skin is also a main within their traditionally gendered roles factor in gender bias. Female Seafarers as wives, daughters and mothers.Women with lighter skin tones are usually placed can also face a degree of alienation from in frontline jobs such as the information both family and community when she desks whereas, women with darker skin returns home after an extended absence. tones are ‘hidden, in behind the scenes’ This sense of alienation can be well cleaning and catering jobs (Chin, 2008, expressed by the following quote from a p. 21). Issues of gender equity and linkages woman seafarer when interviewed. between caste-based systems that are If I could earn the same amount of based on skin tone are still prevalent in money at home I would never work on a certain countries and there is evidence of ship. I would be prepared to do anything these practices influencing the types of in my country. The problem is that there employment allocated to women in the are no jobs. I had no choice. If I was not at maritime sector. work at sea my family would starve, we Pregnant Women at Sea would be out on the streets. My family is respected now. They are respected because The rights of women at sea are they have money in a poor community. governed by a series of laws. They are When I go home, the women welcome me; determined by the laws of their birth the men are indifferent because they feel country, if and when they are sailing on a that I am doing a man’s job. I am a mother ship of their home country (Finke, 2012). I have to do what I can to support my Alternatively and in some cases, this could family. I pay my brother and his wife to be in addition to the rights guaranteed to take care of my children. If I did not have them by the employer. Those that are
112 members of unions will also be protected I was pregnant when I signed my first under their ‘union’s collective bargaining contract for six months. I was so afraid of agreements’ (Finke, 2012). If a female losing my job. I did not disclose my seafarer works on a ship that does not condition to anyone. It was a very difficult belong to their home country, also known time for me. There was a female captain as a ‘Flag of Convenience vessel’, the on board the ship and she had suspected members have rights that are accorded by that I was pregnant. I did not get any that particular countries flag ‘which might benefits because I had only worked for the not give any maternity rights at all’ (ITF, company for six months. Six weeks after 2012g). The ITF does provide basic and my baby was born I returned to the ship minimum rights for seafarers, both men for an additional six months. I have been and women (ITF, 2012g). ITF-approved with the company for eight years and I agreements for merchant vessels stipulate work for nine months every year. I spend that pregnant seafarers must be repatriated three months at home (Female Seafarer at the cost of the company must receive no. 4 Interviewed, 12 September 2012). two months full pay in compensation. In an interview with a female (ITF, 2012g). engineer that was conducted at the Sailors These minimum rights depend on a Society in Umbilo Road, Durban, (who new set of principles and qualifiers, wanted to remain anonymous) she did not introduced in the 1990’s and these disclose the name of her company. The include: The timing of the repatriation 28-year-old woman was from Malawi. She may vary depending on where you work obtained funding to read for an and your stage of pregnancy; where the engineering degree in Amsterdam. After ship is trading coastally, or where a she completed her degree in engineering, doctor is on board, it is generally safer she made applications for employment. for pregnant women to work later into a Through her networks in Amsterdam, she pregnancy - in Britain, this is up to 28 became aware of opportunities for weeks (ITF, 2012g). However, if working employment at sea. This job required on deep-sea vessels or very high speed further training at a Maritime college. craft, the risks need to be assessed Securing the necessary funds, she pursued carefully (ITF, 2012g). Theoretically, her studies. At the age of 24 she managed pregnancy should never be treated as a to secure an entry level job on board a ship. disciplinary offence (ITF, 2012g). This was a very difficult choice for her as Current practices such as requiring she had already been away from her family pregnancy testing before offering home in Malawi for six years. She decided employment to women violate to make a trip home before she began her International Labour Organisation (ILO) life at sea. When she returned to Malawi, Convention 183 (ITF, 2012g). she succumbed to the family and community pressure and wed her current
113 husband whom her family had selected for the company would cover her costs to her. After her three-month stay at home, return home. She would then be entitled she was off to South Africa where she to maternity leave for a period of twelve would board a ship and set sail. She was weeks. Thereafter she was expected to about to begin her career at sea. Although return to the ship. She would be notified this was an entry-level position and she of the Port closer to the time. She thought had many hours of training ahead of her she was lucky that she is an engineer and she had secured a position in the had skills. And she was not sure whether engineering department. Her first job at she would have been as lucky if she had sea was going to be ten months. Ten been employed as hotel staff (Burr, 2007). months away from her husband and her Female seafarers’ responses family. She left with excitement and was regarding their knowledge of their happy to be earning in an international companies maternity policies, affirms currency. She worked hard in the Belcher’s (2003.P 60) research. It is beginning and after three weeks at sea she had taken ill. Other seafarers told her that evident that very few women know what it was common and she would soon be their maternity rights are; or they are not well again, once she had found her sea properly informed about their rights. legs. She waited patiently for her health Belcher (2003: 60) further points out those to improve. After three days she began to women are required to take pregnancy tests feel worse and decided to visit the ship’s before joining crew ships. This failure of doctor. She soon discovered that she was companies to brief women on their basic pregnant and now she did not know what rights could be viewed as a human rights next. Her whole world began to crumble violation on its own. An ITF resource book around her. She had never intended on for trade union negotiators in the transport starting a family so soon. What was she sector points out the human rights violation going to do, would she give birth on board for pregnant women, that 16% were not the ship, would she be fired, would this entitled to maternity leave with cash be the end of her life at sea? (Burr, 2007) benefits, 30% stated that pregnant employees did not have the right to Communication with her family was guaranteed job transfers without loss of not always easy. It depended on where they earnings and 14% had restrictions imposed were, how close they were to a port and a upon them after returning from maternity series of other factors. It was often leave. (Finke, 2012) expensive at sea and therefore limited to email communication. She spoke to her Although all ships carry a medical Captain and she was granted an unpaid officer onboard, women complain that leave of absence. When she was eight their roster does not always coincide with months pregnant the ship would dock in that of the medical officer, therefore South Africa. She was to disembark and making it at times difficult to seek medical
114 attention (Belcher, 2003, p. 60). When a Both, I had to work harder initially seafarer does require some type of medical to “prove” myself to the male working help or advice whilst on duty, their population. One job I had working for — supervisor has to sign a form which , I earned considerably less than my male indicates the reason for medical work colleagues earned, and never consultation and, this can become a received a pay rise for extra tickets. Some problem in those instances where a female of the male management also tried to run seafarer would prefer to keep her reasons me off… because it wasn’t ‘appropriate’ for seeking medical help confidential for a woman to be doing the job I was (Belcher, 2003, p. 59). Female seafarers doing. …‘the common problems women have also reported similar insensitivity and experience whilst working offshore’ is logistical problems in obtaining and non-acceptance and that she has heard disposing of female sanitary products, and ‘sexual rumours’(Respondent-no.9, this can subsequently result in stress 2013). (Belcher, 2003, p. 62). In an informal discussion conducted with a male seafarer Respondents were asked to answer active in the oil industry, the respondent to the following: ‘If you had a daughter, revealed ‘I suppose they can throw it would you advise her to become a overboard’. Similarly, a female seafarer seafarer?’ Out of the twelve respondents said that they were told to keep their two said ‘yes’, four said ‘no’ and six did ‘feminine products’ sealed in plastic bags not respond as they did not have children until it can be disposed of on land (Female (Surveymonkey, 2013). Another Seafarer no. 3 Interviewed, 16 February respondent stated that although she does 2013). This clearly indicates that the not have a daughter but a son: ‘I don’t profession is highly male centred and in think I want my son to go to sea! It’s not no way are the facilities arranged nor is she the industry we once had’ (Respondent- considered an equal employee of a ship. no.5, 2013). Another respondent said that In order to broaden the she was happy to recommend seafaring understanding a semi-structured interview for her daughter, because, ‘[it is a] good was designed and sent out to twelve job, good money’ (Respondent-no.1, previously identified female seafarers. 2013). One specific survey was filled in by an Coping Strategies Australian woman in her 40s (Respondent-no.9, 2013). She worked in According to Klein (2001, p. 90) the Oil and Gas Industry and in the both men and women often have to pay to pearling and fishing industries for more secure employment cruise ships. The than twelve years (Respondent-no.9, dream of a good job, with a secure income 2013). When asked ‘Did you find it easy outweighs the costs and their long absence or challenging to find employment in the away from their family, friends and home. maritime industry?’ Her response: However when they arrive on board ships
115 they are faced with a different reality. A be changed. One of the strategies that have reality that promises 12-14 hours of work been adopted is focusing on the job at a day, seven days a week with little or no hand. Being able to keep busy allows for time for themselves (R. Klein, 2001, p. little time for the type of self-reflection 92). Loneliness and an isolated work that results in pity, depression and environment becomes a reality very early loneliness. Other adaptive techniques have into their employment (ITF, 2002h). been to focus on and appreciate the Bribery and corruption on board these continuously changing work environment. ships are rife. Seafarers are forced to Despite the difficulties, learning to succumb to bribes to secure efficient and appreciate small benefits in the job is a timeouts laundry service, suitable further coping mechanism. Though many accommodation and a salary that feeds difficulties exist in the seafaring, they are their family (R. Klein, 2001, p. 100). This ready to accept the job as a woman sea point is well substantiated by the quote of farer says: one woman seafarer interviewed. She We could spend our entire workweek says: complaining about the problems with our If you know the right people on job but that wouldn’t get us anywhere! For board the ship, you can get a good cabin instance, I could moan and complain each and you can get good working hours. You day when I am at work on the ship, about have to know how things work on the ship. how much I miss my partner and life back When you are new on board it is difficult. home on the farm. But how would I You must be prepared to spend money for perform to the best of my ability at work? favours. (Female Seafarer no. 2 I just wouldn’t. Instead of feeling Interviewed, 25 October 2012) homesick or worrying about missing my As Hansen (1989) says, ‘Mobility loved ones I try to focus on the joys of my and Isolation characterize the workplace job and how much I love doing what I do of the Seafarer’ and working on a ship for a living. I mean who works in an removes individuals from a daily familial environment where their scenery changes setting. They can no longer play a role in every day. Sighting dolphins and whales the day-to-day living of the family as a on a regular basis, experiencing the feeling direct result of their prolonged absence. of night sailing under the moon and star Female seafarers have adopted a series of lit sky as well as the sights, living in a coping strategies to deal with life at sea. place where you have your own chefs, Unlike the adaptive techniques of stewards and cabin attendants. What more adopting masculine strategies, these could you want? (ITF, 2012g) coping mechanisms may result in more In addition to deriving emotional benefits. The practical day-to-day pleasure from focusing on the job at hand, challenges they face cannot be altered and regular communication with family or neither can their long absences from home loved-ones can help mitigate the feelings
116 of deprivation and with the rapid Reducing gender stereotypes within development of ICTs this can allow for the industry; provision of sanitary items sustained and effective ‘cyber parenting’. on board ships; access to confidential Although working at sea can be an medical advice; contraceptives and the interesting and gratifying occupation it can morning-after pill; consistent and subsequently take its toll on the seafarer’s improved approach to maternity benefits social and family life (ITF, 2002h). In the and rights; development of sexual event that the seafarer is unable to harassment policies and appropriate overcome feelings of isolation, their training, including within cadet training workplace becomes a stressful and education. (ITF, 2012g). environment (ITF, 2002h). This feeling of Since 2000 the ITF have negotiated isolation can be addressed if the ship with the cruise ship industry, which has a owners are cognizant and responsive to reputation for the most human rights the needs of their maritime workers. abuses, for the implementation and According to the Seafarers’ International realization of women’s rights. Although Research Centre (SIRC) a stable content agreements differ slightly from cruise ship seafarer is a productive seafarer. The to cruise ship, the standard ITF approach SIRC claims that there are three main is to try and realize a work environment psychological problems which seafarers in which women are free from all forms develop and these are: loneliness, of harassment such as bullying, sexual and homesickness and “burn out”. Recent racial abuse (ITF, 2012i). ITF cruise line research approaches demonstrate that policies also state that the normal hours qualitative research is increasingly of duty should be eight hours per day, five becoming a fundamental tool to give the days a week, with a 10 hour rest period seafarers a platform to articulate per 24 hour period; currently it is 77 hours themselves as to how they cope with these in a seven-day period (ITF, 2012i). In the stressors. Unlike previous quantitative event that any subsequent hours are approaches, which only track trends (such worked, overtime has to be paid (ITF, as number of attempted suicides), 2012i). Even with these changes, the qualitative data collection allows for the environment is not easy and seafarers have expression of opinions and narratives that to adapt and learn to cope. They are forced can subsequently offer explanations for to cope with the long absences from home, trends in quantitative data (Bailey, 20 May long working hours, limited rest periods, 2007, p. 10). gender discrimination, limited benefits, Recommendations &Conclusions limited medical and recreational facilities The ITF and the ILO along with trade and loneliness. unions have highlighted a series of key Though many recommendations are areas that remain a priority. These include made, proposed and implemented, it is the the following: male dominated society that holds the
117 rope. What is going on in a seafarer’s life society. Till the male dominated sphere is nothing but the reflection of what is and mode of production is deconstructed, going on in the land. Seafaring is in no these appear to be no chance for way an option to this male dominated meaningful change.
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120 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Same Sex Relationship in India: The Constitutionality, Legality and Morality Debates
Partha Pratim Paul*
Abstract In India, homosexuality is a criminal offence under Section 377, Indian Penal Code. This Act has been passed by British Parliament in 1860. The section states that “Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished” which remains in force in India. But the same homosexuality has been decriminalised in U.K, country of the origin of this Act. Indian society is also not static, but very dynamic in nature; so Indian society and what was its position one and half century ago, is not the same society in this century. There have been changes felt everywhere in the social, cultural, economic, political fields of life. People have started looking at things from different perspectives. Though some of the values remain eternal in nature in the society, fact remains that some values change with the change of time. Therefore, one of the tasks of law is to respond to those changes positively. Unless law does it, it will lose its due relevancy in the society. In India, the Constitution through its Part III, guarantees fundamental rights of individuals. It promises through its preamble - justice (political, social, economic), equality (of status and of opportunity etc. In the context of criminalisation of same sex relationship, the questions which are being frequently asked by many, namely, is same sex relationship immoral? Is same sex relationship unnatural? Does the criminalisation of same sex relationship end up with violations of many fundamental rights guaranteed in Part III of Constitution of India i.e. Right to equality, Right to privacy, Right to liberty, Right to dignity etc? Should same sex relationship be allowed in India by recognising the reality of life? In this context, in this article, judgments i.e. NazFoundation v. Govt. of NCT, Delhi, and Suresh Kumar Kaushal v. Naz Foundation (which overruled the former) have been critically analysed from different perspectives, which gives many new insights in understanding the issue of homosexuality. It also discusses Rupa Hurra v. Ashok Hurra case which framed up a guideline for curative petition, as Supreme Court has accepted curative petition regarding homosexuality. Additionally, this article tries to develop a new paradigm of jurisprudence in the context of law and science inter-face, which is the jurisprudence of post modern world. Key words: Homosexuality, Right to Liberty, Right to Dignity, Right to Privacy, Right to Equality, Freedom of Expression
*Dr.Partha Pratim Paul is Assistant Professor, Department of Law, Assam University, Silchar,Assam- 788011. Email: [email protected] 121 Introduction depends on many things likes, polity of To define morality is a difficult task state, economics, religion, scientific indeed. However, New Encyclopedia temperament of the people, culture etc.In (1993) analysesthe concept very nicely: the same way, to a great extent morality is not static. It also changes according to Philosophers have attempted to changes occurring in the society. While determine goodness in conduct some moral conducts have universal according to chief principles and application with a common standard, have considered certain types of some conducts have only society specific conduct either good in themselves orientation. Some of the conducts always or good because they conform to a remain moral in any given space and time; particular moral standard. In the some becomes immoral according to history of ethics there are three change of time and space.The larger principal standards of conduct, each question remains: should morality at all of which has been proposed as the be infused and embodied into law? highest good: happiness or pleasure; Natural Law Theory according to Dennis duty, virtue or obligation; and Lloyd (2001) is repository of such perfection; the fullest harmonious approach: “The essence of natural law development of human potential. may be said to lie in the constant assertion Depending on the social setting, the that there are objective moral principles authority invoked for good conduct which depend upon the nature of the is the will of God, the pattern of universe and which can be discovered by nature, or the rule of reason. When reason. These principles constitute the the will of God is the authority, natural law. This is valid necessity because obedience to the divine the rules governing correct human conduct commandments in scriptural texts is are logically connected with immanent the accepted standard of conduct. If the pattern of nature is the authority, truths concerning human nature. Natural conformity to the qualities attributed law is believed to be a rational foundation to human nature is the standard. for moral judgment. “Hence, the role of morality in giving colour and content of law is undeniable. The problem arises Morality is the standard criterion to because though law accepts some evaluate the human conduct, whether it is behaviours as immoral, people now are right or good in a given society. It is a challenging it. The issue is dominating in bunch of values which is to be imbibed, India because a serious question confronts so that a person can be an ideal human the society: is homosexuality immoral? Is being of a society and a good citizen of the prohibition over it unconstitutional? the country. Difficulty arises due to the In this context, a PIL, (Article 226, reason that it is a relative concept which Constitution of India), was filed by
122 NazFoundation, to challenge the recommendation of the Law constitutional validity of section 377, IPC Commission of India in its which criminally penalizes ‘unnatural 172ndReport which we believe offences’. The challenge is founded on the removes a great deal of confusion.” premise that it infringes some peoples’ The principles over which the Delhi fundamental rights in Articles 14, 19 and High Court in Naj Foundation v. NCT, 21 of Constitution of India. Delhi, built up its ratio-decidendi is Naz Foundation V. NCT of Delhi, Delhi narrated in the following: High Court Judgment Emergence of Doctrine of A decision of court is not binding Constitutional Morality and Its because of its conclusion but in regard to Application its ratio-decidendi. V.N.Shukla (2004) The High Court in this case, by defines it as “a statement of law applied focussing that “constitutional provision to the legal problems raised by facts as must be construed not in a narrow and found, upon which the decision is based”. constricted sense but in a wide and liberal The following is the ratio-decidendi of manner so as to anticipate and take Delhi High Courtin Naz Foundation v. account of changing conditions and Govt. of NCT, Delhi (1999) judgment purposes so that constitutional provision which gave a new paradigm to look at does not get fossilized but remains flexible criminality arising out of same sex enough to meet the newly emerging relationship from fundamental rights problems and challenges”, developed a discourse: unique concept of constitutional morality “Section 377 IPC, insofar it as a bunch of higher norms above statute, criminalises consensual sexual acts which each statute must confirm for of adults in private, is violative of warranting its own validity: Articles 21, 14 and 15 of the Constitutional provisions are either Constitution. The provisions of directly aimed at furthering the goals Section 377 IPC will continue to of the social revolution. The core of govern non-consensual penile non- the commitments to the social vaginal sex and penile non-vaginal revolution lies in Parts III and IV, in sex involving minors. By ‘adult’ we the Fundamental Rights and mean everyone who is 18 years of Directive Principles of State Policy. age and above. A person below 18 These are the conscience of the would be presumed not to be able Constitution. The Fundamental to consent to asexual act. This Rights, therefore, were to foster the clarification will hold till, of course, social revolution by creating a Parliament chooses to amend the society egalitarian to the extent that law to effectuate the all citizens were to be equally free
123 from coercion or restriction by the basis for overriding individual’s state, or by society privately; liberty fundamental rights of dignity and was no longer to be the privilege of privacy. In our scheme of things, the few. The Constitution of India constitutional morality must recognises, protects and celebrates outweigh the argument of public diversity. To stigmatise or to morality, even if it be the criminalise homosexuals only on majoritarian view. account of their sexual orientation Though a large section of the society would be against the constitutional views homosexuality as immoral, but as morality. constitutional morality is supreme, public Popular morality or public morality can in no way withstand against disapproval of certain acts is not a constitutional morality of India which are valid justification for restriction of nothing but fundamental rights enshrined the fundamental rights under Article in Part III of the Constitution. 21. Popular morality, as distinct Right to Life under Article 21, from a constitutional morality Constitution of India derived from constitutional values, As Delhi High Court declares that is based on shifting and subjecting the ‘Right to Life (Article 21, Constitution notions of right and wrong. If there of India)’ of the homosexuals is violated is any type of ‘morality’ that can by section 377, it becomes imperative to pass the test of compelling state understand the meaning of Right to Life. interest, it must be ‘constitutional’ Dignity and Privacy within the broad morality and not public morality. sweep of ‘right to life’ are nothing but While moving the Draft imperatives of constitutional morality of Constitution Dr.Ambedkar quoted India.Hence, denial of rights of the Grote, the historian of Greece, who homosexuals are the denials of ‘right to had said: The diffusion of dignity’ and ‘right to privacy’; The constitutional morality, not merely question remains: how does Dignity and among the majority of any Privacy get the status of fundamental community but throughout the rights, when the Constitution itself is whole, is an indispensable condition silent? The observation of Supreme Court of government at once free and in Menaka Gandhi v. Union of India peaceable; since even any powerful (1978) is enlightening: and obstinate minority may render the working of a free institution “If a right is not specifically named impracticable without being strong in Article 19(1), it may still be a enough to conquer the ascendancy fundamental right covered by same for themselves. Moral indignation, clause of that Article, if it is an howsoever strong, is not a valid integral part of a named
124 fundamental right or partakes of the instance of the exercise of it. This same basic nature and character as inclusion in turn paves the ways to treat that fundamental right. It is not the rights of homosexuals as matters of enough that a right claimed, flows dignity and privacy. In the language of or emanates from a named High Court: fundamental right or that its The sphere of privacy allows existence is necessary in order to persons to develop human relations make the exercise of the named without interference from the fundamental right meaningful and outside community or from the effective. Every activity which State. The exercise of autonomy facilitates the exercise of a named enables an individual to attain fundamental right is not necessarily fulfilment, grow in self-esteem, comprehended in that fundamental build relationships of his or her right nor can it be regarded as choice and fulfil all legitimate goals such merely because it may not be that he or she may set. In the Indian possible, otherwise to effectively Constitution, the right to live with exercise, that fundamental right. dignity and the right of privacy both What is necessary to be seen is, and are recognised as dimensions of that is the test which must be Article 21. Section 377 IPC denies applied, whether the right claimed, a person’s dignity and criminalises is an integral part of a named his or her core identity solely on fundamental right or partakes of the account of his or her sexuality and same basic nature and character as thus violates Article 21 of the the named fundamental right so that Constitution. As it stands, Section the exercise of such right is in reality 377 IPC denies a gay person a right and substance nothing but an to full personhood which is implicit instance of the exercise of the in notion of life under Article 21 of named fundamental right.” the Constitution. In the light of this Constitutional Right to Dignity Jurisprudential basis, the judiciary found the ambit of the right to life enshrined in ‘Right to dignity’ has become a facet Article 21 and sowed the seed for future of ‘right to life’ under Article 21, development of it. Accordingly, unnamed Constitution of India. The High Court in Naz Foundation judgment states Right to Privacy and Right to Dignity are appositely the meaning of it: integral parts of a named fundamental right i.e.Right to Life, because it carries 26. Dignity as observed by with it same basic nature and L’Heureux-Dube, J (1995) is a characteristics of Right to Life and is in difficult concept to capture in reality and substance nothing but an precise terms. At its least, it is clear
125 that the constitutional protection of It means that when a person is dignity requires us to acknowledge devalued and stigmatised, dignity is the value and worth of all individuals damaged. Human dignity is impaired by as members of our society. It unfriendly and hostile treatment for recognises a person as a free being someone’s personal traits like sexuality. who develops his or her body and Dignity is harmed because homosexuals mind as he or she sees fit. At the root are stigmatised, marginalized, looked of the dignity is the autonomy of the down and demeaned in the society by non- private will and a person’s freedom recognition of their place. It denies a homosexual a right to full personhood of choice and of action. Human which is implicit in notion of ‘right to life’ dignity rests on recognition of the and belittles them by treating them as physical and spiritual integrity of the criminals. Hence, they can’t live in the human being, his or her humanity, society with holding their heads high with and his value as a person, irrespective honour and prestige. of the utility he can provide to others. The expression “dignity of the Right to Privacy individual” finds specific mention in Right to Privacy is indispensible in the Preamble to the Constitution of the life of each and everyone. The right to India. V.R. Krishna Iyer, J. observed privacy has been held to protect a ‘private that the guarantee of human dignity space’ in which man may become and forms part of our constitutional remain himself for certain purposes or for culture in Prem Shankar Shukla v. certain periods in/of his/her life.Sexuality Delhi Admn (1980). is one core area of privacy where people do not like to be dictated; people like to 27. In Francis Coraliev. Union have absolute freedom of choice. In a Territory of Delhi (1981), Justice nutshell, right to privacy is the right to be P.N. Bhagwati explained the left alone.The society should leave a concept of right to dignity: “We person without any interference or think that the right to life includes intrusion in any manner-which not only the right to live with human dignity disturbs the private activities but also and all that goes along with it. Every prevents the person from performing. The act which offends against or impairs sphere of privacy allows persons to human dignity would constitute develop human relations for fulfilment of deprivation pro-tanto of this right to sex related expectations including its live and it would have to be in method and manner.Following is the accordance with reasonable, fair and verbatim transcription of that analysis by just procedure established by law High Court in this case: which stands the test of other 35. In Kharak Singh v. State of U.P fundamental rights.” (1964), SubbaRao, J. while
126 concurring thatthe fundamental around values of repose, sanctuary and right to privacy was part of the right intimate decision. Repose refers to toliberty in Article 21, part of the freedom from unwanted stimuli; sanctuary right to freedom of speechand to protection against intrusive observation; expression in Article 19(1)(a), and and intimate decision, to autonomy with also of the right ofmovement in respect to the most personal of life Article 19(1)(d), held that the choices”, views “Section 377 IPC as an Regulationspermitting surveillance Infringement of the Rights to Dignity and violated the fundamental right Privacy” as: toprivacy. In effect, all the seven 40. The right to privacy thus has learned Judges held that the”right to been held to protect a “private space privacy” was part of the right to in which man may become and “life” in Article 21. remain himself”. The ability to do 36. Gobind v. State of M.P (1975), so is exercised in accordance with They (judges) certainly realized as individual autonomy. Mathew J. in Brandeis, J. said in his dissent in Gobind v. State of M.P: “stressed Olmstead v. United States, the that privacy - the right to be let alone significance of man’s spiritual - was an interest that man should be nature, of his feelings and of his able to assert directly and not intellect and that only a partof the derivatively from hisefforts to pain, pleasure, satisfaction of life protect other interests. Blackmun, J. can be found in material things and (1986), made it clear that the much- therefore they must bedeemed to quoted “right to be let alone”, should have conferred upon the individual be seen not simply as a negative as against the Government a sphere right to occupy a private space free where he should be left alone. from government intrusion, but as 38. R. Rajagopal v. State of T.N a right to get on with your life, your (1994), held the right to privacy to be personality and make fundamental implicit in the right to life and liberty decisions about your intimate guaranteed to the citizens of India by relations without penalisation. The Article 21. “It is the right to be left privacy recognises that we all have alone”. A citizen has a right to a right to a sphere of private safeguard the privacy of his own, his intimacy and autonomy which family, marriage, procreation, allows us to establish and nurture motherhood, child bearing and human relationships without education among many other matters. interference from the outside community. The way in which one The High Court by referring to Justice gives expression to one’s sexuality R.C. Lahoti (2005): “Privacy centres is at the core of this area of private
127 intimacy. If, in expressing one’s women and children. But it was not sexuality, one acts consensually and enacted keeping in mind the without harming the other, invasion instances of child sexual abuse or to of that precinct will be a breach of fill the lacuna in a rape law. The privacy. legislative object of protecting Delhi High Court referred to Article women and children has no bearing 12 of UDHR (1948) and Article 17 of in regard to consensual sexual acts ICCPR (1966) to show the significance between adults of same sex in of Right to Privacy. The High Court private. The objective of penalizing tracked its development in India and ‘unnatural sexual acts’ has no rational showed the meaning attributed by nexus to the classification created judiciary and found sexuality is all about between procreative and non- privacy. procreative sexual acts. On objective of maintaining public health, Right to Equality NACO’s affidavit points out that Violation of Right to Equality “enforcement of section 377 (Article 14, Constitution of India) occurs adversely contributes to pushing the in section 377, IPC as it does not pass two- infliction underground; make risky test rule of reasonable classification. sexual practices go unnoticed and Hence according to Delhi High Court it is unaddressed. an example of discrimination (Article 15, Section 377 IPC is facially neutral Constitution of India) of discrimination and it apparently targets not based on sex: identities but acts, but in its Section 377 of IPC makes no operation it does end up unfairly distinction between acts engaged in targeting a particular community. the public sphere and acts engaged The fact is that these sexual acts in private sphere. It also makes no which are criminalised are distinction between the consensual associated more closely with one and non-consensual acts between class of persons, namely, the adults. Consensual sex between homosexuals as a class. Section 377 adults in private does not cause any IPC has the effect of viewing all gay harm to anybody. Thus it is evident men as criminals. When everything that disparate grouping in section 377 associated with homosexuality is does not take into account relevant treated as bent, queer, repugnant, the factors such as consent, age and the whole gay and lesbian community nature of the act or the absence of is marked with deviance and harm caused to anybody etc; hence perversity. They are subject to there is no intelligible differentia. The extensive prejudice because what object of section 377 is to protect they are or what they are perceived to be, not because of what they do. 128 98. Discrimination caused to MSM cured or altered, it is just another natural and gay community is unfair and expression of human sexuality.” unreasonable and, therefore, in Moreover, homosexuality is viewed as breach of Article 14 of the unnatural - Khanu v. Emperor (1925): “If Constitution of India. the oral sex is committed, it is clearly 104. Sexual orientation is a ground against the order of nature, because the analogous to sex and that natural object of carnal intercourse is that discrimination on the basis of sexual there should be the possibility of orientation is not permitted by conception of human beings, which in the Article 15. case of coitus per os is impossible. “According to High Court in this case, The High Court recognised that “section 377 of IPC is based upon section 377, IPC is violate of Right to traditional Judeo-Christian moral and Equality; so equality is an attribute of ethical standards, which conceive of sex Constitutional Morality, negated by in purely functional terms, i.e., for criminalisation of same sex relationship procreation only. Any non-procreative in India. sexual activity including homosexuality Homosexuality is not Against Order of was viewed as being against the order of Nature nature”. This approach towards sex for procreation is absolutely flawed. People According to Delhi High Court, also have sex to get bodily or mental homosexuality is not unnatural: euphoria (without the object of “Homosexuality was removed from the procreation); otherwise they would not Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1973 after reviewing have performed it with contraceptives or evidence that homosexuality is not a when women do not menstruate. It is mental disorder. In 1987, ego-dystonic unnatural? homosexuality was not included in the Homosexuality is the general revised third edition of the DSM after a reflection of a person’s gene (a form of similar review. In 1992, the WHO inner body chemistry) for which the removed homosexuality from its list of person does not have any choice, has to mental illnesses in the International respond to his/her inner natural instincts. Classification of Diseases 10. It reads: The genes are pre-disposing the sexual disorders of sexual preference are clearly orientation of a person. Example(1): differentiated from disorders of gender ‘Science Daily’ (2007) reported that identity and homosexuality in itself is no “homosexual behaviour was largely longer included as a category.” In the shaped by genetics and environmental language of High Court in this case: factors. Writing in the scientific journal “Thus, homosexuality is not a disease or Archives of Sexual Behavior, researchers mental illness that needs to be, or can be from Queen Mary’s School of Biological
129 and Chemical Sciences, and Karolinska High Court which read down that part of Institutet in Stockholm report that genetics section 377, IPC which criminalises the and environmental factors (which are same sex relationship between consenting specific to an individual, and may include adults, by declaring it void for being biological processes such as different unconstitutional. The reasons constructed hormone exposure in the womb), are by Supreme Court while upholding the important determinants of homosexual constitutionality read down part of section behaviour.” Example (2): ‘Science Daily’ 377, IPC as in the following: (2008) again reported that “genetics has a Presumption of Constitutionality in role in determining sexual orientation in Favour of Section 377, Indian Penal men, further evidence. Canadian scientists Code have uncovered new evidence which shows genetics has a role to play in The Supreme Court invoked the doctrine of presumption of determining whether an individual is constitutionality in favour of section 377 homosexual or heterosexual. The research of IPC in the following way: was conducted by Dr. Sandra Witelson, a neuroscientist in the Michael G. DeGroote 26. Keeping in mind the importance of School of Medicine at McMaster separation of powers and out of a sense University, and colleagues at Sunnybrook of deference to the value of democracy Health Sciences Centre in Toronto.” that parliamentary acts embody, self restraint has been exercised by the The preceding analysis focuses judiciary when dealing with challenges to growing inter-relationship between the constitutionality of laws. This form of science and law. It just conveys the truth restraint has manifested itself in the that law cannot succeed by ignoring the principle of presumption of elements of biological sciences.There are constitutionality. vast areas where law should synergise with scientific principles and knowledge 28. This is founded on the premise that in doing justice. the legislature, being a representative body of the people and accountable to them is Supreme Court on Same Sex aware of their needs and acts in their best Relationship in Appellate Case interest within the confines of the Suresh Kumar Koushal,under Constitution. If no amendment is made to a Article 132 of Constitution of India, particular law it may represent a decision appealed before Supreme Court against that the Legislature has taken to leave the NAZ Foundation v. NCT Delhi judgment. law as it is and this decision is no different This gave rise to Suresh Kumar Kaushal from a decision to amend and change the v. NAZ Foundation judgment where the law or enact a new law. hon’ble apex Court (Constitution Bench) 32. The 172nd Law Commission Report has overruled the Naz Foundation of Delhi specifically recommended deletion of that
130 section and the issue has repeatedly come by the presumption of constitutionality. If up for debate. However, the Legislature the fundamental right of a person is has chosen not to amend the law or revisit violated, why should the Constitutional it. This shows that Parliament, which is Courts keep self-restraint? Do the undisputedly the representative body of Constitutional Courts want to enjoy the the people of India has not thought it suffering of people emanating from the proper to delete the provision. violation of fundamental rights? Keeping 33. It is, therefore, apposite to say that self-restraint could be the approach of the unless a clear constitutional violation is judiciary as far as the fate of any statute is proved, this Court is not empowered to concerned if it comes in conflict with strike down a law merely by virtue of its Constitution, embodied in other Parts but falling into disuse or the perception of the not Part III of it. Moreover, favouring society having changed as regards the constitutionality of any enactment, if there legitimacy of its purpose and its need. are two opposite interpretations, is not applicable in fundamental right violation The apex Court has interpreted cases. The Supreme Court has erred in Article 13(1) of Constitution of India in a applying a general rule of interpretation different way by distinguishing violation of statute which is not at all meant for Part and clear violation; it states that III of Constitution. Constitutional Courts can make it void only in clear violation cases. But, Article 13(1) Homosexuality is Carnal Intercourse itself does not differentiate between against the Order of Nature anything like mere or clear Constitutional The apex Court sees homosexuality violations. Moreover, do the Constitutional as carnal intercourse against the order of Courts have any locus standi to put the nature. On the basis citing cases, by it, degrees on the nature of violation? It is up apex Court finds: “from these cases no to the sufferer to decide the matter; it is the uniform test can be culled out to classify level of consciousness of the people which acts as carnal intercourse against the order matters most. All violations are equally of nature. In our opinion the acts which condemnable and deserve to be remedied fall within the ambit of section 377, can appropriately. This interpretation will set a only be determined with reference to the precedent where fundamental rights are set act itself and the circumstances in which in a potentially dangerous trajectory. it is executed. We are apprehensive of Constitutional Courts might ignore some whether the Court would (not) rule violations by dubbing as mere violation and similarly in a case of proved consensual refuse to enforce it. intercourse between adults. Hence it is The Supreme Court also set a difficult to prepare a list of acts which precedent by observing that self restraint would be covered by the section. must be exercised and it must be guided Nonetheless in light of the plain meaning
131 and legislative history of the section, we must be founded on an intelligible hold that Section 377 IPC would apply differentia which distinguishes those irrespective of age and consent.” that are grouped together from others Whether Classification Made in Section and (2) that differentia must have a 377, IPC is Reasonable rationalrelation to the object sought to be achieved by the Act. Relying on the broad propositions Thereby, the Supreme Court in this framed in its earlier decision of Re: appellate case found that section 377 of IPC Special Courts Bill (1978), about the does not have vice of unconstitutionality scope of Article 14, Constitution of India, for being discriminatory in nature: to determine the question whether a particular classification is 42. Those who indulge in carnal unconstitutional, the Supreme Court intercourse in the ordinary course followed the following guidelines: and those who indulge in carnal intercourse against the order of 5. By the process of classification, nature constitute different classes the State has the power of and the people falling in the later determining who should be regarded category cannot claim that Section as a class for purposes of legislation 377 suffers from the vice of and in relation to a law enacted on a arbitrariness and irrational particular subject.This power, no classification. What Section 377 doubt, in some degree is likely to does is merely to define the produce some inequality; but if a law particular offence and prescribe deals with the liberties of a number punishment for the same which can of well-defined classes, it is not open be awarded if in the trial conducted to the charge of denial of equal in accordance with the provisions of protection on the ground that it has the Code of Criminal Procedure and no application to other persons. other statutes of the same family the 7. The classification must not be person is found guilty. Therefore, arbitrary but must be rational, that is the High Court was not right in to say, it must not only be based on declaring Section 377 IPC ultra some qualities or characteristics vires Articles 14 and 15 of the which are to be found in all the Constitution. persons grouped together and not in Right to Dignity and Privacy under others who are left out but those Article 21, Constitution and Same Sex qualities or characteristics must have Relationship a reasonable relation to the object of the legislation. In order to pass the The apex Court dealt with Right to test, two conditions must befulfilled, Dignity and Privacy vis-a-vis namely, (1) that the classification homosexuality in the following manner:
132 47. Gobind v. State of M. P (1975): protection of health or morals or 22. If the Court does find that a protection of rights and freedom of claimed right is entitled to others. protection as a fundamental privacy 50. The right to live with dignity has right, a law infringing it must satisfy been recognized as a part of Article the compelling state interest test. 21and the matter has been dealt with Obviously, if the enforcement of in Francis Coralie v. Union Territory morality were held to be a of Delhi (1981) “the right to life compelling as well as a permissible includes the right to live with human state interest, the characterization of dignity and all that goes along with that claimed rights as a fundamental it.” privacy right would be of far less significance. 23. Time works Therefore, Supreme Court conceded changes and brings into existence both the rights as fundamental right under new conditions. Yet, too broad a Article 21, but views same sex definition of privacy raises serious relationship not under Right to Privacy questions about the propriety of and Right to Dignity. It is also of the view judicial reliance on a right that is not that homosexuality is not an Indian value: explicit in the Constitution. Privacy “We have grave doubts about the interest in autonomy must also be expediency of transplanting Western placed in the context of other rights experience in our country. Social and values. 25. Rights and freedoms conditions are different and so also the of citizens are set forth in the general intellectual level” and there is a Constitution in order to guarantee compelling state interest to enforce the that the individual, his personality morality stemming from Indian values. and those things stamped with his But the fact remains that sexuality of personality shall be free from homosexuals, cannot be an issue about official interference except where a Indian values v. western values. The reasonable basis for intrusion Supreme Court has erred in understanding exists.” the reality of biological life of human 49. In Mr. X v. Hospital Z (1998):27. beings.There are many instances where Asalready held by this Court in its Supreme Court itself was deeply various decisions referred to influenced by western values. The above,the Right of Privacy is an reasoning of Supreme Court also does not essential component of right to hold any substantial ground because, lifeenvisaged by Article 21. The whole Constitution of India itself has been right, however, is not absolute and borrowed from foreign countries - U.K, may be lawfully restricted for the Ireland, U.S.A and Japan. The Supreme prevention of crime, disorder or Court has erred also because the whole
133 concept of criminality, arising out of same the suggestion made by the Attorney sex relationship, has been borrowed from General. U.K as Indian Penal Code itself (passed Curative Petition and Homosexuality by its parliament). It implies that homosexuality is a crime as per western After Supreme Court overruled the value. Moreover, how does the sexuality Naz Foundation v. NCT Delhi, a review of homosexuals become western when petition under Article 137 Constitution of ancient Hindu temples in its stone engrave India,had been filed; subsequently that (sculptures) demonstrate this type of review petition also has been rejected. But sexuality of human beings? Finally, what ray of hope is still visible, as Supreme is wrong in it if a western value is infused Court has accepted a curative petition in in Indian legal framework if it is good and this regard. Though at par, the Order XL does not ante-thesis to Indian value Rule 5 of the Supreme Court Rules bars system, when in a globalised scenario, no further application for review in the same country cannot just shut its doors to matter, the justification of second review in the name of Curative Petition (second prevent the air flowing in. review) is found in Supreme Court Overruling of Naz Foundation judgment of Rupa Hurra v. Ashok Hurra Judgment by Supreme Court under (1999): Appellate Jurisdiction Though Judges of the highest Court Finally, on the basis all preceding do their best, subject of course to principles, Supreme Court upheld the the limitation of human fallibility, constitutionality of section 377 of Indian yet situations may arise, in the rarest Penal Code, by opining that: of the rare cases, which would 54. Section 377 IPC does not suffer from require reconsideration of a final the vice of unconstitutionality and the judgment to set right miscarriage of declaration made by the Division Bench justice complained of. In such case of the High court is legally unsustainable. it would not only be proper but also obligatory both legally and morally 56. This Court has merely pronounced on to rectify the error. After giving our the correctness of the view taken by the anxious consideration to the Delhi High Court on the constitutionality question we are persuaded to hold of Section 377 IPC and found that the said that the duty to do justice in these section does not suffer from any rarest of rare cases shall have to constitutional infirmity. Notwithstanding prevail over the policy of certainty this verdict, the competent legislature shall of judgment as though it is be free to consider the desirability and essentially in public interest that a propriety of deleting Section 377 IPC from final judgment of the final court in the statute book or amend the same as per the country should not be open to
134 challenge. Yet there may be if he was a party to the lis, he was circumstances, as mentioned above, not served with notice of the wherein declining to reconsider the proceedings and the matter judgment would be oppressive to proceeded as if he had notice and judicial conscience and cause (2) where in the proceedings a perpetuation of irremediable learned Judge failed to disclose injustice. his connection with the subject- While stating that it can take matter or the parties giving scope review petition again under Articles 129 for an apprehension of bias and and 142 which confer very wide powers the judgment adversely affects the on this Court to do complete justice petitioner. between the parties, Supreme Court has · The petitioner, in the curative formulated the following guidelines for petition, shall aver specifically curative petition which has to be kept in that the grounds mentioned view while taking a final decision on therein had been taken in the homosexuality: review petition and that it was · This Court, to prevent abuse of its dismissed by circulation. process and to cure a gross Conclusions miscarriage of justice, may re- Sexuality - A Facet of Right to Liberty: consider its judgments in exercise of its inherent power. Liberty adds one of the inalienable rights of the human beings of democratic · It is common ground that except world, is another narrative of when very strong reasons exist, Constitutional morality. New the Court should not entertain an Encyclopaedia (1993) explains: “right of application seeking individuals to act as they choose.” or “the reconsideration of an order of this right of individuals to act without restraint Court which has become final on as long as their actions do not interfere dismissal of a review petition. It with the equivalent rights of others.” is neither advisable nor possible Webster Dictionary 1988) sees: “the to enumerate all the grounds on condition of being free to choose which such a petition may be especially as between ways of acting or entertained. living”; or “the right to do as one pleases”. · That a petitioner is entitled to relief Criminalisation of homosexuality is also ex debitojustitiae if he establishes negation of ‘right to liberty’ simpliciter. It (1) violation of principles of is a matter of choice to enjoy sexual natural justice in that he was not pleasure according to nature of a person’s a party to the lis but the judgement sexuality. Basing on the same analogy of adversely affected his interests or, Menaka Gandhi v. Union of India, it can
135 be inferred that LIBERTYfor/in sex conventional type of sexuality (as moral includes ‘right to perform sexual activity and natural), a notion socially constructed in different ways’ because it is an integral by the hetero-sexuals themselves; it shows part of liberty because it partakes with it patent and overt bias against the same basic nature and characteristic of homosexuals, their sexual orientation and liberty. Personal liberty covers a variety practice of their sexuality. It has resulted of rights including ‘right to sex’ which in a reasonable apprehension of personal goes to constitute it comprehensively. bias (institutional view, not the personal John Rawl’s (2000) first principle of beliefs of the hon’ble judges). justice echoes: “each person is to have an Additionally, there is also a reasonable equal right to the most extensive total apprehension of legal bias resulting in system of equal basic liberties compatible denial of the Right to Equality, which with a similar system of liberty for all. together adversely affects the homosexual Persons are at liberty to do something community. Therefore, it is desirable that when they are free from certain constraints Supreme Court will respond to the either to do it or not to do it and when changes which are occurring in the society, their doing it or not doing it is protected to keep the law relevant. It is also expected from interference by other persons.” that as hon’ble Court will become an Sexuality - Freedom of Expression: instrument in initiating social reform by inculcating values to honour not only the Freedom of Expression is another Privacy and Dignity of homosexuals, but inalienable right of human beings and also their Right to Equality, Liberty and constitutional morality under Article 19. Freedom of Expression, in the minds of It includes the natural and spontaneous Indians; this small step of apex Court, little expression of the inner bodily and mental by little, motivate the society in general feeling of sexual urge and its spontaneous to accommodating the homosexuals and expression through performance.There will not treat them as criminal elements cannot be only one stereotypical way or unnatural creatures on this planet who (penile-vaginal) of expressing sexual have all potentialities to contribute to the pleasure; there are different ways of development of this country. But this expressing it like, penal-vaginal, oral, anal approach should not be misunderstood etc., which wholly depends on the way that it is striving to legalise the same sex persons want to get pleasure and marriage in India. The concept of marriage satisfaction out of process. in India as institution of society should Curative Petition Should Cure the Legal remain intact as it is being practiced today Ailment: - a permanent union of a man and woman In the earlier judgment, hon’ble to the exclusion of all others, which gives Court had been deeply swayed by its pre- them the status of husband and wife. conceived notion in favour of Law is Dictate of Science:
136 What is natural or unnatural, the of law, the truth lies there.The object of biological reason of functioning of human building the scientific basis of law is to body should be a criterion to ascertain, if infuse justice, fairness, rationality and law seeks to have a say on it. Similarly reasonableness into it. It gives also the message that in many areas law is the what is moral or immoral, same approach dictate of science i.e. biological science. should be followed to determine that the This approach shows a new paradigm of law should be based on truth. If science jurisprudence, where law is also based on i.e. biological science becomes the base scientific truth and its principle.
References Article 12. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948):No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 17. International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (1966): No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home and correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation. Article 13.(1). Constitution of India: All laws in force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this Constitution, in so far as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void. Article 14. Constitution of India: Equality before law-The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. Article 15. Constitution of India: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth-(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. Article 19. Constitution of India: Protection of certain regarding freedom of speech etc-(a) to freedom of speech and expression. Article 21.Constitution of India: Protection of life and personal liberty-No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. Article 132.Constitution of India: Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases-An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment, decree or final order of a High Court in the territory of India, where in a civil, criminal or other proceeding, if the High Court certifies (under Article 134-A) that the case involves a substantial question of law as to the interpretation of this Constitution. Article 137. Constitution of India: Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court- Subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament or any rules made under
137 Article 145, the Supreme Court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it. Article 226.(1). Constitution of India: Notwithstanding anything in Article 32, every High Court shall have power, throughout the territories in relation to which it exercises jurisdiction, to issue to any person or authority, including in appropriate cases, any Government, within those territories directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo-warranto and certiorari, or any of them (for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by PartIII and for any other purpose). Attorney General of Georgia v. Hardwick , 478 US 186 (1986), (Blackmun, J). Denning Lloyd(2001), Introduction to Jurisprudence, Sweet & Maxwell, London. District Registrar & Collector, Hyderabad vs. Canara Bank. (2005) 1 SCC 496, (R.C.Lahoti, J). Egan v. Canada, (1995) 29 CRR (2nd) 79, (L’Heureux-Dube, J). Francis Coralie v. Union Territory of Delhi, AIR 1981 SC 746. Gobind v. State of M.P, (1975) 2 SCC 148. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 2000, New Delhi, Universal Law Publishing. Kharak Singh v. State of U.P, (1964) 1 SCR 332. Khanu vs. Emperor,AIR 1925 Sind 286. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597. M.P.Shukla, Constitution of India, ,2004, Lucknow, Eastern Book Company. Mr.X v. Hospital, (1998) 8 SCC 296. New Encyclopedia, Funk &Wagnalls Volume 9, (1993), New York, Oxford University Press. New Lexicon Webster’s Dictionary of the English Languages, (1988), New York, Lexicon Publications. Naz Foundation v. Government of NCT, Delhi, Arising Out Of WP(C) No.7455/2001, Date of decision : 2nd July, 2009. Olmstead v. United States, 277 US 438, 471. Prem Shankar Shukla v. Delhi Administration, AIR 1980 SC 1535. R.Rajagopal v. State of T.N, (1994) 6 SCC 632. Re Special Courts Bill, 1978, (1979) 1 SCC 380. Rupa Hurra v. Ashok Hurra, (1999) 2 SCC 103.
138 Section 377.Indian Penal Code: Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished. Science Daily,November 8, 2007, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071107170741.htm. visited on 13th September, 2012 at 10.15 AM. ScienceDaily, June 30, 2008, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080628205430.htm. visited on 13th September, 2012 at 10.11 AM. Suresh Kumar Kaushal v. Naz Foundation, CIVIL APPEAL NO.10972 OF 2013 (Arising out of SLP (C) No.15436 of 2009).
139 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
The Predicament of Girl Child in India: The State of the Art Literature on Issues and Concerns
R. K. Mohanty*
Abstract A discussion on problems and rights of the girl child pertains to a brand of knowledge called gender sociology leaving wide varieties of issues open. The ambitions of this paper are principally analytically descriptive. Accordingly the paper divides itself into six interrelated sections. The first section sets the tone by contextualizing the problems and the rights of girl child. The second section looks at girl child in the context of mother and other adults. The legal issues vis-à-vis the moral concerns are attempted next followed by the analysis of culture element in problems and rights of girl child in the fourth section. The problems of girl child from womb to tomb are delved in the penultimate section. The concluding section ends up with summarizing the analytical stakes and the praxiological strengths of the issue at hand. To that end, reliance is placed primarily on available literature (books, papers published in journals, documents) and research reports including the publications of various organizations. Key Words: Girl child, Cultural traditions, Human rights, Gender, Adult roles
The Problematic on the girl child may leave an impression A child is a human specie below of bias towards female child to a neglect eighteen years of age who is in need of of a male child. care of and protection because of tender While some scholars see no age and inexperienced personality, difference between boys and girls as being irrespective whether a boy or a girl. children as such, others argue in favour Webster’s dictionary defines a girl as any of sharp differences between the two. This female human from birth through belief goes with the view that in most areas childhood and adolescence to attainment the similarities between girls and boys far of adulthood when she becomes a woman. outweigh the differences (Hyde, The term may also be used to mean a 2005:581-592). Interestingly, in several woman in becoming. Debates and skills the differences between boys and discourses on girl child in particular are girls have shrunk over the last two to three on the increase during last three and half decades (Campbell et.al.2000). Even decades. A choice of deliberate discussion when gender differences are significant
* Dr. R. K. Mohanty is Head of Department of Sociology, Mizoram University-796004. Email: [email protected] 140 and consistent over time, people independent of those of adults? Is it a legal concerned turn inquisitive to comprehend problem or moral issue? Is there an why they exist. Different experiences and element of culture in it? If so what are the socialization are almost certainly culture specific problems of the involved, but biological factors may also predicament of girl child in India? How have important effects. While it is is academia to go about it? important to understand how, when, and The ambitions of this paper are why gender differences exist, it is equally principally analytically descriptive. important to know when they do not exist Accordingly the paper divides itself into so that neither girls nor boys are kept from six interrelated sections. The first section developing their individual potential. sets the tone by contextualizing the Research has identified differences in problems and the rights of girl child. The several specific cognitive skills as well as second section looks at girl child in the in a range of social and personal context of mother and other adults. The characteristics (Cook and Cook, legal issues vis-à-vis the moral concerns 2009:362-363). Some differences are are attempted next followed by the apparent from infancy; others do not analysis of culture element in problems emerge until late childhood or and rights of girl child in the fourth adolescence. This indicates that section. The problems of girl child from socialization and differential experiences womb to tomb are delved in the play roles in gender differences. penultimate section. The concluding Differential experiences manifest in section ends up with summarizing the differences in the problems faced. analytical stakes and the praxiological Differences in the discriminatory strengths of the issue at hand. To that end, problems faced demand the conferring of reliance is placed primarily on available rights on the vulnerable, and more so girl literature (books, papers published in children. The emphasis is on conferring journals, documents) and research reports of rights with or without the claim of the including the publications of various same. organizations. Objectives and Sources of Data Contextualizing the Problems and the A discussion on problems and rights Rights of Girl Child of the girl child pertains to a brand of With regard to the rights of children knowledge called gender sociology in general and the girl child in particular, leaving wide varieties of issues open. The the debates and discourses fall into two objective of this paper is to address the broad brands. One group believes that it following issues: How to contextualize a is obvious for children to have rights as girl child in the gender debate? Are the human beings (Farson 1974; Holt 1975; problems and the rights of girl child Cohen 1980) and girl children being more
141 vulnerable must be given their due rights. to be or to have something. Arguably only They are called conformists or reformists. those rights can be possessed whose The second group is skeptical believing content can be appropriately attributed to that given the nature both of rights and of their owners (Hart 1973). A right to free children it is wrong to think of children speech cannot properly be possessed by as right-holders (Hart 1973; Sumner 1987; an entity incapable of speech. One Steiner 1994). They may be called skeptics conventional way to think of rights in or critics. Some of them also tend to argue terms of their content is to distinguish that children have some rights compared between liberty rights (rights to choose, to adults (MacCormick 1982; Raz 1984; such as to vote, practise a religion, and to Kramer 1998). This section describes the associate) and welfare rights (rights that competing claims of the critics and protect important interests such as health). conformists commencing first with the The third is to argue that the worries of the critics. The child rights in ascription of rights to children is relation to adults are taken up separately inappropriate because it displays a in the next section. misunderstanding of what childhood is The Skeptics: To start with, the what children are like, or what skeptics are concerned at the proliferation relationships children stand in to adults. of rights saying that the list of right- The idea is that talk of children’s rights holders has been extensively lengthened. does not capture the truth about their lives Many more demands are expressed as or about the family or that such talk rights claims. The concern is understood encourages a destructive permissiveness as one that the prodigality of rights that has poor consequences for adults and attributions is damaging to the cause of their society. Claiming rights to children rights. If you give away too many rights may amount to running away from our they may cease to have the value and moral responsibility towards children significance they once had, and ought still including girls. This is to see a right as to have. the protection of an interest especially girls Secondly, while attributing rights to of sufficient importance to impose on children, the critics assert what reformists others certain duties whose discharge deny, namely that children are not allows the right-holder to enjoy the interest qualified as adults to have rights. The in question (MacCormick 1982; Raz question of qualification is the question 1984; Kramer 1998). of whether children have the requisite The fourth argument is that such a capacity for rights. The capacity to denial is not bad for children. The central, exercise choice is a necessary condition and empirical premise in this argument is of having a right (Steiner 1994). Rights that children do not spontaneously and have content. Each right is a right to do, naturally grow into adults. They need to
142 be nurtured, supported, and, more (1974), Holt (1975) and Cohen (1980). We particularly, subjected to control and can distinguish real from rhetorical discipline. Without that context giving liberationists. They see the demand for children the rights that adults have is bad rights for children as a means both of for the children. It is also bad for the adults drawing attention to the discrimination they will turn into, and for the society we that children suffer in their treatment and share as adults and children (Sumner for improving their condition. A rhetorical 1987). liberationist does not actually believe that children should be the equals of adults. The Defenders: The thought of They think that claiming as much is the skeptics must trouble the defenders of best way of advancing their interests. children’s rights since talk of children Reformists dispute that children are having rights has post-dated the overture disqualified by virtue of their incapacity and general acceptance of rights talk as to have rights. (Cohen 1980 ix). The denial such. But do we take it as our duty to of rights to children is, on this account, prevent the abuse of children? Who looks one significant element in a culture that after the vulnerable girl children, unless serves artificially to maintain children in otherwise they are their own? But can we, their childlike state of dependence, as individuals, each act to stop every child vulnerability, and immaturity (Farson being abused?. Moreover what we ought 1974, 31, 172, and 185). to do—for instance, by reporting suspected cases of girl child abuse—will Girl children, in particular, represent depend on the circumstances, and also on an extremely vulnerable group in many what is in place by way of particular societies. Research shows that they face institutions and laws to deal with child systematic disadvantage ‘over a wide abuse. Moreover the adults who deny that range of welfare indicators’, including children do have rights may nevertheless health, nutrition and the burden of also believe that it is their duty to ensure household tasks. According to a 2008 that the children for whom they have care report by the Center for Global do pass from childhood into adulthood. Development (CGD), girls are generally As adults we should protect and promote less healthy, less educated and enjoy less the welfare of children. It need not follow freedom than their male counterparts (CGD, 2008: 2). Such disparities, which that they have rights against us. highlight the disempowerment and There are those who claim that marginalization of girls, result from a children should have all the rights as variety of factors including cultural and human beings with special interest for social norms. Ultimately, however, they those who are vulnerable like girl and are rooted in gender discrimination, (Ibid) disabled children. These may be called which interferes with girls’ ability to reformists or defenders and include Farson develop and, ultimately, prejudices their
143 ability to have lives of dignity (IDLO, what is thought to be associated with 2009). Reformists would justifiably argue tender age. that these disparities, disadvantages and Children should possess the same discrimination are nothing but the rights package of rights as adults. Since children issues. are humans they are surely entitled to the Girl Child, Mother and Other Adults basic human rights. But there are some rights possessed by adults which children How could one discuss children’s cannot possess. This is a view defended rights without weaving them in with by Brennan and Noggle (Brennan and women’s rights? The idea of discussing Noggle 1997). The rights which adults children without mother’s rights showed possess are ‘role-dependent rights’. These the deeply embedded nature of children’s are rights associated with particular roles, rights in relation to mothers, and their and possession of the relevant right is ability to affirm their rights. When the dependent on an ability to play the role. child’s rights are being affirmed, it is not Thus doctors have rights that their patients by the child herself, but it is through the do not, and car-drivers have rights that proxy of an adult. In that sense, an those who have not passed their driving autonomous, self-generated affirmation of test do not. But it is just this right of self- her right by a child in ways in which adults determination that is normally denied to affirm rights cannot be seen on equal children, and it seems that Noggle and terms. The rights of the child are always Brennan do deny, in effect, that children mediated by the adults, parents/ relations have this right. or those who are working for child rights. To say that children do not have all Children are different from adult the basic human rights that adults do is human beings and it seems reasonable to not to deny them their status as humans. think that there are things children may After all it makes sense to insist that not do that adults are permitted to do. In children, but not animals, have a basic the majority of jurisdictions, for instance, right to life. Vegetarians who think it children are not allowed to vote, to marry, immoral to kill animals for food do not - to buy alcohol, to have sex, or to engage as they could - protect animals from being in paid employment. Central amongst killed by other animals. They do not these rights is that of self-determination, require a predatory species not to violate that is the right to make choices in respect the rights of its animal victims. But we do of one’s own life, which is normally think children have a right to be protected denied to children (Brennan and Noggle and that we should enforce the duty on 1997). What makes children a special case adults not to harm them. It also makes for philosophical consideration (SEP sense to say that children do not have an 2002) is this combination of their adult right of self-determination and role- humanity and their youth, or, more exactly, dependent rights.
144 Coming to the issue of rights of girl It is then necessary to look at the child and by virtue of their age and social main actors responsible for upholding and position, girls’ opportunities and prospects defending the legal rights of girls. As are fundamentally shaped by those closest minors, girls’ parents/legal guardians have to them, particularly family members— a key role to play in this regard. In practice, mothers, fathers and other male relatives, the role of primary protection agent is mothers-in-law, and husbands. A key frequently performed by mothers. In obstacle to ensuring that girls have developing countries, however, women access to the means of protection from are among those that have the most areas of high risks and vulnerabilities is difficulty accessing justice. Women often that domestic legal frameworks often fall lack awareness of the domestic legal short (CGD,2008: 2). In the developing protection framework as it applies to girl world, girls can exist outside of the rule children and/or the causal relationship of law and, in some cases, domestic laws between means of protection and risks to and enforcement mechanisms may girls’ health and well-being. Some women themselves serve as source of oppression. may avoid action through formal channels A key starting point for increasing the level due to a fear of involvement with state of girls’ protection is hence ensuring that institutions, including the police, or due local legal frameworks eliminate gender- to the perceived failure of state systems based discrimination and protect against to respond to their needs and the needs of their daughters. This may be a particular the abuse of girls’ rights and freedoms. issue in poor communities (CLEP, 2008). On the occasion of the Third Finally, where women do seek to defend Meeting of Women Speakers of or claim their rights through the formal Parliament in the context of the state system, they may face discrimination Commission on the Status of Women, and/or be at increased risk of exploitation. March 2, 2007, UN New York, Dr. The alleged differences between Musimbi Kanyoro, General Secretary, children and adults in respect of a World YWCA said “I am a strong qualifying capacity are not sufficient to proponent of the theory that empowerment warrant the ascription of rights to the latter of children is intrinsically linked to and their denial to the former. As a result, empowerment of their mothers. The devising means of protecting the connection is more than umbilical. fundamental rights of girls presents Empowered women often transfer their serious challenges; strategies must involve empowerment to their children, families multiple components, including refining and whole communities and they begin a the domestic legal framework; virtuous cycle of empowerment. The strengthening enforcement; eliminating women’s movement has made these societal discrimination against girls; and connections for a very long time”. empowering key protection agents,
145 particularly mothers, to better understand ‘positive’ rights does not then settle the and assert the rights of girl children. question of whether they do or should have Rights of Girl Child: Legal Issues or moral rights. Indeed the idea of children Moral Problems as rights holders has been subject to different kinds of philosophical criticism. One very obvious way in which the At the same time there has been question of what children are entitled to philosophical consideration of what kinds do or to be or to have is raised is by asking, of rights children have if they do have any how do we ensure that they are treated in rights at all. The various debates shed light the morally right way? The United Nations on both the nature and value of rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child moral responsibility of society at large and (1988) and Millennium Development on the moral status of children. Goals (2000) promoted better access to education for all girls and boys and to The rights can be moral or legal. eliminate gender disparities at both Children do have rights in law. These need primary and secondary level. Worldwide not be accepted as moral rights. However school enrolment and literacy rates for someone could believe that the best way, girls have improved continuously. Most on balance, to protect the interests of jurisdictions accord children legal rights. children is by continuing to accord them Most countries—though not the United the legal rights they have under something States of America—have ratified the like the Convention. Conversely, if children United Nations Convention on the Rights do have moral rights, these need not be of the Child which was first adopted in enshrined in law, although there would 1989. The Convention accords to children evidently be a strong presumption that they a wide range of rights including, most should. In the first instance the question is centrally, the right to have their ‘best whether children should have moral rights. interests’ be ‘a primary consideration’ in If they should then there would be a good all actions concerning them (Article 3), case for thinking that these should be the ‘inherent right to life’ (Article 6), and legally protected rights. Child’s moral the right of a child “who is capable of status should be adequately secured and forming his or her own views … to protected and this is assured by discharging express these views freely in all matters our obligations as adults to children. affecting the child” (Article 12) (United For a global understanding of the Nations 1989). current childhood and rights issues, the However it is normal to distinguish different international bodies, conferences, between ‘positive’ rights, those that are web sites and reports that have been drafted recognised in justciable law, and invisible in support of the girl child offer an ‘moral’ rights, those that are recognised important basis and legal/moral backdrop by some moral theory. That children have to approach the current needs and problems
146 of the girl child. UNICEF, WHO, UNFPA, aspect of the current debate. Burr (2004) OXFAM, Save the Children UN General and Ansell (2005) all support the idea that Assembly Special Session on Women, there is not a universal notion of INSTRAW backed by the CEDAW and childhood, but that it is a product of culture CRC, and the PÍA from Beijing, have all and as such will vary across time and developed programs and plans that focus space (Kehily 2004:7). Awareness of the specifically on the needs and rights of girl cultural context allows for development children worldwide. Many international programming that is sensitive to various NGOs have adopted the rights of the girl forces at play in the child’s life including child as a piece or cornerstone of their family responsibilities, societal values, development work. community contracts and the real options A number of international non- the child faces. The lack of cultural context governmental organizations (NGOs) have is a limitation of the right-based approach created programs focusing on addressing that many NGOs have adopted in disparities in girls’ access to such childhood development programming. necessities as food, healthcare and Burr (2004) and Boyden (1990) have all education. CAMFED is one organization written about the tension between the active in providing education to girls in UNCRC as a universally applicable sub-Saharan Africa. IDLO has identified document and the local community the following seven factors as key in context which might have a different enhancing the economic empowerment of interpretation of child rights. girls and ensuring that their legal and Children’s rights have often to be human rights are respected: 1. Access to seen in societal and cultural contexts and birth registration; 2. Access to education; hence cannot be made into a separate 3. Access to property rights; 4. Freedom rubric, as can be done with the overall from child labor; 5. Freedom from discourse on human rights. Ours is trafficking; 6. Freedom from commercial basically a patriarchal society with a small sexual exploitation; and 7. Freedom from segment of population that adheres to underage marriage (IDLO, 2009). PLAN matriarchal beliefs and values. Within the International’s “Because I am a Girl” national culture there exists a “son (2011) campaign and research have shown syndrome” which entails giving that educating girls can have a powerful preference for sons over daughters and ripple effect, boosting the economies of placing a greater value on the male child their towns and villages. as compared to the female child. This Culture Element in Problems and cultural norm subsequently breeds gender Rights of Girl Child discrimination in families, schools and communities; something that is reflected The notion of cultural relativism in everyday life, at both individual and within the childhood experience is a key collective levels – the girl child is an
147 “issue” i.e. she is not a value to the family growing up— both directly, as well as or in the larger sense to society, but rather indirectly. a problem to be dealt with The personality, problems and the (Nayar,2011:12). There are apparent rights of children are culture driven too. double standards—both public and Usha S Nayar (2011: 11-21) has applied private—for dealing with concerns of Urei Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical girls’ development, in contrast with their framework (1979), to analyze the values male counterparts (Nayar, 2011:13). Male of gender equity in the next generation of members in Indian culture are socialized India. It is popular as the Ecological to have differential attitudes and behaviors Systems Theory. This theory was towards the girl child and boy child. This developed to view children’s development attitude supports the development of in relationship to their socio-cultural stereotypes: intellectual and practical life environment. The theory makes use of a skills of independence for the boys, and four layered sphere to represent the nurturing life skills for the girls, even different layers in society that a child will though the girls may perform well in interface with in everyday life. The layers academics and in intellectual arenas (Ibid). are systems of the sphere starting at the The patriarchal norms are culture driven center and move outward. The four and predominate over gender equity at systems include: Microsystems, large, even in cities. Mesosystem, Exosystem, and There are several illustrations of girls Macrosystem. being neglected, denied equity in food, The Microsystem includes family, education, health care, being subject to parents, baby-sitters etc. The Mesosystem serious physical and sexual abuse ( Govt. makes connections between the of India, 2007), and marginalized in immediate environments of the opportunities for developing and Microsystem—for instance, a child’s expressing their independent identity. They are subjected to what can be home, school, sports and other extra- considered the rhetoric of a society in curricular activities. The Exosystem which they are considered “paraaya dhan” includes external environmental settings (which literally translates to property of that indirectly affect development, such as another/other). There is an over-emphasis a parent’s work place. The Macrosystem on the female’s domestic role— i.e. looks at larger cultures which may have daughter, daughter-in-law, wife, mother, an effect on development of the child. mother-in-law, grandmother and other These include values, customs, laws, the domesticated social roles. These roles economy, or political culture. The effects become enlarged in her psychic of larger principles have a cascading conditioning at home, at school and in the influence throughout the interactions of community, throughout the process of her all other layers.
148 Girl Child: Problems from Womb to ensure control over reproduction, or Tomb prevent life-threatening disease— Against the above backdrop, the substantially undermines the creation of perspective is now clear that the hardest human capital endowments in society. The challenge to take in life is being a girl child. fact, that improvements in a woman’s Discrimination, differences, dominance, economic position do have a positive spill- disadvantage, drudgery and discrepancy are over effect on the social welfare of her six most Vitamin D deficiencies under children (Free the Children, 2009). social pathology that hamper the journey It should be noted that there is somewhat of every female from womb to tomb. of a causal connection between “means Starting from her presence into her of protection” and “protection risks” in mother’s womb to infancy, childhood and that poor access to birth, education and finally to adulthood and age, she is under property rights (all regarded as means of the stranglehold of notorious traditions and protection) have the potential to increase stereotypical myths. Social disadvantage exposure to risks such as child labor, outweighs natural biological advantage of trafficking, commercial sexual being a girl. exploitation and underage marriage. Such Despite their social and economic risks relate directly to the exploitation of vulnerability, girls are key contributors to girls, and have many flow-on effects in their family income and local economies. terms of impeding the ability of girls to They perform unpaid and unrecognized realize their full potential and participate labor including household assistance effectively in society. There is also often (cooking, cleaning, shopping and a causal link between risk factors and gardening), care-giving responsibilities means of protection, as where underage (for younger children, and sick or elderly marriage or trafficking can lead to relatives), as well as other labor roles diminished possibilities for access to (harvesting crops, rearing livestock and education. Table 1 sizes up the experiences producing handicrafts). However, denying of gender differences and sexist girls opportunities - whether purposefully discrimination between a girl and a boy through discriminatory laws or tacitly child or a human female and a male from through policies that fail to deter abuse, womb to tomb. Table- 1 Experiences of Gender Differences and Discrimination from Womb to Tomb
Phase of Life Girl/Female Boy/Male Unwanted, Not welcome, Sex selective Wanted, Welcome, Son preference Prenatal abortion, Foeticide
149 Socialized to private in-home roles as they Socialized to public roles as they grow grow up. Girl’s oppression begins with the up. More valued than their sisters and first institution of contact: the family. may not be allowed to express their Early years Female infanticide. The girls fed last and emotions or behave in ways not least and malnourished. considered ‘manly’.
Emotional and physical abuse, differential Exposed to larger world: community and access to food and medical care. Genital school, society. More time to play games cutting. Little time to play games and and sports. They are prioritised over their sports as they are busy with household sisters at school. Less dropout and lesser chores and caring for siblings. Low restrictions on movements compared to Childhood enrolment and more drop outs. Social and girls. Little restriction on where to go, cultural norms and stereotypes restrict how far to go and when to go. girls’ mobility, reducing the public spaces Controlling, dominant and aggressive by they may enter safely. Submissive, nature. dependent and sober by nature.
Early marriage. Girls are far more likely With the onset of puberty, boys are than boys to experience sexual harassment increasingly expected to behave in and violence on the way to school and in stereotypical ‘masculine’ ways – to be the classroom, sometimes from their male strong, tough, and even aggressive and peers. Sexual abuse in the workplace, rape not show their feelings. They may engage forced prostitution. Legal discrimination in risky behaviour to ‘prove’ their Adolescence deprives girls of property, land and manhood – dangerous driving, drugs, and inheritance rights. Job- family Balancing. unprotected sex – that can have damaging Commercial Sexual exploitation, Honor effects on their health and serious Killing, Indecent Representation and consequences for the women they have Defamatory Publicity. relationships with. Trafficking.
Reaching adulthood includes both Young men are expected to find work and conformity and liberation for girls who are often still seen as the providers for begin interacting with wider social their family. If they are unemployed, this institutions, including the workplace. can lead to feelings of worthlessness and Women are restricted to certain low-paid depression and even violence. As fathers, jobs and are unable to break through the they may be distant from their children. Adulthood glass ceiling and make it to top managerial Masculnity, Patriarchy and dominance. positions. Women are considered the Not taking women’s roles unless very primary care-givers for children and the necessary. family. Abuse of women by intimate partners, marital rape, dowry abuse and murders, partner homicide, psychological abuse Abuse of widows, elder abuse, neglect Abuse of widowers, elder abuse, neglect, Old Age Forced Suicide, homicide Abetting Suicide and Murder
150 The girl specific problems Given the enormous progress India disaggregated from the above table are has made in health care and nutrition for foeticide and infanticide, girl’s health and its women and children, one would expect malnourishment, girl child labour, early a steady in- crease in the number of marriage, child trafficking, honour killing, women in the population. It is shocking girl literacy and drop-out and indecent that the reverse has happened. The female representation and defamatory publicity. to male ratio has become worse, (Sen and Shantha Sinha (2008) has detailed out the Kumar, 2001). Around 2.5 million girl specific problems in her keynote Children die in India every year, address at the Symposium on “Girl Child” accounting for one in five deaths in the in Punjab University, Chandigarh during world, with girls being 50% more likely their Diamond Jubilee celebrations. The list to die (Thukral, 2005). The very existence is not exhaustive. Our analysis shows a of the girl child is under threat. Defying myriad of problems faced by girl children the normal male-female balance, and the in India. Let us analyse them. higher survival capacity of girl babies and Foeticide and Infanticide: While greater life expectancy of women to men discrimination against the female of the prevalent in human populations, the species is worldwide; and while sex- female to male balance in India has been selective abortion, or feticide as it is adverse to females for at least the past 100 sometimes called, is prevalent not only years. The 1901 National Census re- particularly in India, but also in Korea and corded a female to male ratio of 972 to China, as has been pointed out by Nobel 1000, for all ages. Virtually every Laureate Amartya Sen (2011), the overall subsequent census showed a worsening statistics on the condition of women with decline (Ibid) as can be seen from Table- special reference to the young, has been 2. The Government of India in its report extremely pernicious. The well recognized to the UN Committee on the Rights of the phenomenon of foeticide is the elimination Child said, “Every year” 12 million girls of children of female sex from the womb are born – three million of whom do not (Aravamudan, 2007). The tragedies of survive to see their 15th birthday. About infants being abandoned after birth by poor one-third of these deaths occur in the first parents is an indication of a collapse of all year of life and it is estimated that every the institutions that are designed to take sixth female death is directly due to gender care of children especially girls. discrimination (Ibid). Table- 2 Females per 1000 Males in India (1921-2011) Year 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Figure 955 950 946 945 941 933 930 927 933 940 Source: Census of India (Compiled)
151 Thus the problem of the girl and her rural health mission is no different. Over being unwanted begins even before she the years it has become quite clear that if is born with growth in sex selective people are forced to limit the size of the abortions i.e. female foeticide due to families, they shall do so at the cost of the unholy alliance between culture and girl baby, even if it means that they have technology (Mohanty, 2011;2015). She is to “import” brides from outsides their not even allowed to be born to start states or their communities (Thukral, enjoying all her other rights. In an effort 2005). to combat sex-selective abortions, the Deficits in nutrition and health-care Government of India passed legislation also overwhelmingly target female in 1996 banning prenatal sex children. Karlekar (1995) cites research, determination through ultrasound. indicating a definite bias in feeding boys However, this law has done little to milk and milk products and eggs. In change the disturbing trend of missing Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, it is usual girls. for girls and women to eat less than men Girl’s Health and Malnourishment: and boys and to have their meal after the There is much to speak of the troubles of men and boys have finished eating. infants once they are born. The infant Greater mobility outside the home mortality rate stands at 57 of every 1000 provides boys with the opportunity to eat children before they reach the age of one sweets and fruit from saved-up pocket year. 46% of children under-three are money or from money given to buy articles underweight according to the recent for food consumption. In case of illness, Report of NFHS and it remains at the it is usually boys who have preference in same level even after several years health care. More is spent on clothing for without any improvement. Almost 80% boys than for girls. All of which also (79.2% - NFHS 3) children in the age 6- affects morbidity. At the same time it is 35 months are anemic. There is no essential to build a social norm in favor guarantee that she will be born and will of their rights and empower local survive, and if she does survive, she institutions and processes to bring would be given adequate nutrition and pressure on the government to deliver health care, environment and stimulus to services efficiently, just so that children grow and enjoy all her entitlements. live a life enjoying their special privilege, About 300,000 girls go “missing” in India which is their child hood. each year. One is witness to the cases of infanticide in the country. Almost all There are now stories of how girls government’s health policies seem to have have become victims to ill health, HIV an underlying family planning agenda. and AIDS. India has been given a high Health activists have analyzed that with rank in the list of countries that are facing its emphasis on population control; the a massive spread of the HIV-AIDS
152 epidemic. Simultaneously, India is also the day when they should have actually ranked as one of those countries in the been in school enjoying their right to world where child malnutrition is widely education. Their bodies are wrapped in prevalent. The National Aids Control violence, their spirit embedded in wasted Organisation has estimated 55,000 HIV childhood. Girls work mostly in infected children (0–14 years) in the agriculture and there is no law to ban Country in 2003, according to UN- AIDS, children working in agriculture. Thus the it is 0.16 million children (Thukral, 2005). work of girl children is hidden and rendered invisible. A very hot debate is Girl Child Labour: The ordinariness going on regarding India’s recent of girls’ suffering makes their work legislation making the use of child labours invisible. It is thus not realized that the a criminal offence. By making it a criminal food we eat is made from the sweat and offence, India hopes to remove this blot toil of these children under scorching heat from her social landscape. Eliminating even as they inhale the fumes of child labour through law and enactments Endosulpha, Methonyl and other deadly have not yielded due results. It requires pesticides that shrinks their lungs, gives ensuring sustainable livelihood as they them dizziness and nausea causing mental engage in such works wheather they want depression. Their feet and hands that dig it or not, in order to make a living and to in wet mud for hours together, peeling supplement the family income. their skin, causes sores until there is no more new skin that could appear. They Early Marriage: The consequences have headaches carrying loads of of child marriages on the health, education bananas; vegetables and food. They come and well-being of the couple, especially as migrant labor commuting from the girl child are disturbing. It is seen that villages near and afar, in overcrowded the infant mortality rate, neo-natal trucks, tractors and trains. Many a young mortality rate, incidence of low birth boy and girl burnt themselves tossing rice weight babies, maternal morbidity and in the hot oven making crispy puffed rice mortality etc are all much higher due to that we so much relish. They are in early marriages. It is found that many quarries and mines, brick kilns, girls are married at a tender age, even construction sites or in factories, which before they discovered themselves as make matches or fire crackers. They are young adults and experienced growing up in our own homes as domestic labor being as adolescents. They become victims of the first to wake up and the last to sleep, abuse, both physical and emotional as scolded, insulted, abused, suspected for young mothers. Not every pregnancy is theft, friendless and lonely. safe for these young girls nor is the delivery and survival of infants without Children as young as 7-8 years of risks. The World Health Report 2005 puts age start working for long hours during India among the list of “slow
153 progressing” nations as far as infant and involving the local bodies, community child mortality and maternal mortality is and police that is alerted to action each concerned. It requires building of sturdy time a child is missing from the village, processes at all levels of the government lack of fear among the employers and especially through the departments of middlemen enabling them to recruit women and child welfare, Panchayatraj, children and lack of action by law police and education, to constantly review enforcing officers subject them to the issue of child marriages and send a inhuman conditions are some of the serious message that early child marriage factors that foster child trafficking. is against the law and morally Honour Killing: Another gruesome unacceptable as well. evil for girl children and women is honour Child Trafficking: In addition to girl killing. An honour killing, also called a child labour, there is also a growth in the customary killing, is the murder of a numbers of girls being trafficked for (typically female) family or clan member sexual exploitation, forced labour and by one or more fellow (mostly male) slave like work. This trade is growing family members, in which the perpetrators large and girls get caught in a vicious (and potentially the wider community) network of the underworld. The girls who believe the victim to have brought migrate for work in agriculture, dishonour upon the family, clan, or construction, factories or domestic work, community. The perceived dishonor is are deceived or coerced into working in normally the result of the following conditions they do not agree to. During behaviors, or the suspicion of such the trafficking process, traffickers violate behaviors: (a) utilizing dress codes an extensive array of human rights in their unacceptable to the family/community, (b) treatment of their victims. They have no wanting to terminate or prevent an access to their families and the latter are arranged marriage or desiring to marry by seldom given the correct address. Girl own choice, or (c) engaging in certain children thus are erased from the village, sexual acts, including those with the go missing for years together, and are lost opposite or same sex. Such killings or for good. They are increasingly affected attempted killings result from the by ill health, insults and humiliation and perception that the defense of honor a life of uncertainty and risks. justifies killing a person whose behavior dishonors their own clan or family. The The absence of a norm that respects United Nations Population Fund children and tracks their well-being, lack (UNFPA) estimates that the annual of school facilities and sensitivity of the worldwide total of honor-killing victims school system to embrace all children in may be as high as 5,000. Amnesty the village giving them their right to International (2001) commented “The education, lack of a process in the village regime of honor is unforgiving: women
154 on whom suspicion has fallen are not the education programmes. Their given an opportunity to defend educational backwardness has not only themselves, and family members have no denied them in reaching their fullest socially acceptable alternative but to potential, but has also slowed down the remove the stain on their honor by pace of national development with regard attacking the woman”. Despite the forces to education as well as other of modernization and the pressures of developmental programme. Literacy has decolonization, people subscribe to increased but the drop out rates for girls medieval views concerning the does not decline (Mohanty, 2010). Basic “preservation” of perceived “purity” of issues pertaining to girls education in the their lineage. country have been low participation of Girl Literacy and Drop-out: The girls in school, child labour to supplement passing of the ‘Compulsory Education family income, inappropriate school Act’ in 2009 in consonance with UN schedule, lack of girl child friendly Convention of Child Rights was a historic curriculum, lack of lady teachers or moment for the children of India that teachers are not gender sensitive, low clearly indicated the commitment of the performance and competence level of girls state towards providing educational in school, communities are not aware opportunities for all children. The act about the importance of girl’s education reinstalled faith in school education being and girls engaged in domestic activities in the best interest of children as well as and sibling care. society. Policies related to child Indecent Representation: There is an participation, child protection, the alarming rise in the cases of indecent challenge of implementing them in a representation of girls/women in the tradition-bound society; making available country due to significant increase in the to the girl child—in a very real sense— advertisements in recent times. Portrayal all that is overdue to her are some of the of women in these advertisements in essential facets that are highlighted in the various media such as print, TV, outdoor act. is a cause for concern. The commonly made observations are that the women are The Census of India 2011 provided portrayed as glamorous objects, they are a positive indication that growth in female shown as dependant on men, are shown literacy rates (11.8%) was substantially in traditional mundane roles as housewife, faster than in male literacy rates (6.9%) teacher, nurse, mother. They are rarely in the 2001-2011 decadal period, which shown as decision makers or in positions means the gender gap appears to be of power or as accomplished women. narrowing. One of the major indicators of Some advertisements are felt to be development is education. Girls have obscene or vulgar and degrade the dignity emerged as an important focus group of of women by making women victims of
155 cheap advertising techniques. The Those who say that drawing a line between representing of women in indecent ways adults and children in respect of their for whatever commercial ends is the worst possession of rights is arbitrary may mean thing done. different things. To deny that different The Way Forward capacities are progressively acquired at different ages is implausible. To insist that Thus what has been attempted in this drawing a line as such is wrong ignores paper is not merely to discuss the problems the point of doing so, and recourse to the and rights of the girl children as such but alternative of a competency test is not to spell out the intricate issues underlying appropriate or practicable. Children do not them. Looking back to the questions raised have an interest in remaining in childhood. in the beginning, this concluding section The best-interest principle should ends up with summarizing the analytical arguably have only limited application. It stakes and the praxiological strengths of is not possible unambiguously to interpret the issue at hand. The last quarter of the best interests of a child in terms of a twentieth century saw a vigorous debate hypothetical adult self, and any objective over the nature of rights in general to child interpretation will be the subject of rights in particular to that of girl child contested views. A child’s right to be heard around gender concerns. While reformers in matters affecting its interests is a claim that children have all the rights that substitute not a complement to the right adults do, critics deny this, either believing of choosing for herself. It is not merely that children have no rights or believing the rights of children as such but the most that children have only some of the rights vulnerable, the girl child. One possible which adults possess. They further argue resolve of this stranglehold is to take it as that the ascription of rights to children much a moral issue as a legal one requiring manifests a misunderstanding of what adequate response from community, children are like and of the nature of neighbourhood, civil society, governance family relationships. Those who deny system, culture and the society as a whole. children all or some of the rights possessed Coming to praxiological concerns, by adults nevertheless believe that it must first of all accept that the country children, as humans, have a certain moral has not done materially enough for its status that ought to be protected. Each side children, especially for the girls. The declared its conceptual analysis to be reason for such gross violation of the closer to an ordinary understanding of rights of the girls is in the absence of a what rights there are, and to an ordinary social norm in favour of her survival, understanding of what rights do for right dignity, care and protection. The country holders. Neither side could win a decisive has to feel a sense of shock and outrage victory, nor the debate ended in a standoff that there is the practice of female (Sumner 1987). foeticide and infanticide. No modern,
156 cultured nation can be called civilised if water’. There is enough evidence that it continues to tolerate such a perpetration investment in the girl child results in of violence on its ‘un-born’ and ‘new- making a better, healthier, happier, and born’. The government too must ensure more creative family, community and that children are protected and make society (Nayar, 2011:20). When family, available all the institutions function to schools, neighborhood and communities give security to these children. take this as the agenda for action, it is likely to result in a great contribution for There could be pressure built to the present and future generations of the rescue girls from child labour, child nation. To make girls’ care and protection trafficking and early marriages. The a reality for every girl in every place government too must be more committed requires not only our resources and about its policies on abolition of child policies, but also our voices and actions. labour. Girls’ work which is hidden and But more than that, love, respect and invisible, that keeps them out of school support for girls must be the reality of all and renders them illiterates, must be our homes, schools and communities. The recognised as child labour. There are answer of security of girls is not in their several young children, who have taken protection and restriction of being under courageous steps to defy the authority in the supervision of brother, father, husband the family and society to get away from or economic security given by male marriages and join schools. Such children members of the family. Rather it is in are to be encouraged and given full honoring citizenship to girls and boys support. For in their success lies the future alike to enjoy the freedom and confidence of girls in our country. of being in a society living with peace and Eleanor Roosevelt (1958) said ‘a basic human rights. To save a boy is to woman is like a tea bag – you never know save a person, but to save a girl is to save how strong she is until she gets in hot a generation.
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160 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Tobacco, Gender Roles, and Cancer in the Mizo Society: How Gender Determines Cancer Prevalence through Gendered View of Tobacco
C. Vanlalngilneii* M. Thamilarasan**
Abstract Tobacco by itself has no gender. Like other elements in the environment it is a gender neutral element. Through the process of socialization, a person learns to identify certain forms of tobacco to male or female group. Gender roles in tobacco provide the social explanation for sex-linked patterns of tobacco use. However, these social origins are rarely given the attention they deserve, as if these behaviors were natural, rather than learned. Several avenues of research now indicate that men and women differ in their smoking behaviors. This paper presents the outcome of an intensive qualitative study of gender and tobacco in the Mizo society conducted during the years 2012 – 2015 in Mizoram by the authors. Smoking tobacco (Cigarette or Zozial) has been considered as more appropriate for male and smokeless tobacco more appropriate for female than for male. In fact, respondents in this study showed a strong disapproval for female who smoke, while smoking is considered acceptable for male. Data analysis shows a very significant relationship between gender and smoking tobacco: . Data analysis also shows a very significant relationship between gender and smokeless tobacco consumption: . In the study population 40.5 per cent of the households reported that mothers or wives still prepare the traditional smoking tobacco called zozial for the male members of the family. Gender roles is well defined in the Mizo society which tells which type of tobacco a gender group may consume, gender roles also determine the producers of such tobacco items at home. These gender roles in tobacco consumption are matching with differences in cancer prevalence across the male and female population in the Mizo society as lung cancer is more prevalent among male than among female. Keywords: Gender, Gender roles, Socialization, Tobacco, Cancer, Culture, Prevalence. Introduction Gender is among the most prominent the result of reproductive technologies— organizing principles in our society. From on through to the day we die, we are the day we are born—and even earlier as gendered. In nearly all societies, men and * C. Vanlalngilneii is Ph.D. Research Scholar, Dept. of Sociology, University of Madras, Chennai- 600 005 ** Dr. M. Thamilarasan is Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Madras, Chennai- 600 005, Email: [email protected] , [email protected] 161 women, boys and girls, have a different are rarely given the attention they deserve, status and play different roles. Men and as if these behaviors were natural, rather women behave differently, dress than learned. differently, have different attitudes and Society, Culture, and Gender Roles interests, and have different leisure activities. Contrary to traditionally held Cultural norms about gender roles beliefs that these differences between male are “delivered” to a child by the family, and female behavior are biologically or the peer group and the community. Young genetically determined, recent research boys, for example, are generally allowed has revealed that they are to a large extent more freedom and have fewer restrictions socially constructed, or based on the placed on them than young girls. They are concept of gender. Gender is a dynamic taught to play rough, to stand up for concept. Gender roles for men and women themselves, not to walk away from a fight. vary greatly from one culture to another They run out to play while their sisters are and from one social group to another kept indoors to care for younger children within the same culture. Race, class, and to help with domestic chores. Since economic circumstances, age - all of this the moment we are born, we are being influence what is considered appropriate molded into the being society wants us to for men and women. Contrary to sex, be. Through socialization we also learn ‘gender’ has social, cultural and what is appropriate and improper for both psychological rather than biological genders. Gender roles and expectations are connotations. It is defined in terms of learned. They can change over time and femininity and masculinity. The proper they vary within and between cultures. terms for describing sex, for example, are Gendered norms and behaviors are taught ‘male and female’ while the corresponding and learned rather than being natural or terms for gender are ‘masculine and genetic. While mass culture likes to feminine.’ assume that there is a fixed, true masculinity, in fact, each societal construct A gender role, as defined by Susan of masculinity varies over time and Basow, refers to society’s evaluation of according to culture, age and position behavior as masculine or feminine, e.g., within society. cooking is feminine, while fishing is a masculine role in most societies.‘Gender’- The Social Context of Smoking socially determined roles for each sex - Social context is widely cited as provides the social explanation for sex- integral to understanding why, how, where linked patterns of tobacco use. Gender and with whom people smoke, and the non roles - socially-determined norms and random social distribution of smoking. Yet roles for each sex, provides the social it is rarely the direct object of explanation for sex-linked patterns of investigation, and few comprehensive tobacco use. However, these social origins theoretical frameworks have been
162 advanced to assist in unpacking what regarding sex, gender and tobacco. social context is, how it can be empirically Gender- based differences also exists for researched, and how social context impact children and youth, whose tobacco use on the nature and distribution of smoking patterns may determine the shape of the within and between population subgroups. epidemic for the next several decades. Most of the research and literature in Several avenues of research now tobacco control investigates smoking as indicate that men and women differ in an individual behavior, driven by the their smoking behaviors. For instance, knowledge and attitudes of those who women smoke fewer cigarettes per day, smoke, with attention to how these may tend to use cigarettes with lower nicotine be mediated by parental, peer, and/or content, and do not inhale as deeply as media social influences, as well as broader men. However, it is unclear whether this socio cultural norms. Several more recent is due to differences in sensitivity to studies have examined how smoking fits nicotine or other factors that affect women into the lived experience of people’s lives, differently, such as social factors or the embedded in the (sub)cultural contexts in sensory aspects of smoking. In most of the which they live, work and play. world, being born male is the greatest Ethnographic research in the Philippines predictor for tobacco use, with overall found females expressed emotional prevalence about four times higher among dependence on tobacco in the midst of life men than women globally (48% versus difficulties, while young urbanVietnamese 12%). women said they might start smoking if they become “very unhappy”. There is evidence that women and men respond somewhat differently to Gender and Smoking nicotine. Female addiction maybe Tobacco use has been patterned by reinforced more by the sensory and social gender. In many other countries around the context of smoking, rather than by world, particularly less developed nicotine, suggesting that patches may not countries, cultural and economic factors be so effective an aid. This may help have prohibited women from taking up explain why some studies have found that smoking in significant numbers. At a women quit less easily than men; other population level, male uptake generally explanations include lackof social support, occurs sooner than female uptake in most fear of weight gain, depression and countries, coincident with higher hormones. Research suggests that men socioeconomic status being a predictor of and boys perceive greater pressure than initial uptake and social norms that include women and girls to accept the gendered smoking as a rite of passage for boys. stereotype that men should be rugged, These sex - specific patterns indicate the robust and strong. Such concepts lead to need and potential for global leadership a dangerous combinationof risk-taking
163 and lack of preventive health activities, Smoking increases harmful free radicals with relevance for tobacco uptake, quitting and lowers our immune system by and self-care. In many countries, smoking suppressing the natural killer (NK) cells marks the transition to manhood, and is and IgA (Immunoglobulin A) antibodies. deeply embedded in everyday male social Tar, formed when organic compound is relations, both business and personal. burned, is a leading cancer-causing In May 2003, the 192 WHO Member compound found in tobacco. It contains States adopted the WHO Framework highly toxic hydrocarbons and some Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), radioactive compound like potassium-40 a new legal instrument to address issues as well. These substances have been as diverse as tobacco promotion and shown on a cellular basis to damage a sponsorship, illicit trade of tobacco tumor suppressor gene called p53 in lung products, tobacco taxes and agricultural cells, resulting in cancer. Carbon diversification. The preamble to the WHO monoxide released during smoking Framework Convention on Tobacco reduces the oxygen supply to the brain, Control (WHO FCTC) states: ‘The Parties lung and heart. Smokers also have a lower to this Convention, …Alarmed by the circulating level of vitamin C, an increase in smoking and other forms of important antioxidant that mops up free tobacco consumption by women and radicals. young girls worldwide and keeping in The consumption of tobacco is the mind the need for full participation of leading cause of cancers in India. The women at all levels of policy-making and various cancers produced by the use of implementation and the need for gender- tobacco are of oral cavity, pharynx, specific tobacco control strategies’. esophagus, larynx, lungs and urinary Tobacco: the Leading Cause of Cancer bladder. It has been observed that women in Bangalore are known to have the Over 2,000 chemical compounds are highest rates of cancers of esophagus in generated by tobacco smoke, many of the world (around eight per 100,000). them poisonous. Over 350,000 deaths Contrarily, men in Bhopal have the highest occur each year in the US as a result of rate of tongue cancer in the world (nine tobacco use, and 33 per cent of these per 100,000). Smoking is the most deaths occur from smoking-related lung notorious factor for the causation of lung cancer alone. In fact, lung cancer can be cancer. Approximately, 87 and 85 per cent reduced by 90 per cent if smoking is males and females have been found to prohibited. Second hand smoke contains have lung cancer due to tobacco smoking dangerous carcinogens as well, including in the form of bidi (a thin South Asian benzene, radon, and asbestos. It is cigarette type structure filled with tobacco estimated that 20 per cent of lung cancers flake and wrapped in a tendu leaf, tied with are caused by second hand smoke. a string at one end) and cigarette in India.
164 High incidences of stomach cancer in leading site of cancer among males, with Mizoram are the result of the excessive the total number of 192 new cases, use of tuibur (water filtrate of tobacco). accounting for 13.78 per cent of all new Similarly, high incidences of oral cancers male cancer cases combined. Among in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh are owing females, the leading site of cancer is the to the consumption of beetle leaves and lung, with a total of 191 new cases and tobacco in different forms. accounting for 16.7 per cent of all new Cancer in the Mizo Society cases. This was followed by stomach cancer, with a total of 156 new cases and The Population Based Cancer accounting for 13.7 per cent of all new Registry (PBCR) of the Indian Council of cases among females. The third leading Medical Research (ICMR) consolidated site of female cancer is the cervix uteri, report 2009-2010 states that the total with 154 cases and accounting for 13.5 number of cases registered between the per cent of all new cancer cases. year 2009-2010 was 2530 cases (both male and female combined). From this Methodology total number of new cases, cases from To study the social causes of cancer Aizawl district alone was 1331 cases and among the Mizo society, the researchers the number of new cases from other conducted an intensive study in the state districts excluding Aizawl was 1199 cases. of Mizoram.The study was conducted Thus, Aizawl district accounts for about among the ethnic group in Northeast India 45 per cent of all cancer cases in Mizoram known as the Mizos (meaning the Mizo state combined. The total number of new people) settling in the state of Mizoram. cancer cases among males was 1393 cases, Samples are selected based on and the total number of new cases among prerequisites, such as: - he/she belongs to females was 1137 cases. Male cancer the Mizo ethnic group, he/she has entered accounts for 55 per cent of all new cancer into legal adult age, he/she is a resident of cases, whereas female cancer accounts for Mizoram, and he/she has cancer 45 per cent of all new cases of cancer. diagnosed by an authorized physician. Stomach cancer was recorded as the Primary data were collected throughout first leading site of cancer among males, the years 2012 – 2015. A total of 200 with a total number of 321 cases, cancer patients, all belonging to the Mizo accounting for 23.04 per cent of all new ethnic group were interviewed with the male cancer cases combined. Esophagus help of a structured interview schedule was the second leading site of cancer (N=200). The study was completed across among males with a total number of 199 three hospitals in Aizawl namely, new cases, accounting for 14.29 per cent Mizoram State Cancer Hospital, Nazareth of all new cancer cases among males. Hospital, and Grace Nursing Home. The Lung cancer was recorded as the third Population Based Cancer Registry
165 (PBCR) of the Indian Council of Medical The Place: Mizoram and Aizawl: Aizawl Research also offered secondary data is the state capital of Mizoram. Mizoram essential to the study.This study seeks to is one of the states of India located in the identify the role of socialization in Northeast part of the country. It has a total influencing attitude on and behavior area of 21,081 sq km. Mizoram has a related to tobacco and other health related population density of 52 persons per attitude and behavior that contributes to sq.km according to Census of India 2011, the risk of cancer. This study is based on Mizoram’s population has reached the principle that culture is learned, shared, approximately 10.91 lakh and contributes and preserved by society. This study seeks to only 0.09 per cent of the total population to identify the ways in which culture of India. Mizoram has a literacy rate of affects health outcomes by influencing 91.58, which is above the national average lifestyle and beliefs pertaining tobacco of 74.04 per cent. The state has a GDP of consumption. This study is also framed INR 45,982 as per 2011 record. with the belief that society plays a huge Tobacco Scenario in India and role in creating and maintaining gender Mizoram roles and gender gaps in society. Questions regarding gender roles include gender National Tobacco Scenario differences in type and amount of tobacco According to The Global Adult consumed, dietary habits, and other Tobacco Survey (GATS) 2009 – 2010, behavioral factors that impact on health tobacco is used (in any form) by 34.6 per outcomes. cent of adults in India, 47.9 per cent of Ethnicity of the Mizos: The Mizos are males and 20.3 per cent of females. a small ethnic group living in a state in Tobacco is currently smoked by 14.0 per Northeast India called Mizoram. cent of adults; 24.3 per cent of males and Historians claim that the Mizos are a part 2.9 per cent of females. Cigarette is of the great waves of 18th Century currently smoked by 5.7 per cent of adults; immigration from Tibet and Yunnan 10.3 per cent of males and 0.8 per cent of province of China into eastern and females. Bidi is currently smoked by 9.2 southern India. It is believed that the Mizos per cent of adults; 16.0 per cent of males had earlier migrated into Burma before and 1.9 per cent of females.Smokeless moving in to India. The British tobacco is currently used by 25.9 per cent missionaries introduced Christianity to the of adults; 32.9 per cent of males and 18.4 Mizos, which continues to remain as the per cent of females. Average age at daily religion of the majority to this day, with initiation of tobacco use is 17.9 years in 86.97 per cent of the population being adults, 18.1 years in males, and 14.7 years recorded as Christians. In terms of caste, in females, and 60.1 per cent of daily 95 per cent of the total population of tobacco users consume tobacco within Mizoram belongs to the Scheduled Tribe. half an hour of waking up.
166 The North-East region exhibits at home and in the larger community highest rates of tobacco use going up to living. The Mizo society is a traditionally over 63 per cent prevalence in some states. agrarian community; tobacco cultivation In Assam 23 per cent women, 72 per cent has a very special place in this agrarian of man use any form of tobacco and 36 community. It is a traditional practice per cent use cigarettes/bidis. among the Mizos, to not only consume Tobacco Scenario in Mizoram tobacco in various forms, but also to cultivate it, and prepare it domestically. In the state of Mizoram, The Global Tobacco cultivation is still popular Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) 2009 – particularly in rural agrarian communities 2010 recorded that tobacco is currently today. However, the consumption of it used (in any form) by 67.2 per cent of adult shows little or no difference across the s; 72.5 per cent of males and 61.6 per cent rural and urban population. There is a of females. Tobacco is currently smoked by 39.7 per cent of adults; 59.4 per cent common phrase in the Mizo society that of males and 19.0 per cent of females. says “Ni aw sa sa, vaihlo pho na’n, buh Cigarette is currently smoked by 37.2 per pho na’n”which is a phrase of pleading cent of adults; 5 06.6 per cent of males for sunlight so that tobacco and paddy and 16.9 per cent of females. Bidi is can be laid out for sun drying in the open. currently smoked by 6.1 per cent of adults; This phrase, among many others, reflects 7.9 per cent of males and 4.3 per cent of the day to day task among the highly females. Smokeless tobacco is currently agrarian community, in the process of used by 40.7 per cent of adults; 32.6 per tobacco cultivation and production. This cent of males and 49.1 per cent of females. is one of other examples that manifests The average age at daily initiation of the important place tobacco has in the tobacco use is 16.9 years in adults, 16.6 Mizo society. Tobacco is consumed in years in males, and 21.3 years in females, smoking form, smokeless form, as well and 66.7 per cent of daily tobacco users as in liquid form. consume tobacco within half an hour of Forms of tobacco consumption in the waking up. Mizo society may be listed out as follows: The Significance of Tobacco in the Mizo · Meizial/Zozial: This refers to the Society traditionally cultivated and prepared Tobacco has an important place in smoking tobacco. In this form of tobacco the Mizo society. It has become an object consumption, tobacco leaves are rolled of commensality, a token of friendship into cylindrical shape over a thin sheet of and generosity. It is a symbol of gender paper; the edges are pinched to hold the identity and symbolizes gender tobacco in, and is then fastened with a roles.Tobacco is an essential commodity thread.
167 · Sahdah: Sahdah is a form of for the male members of the family such smokeless tobacco where tobacco leaves as their husband, father, sons, brothers, or are minced into fine pieces and moistened other male members of the household. with rum or other elements. · Smoking is appropriate for men but · Tuibur: This refers to liquid extract not for women: Smoking is considered as of tobacco. It is consumed by holding the a male appropriate behavior but smoking liquid in the mouth and is then spat out by women is considered socially after savoring. It is popularly consumed displeasing and inappropriate. There is a for its aroma. wide gender gap between the two genders · Other Manufactured Tobacco in terms of which type of tobacco can be Products: Tobacco products from all over attributable to which gender group. the world reach the state of Mizoram · Smokeless tobacco products are although luxury brands have not made attributed to females: Smokeless tobacco formal entry in the state. Cigarettes from substances such as sahdah and tuibur are neighboring states like Assam are popular considered more appropriate for females among the Mizos. Smokeless although currently a huge percentage of manufactured tobacco products from male are currently consuming it. factories around the country are also Findings prevalent. The research population consisted of Gender and Tobacco in the Mizo 200 diagnosed cancer patients who belong Society to the Mizo ethnic group, and are currently Though tobacco in itself is a attending hospitals for treatments within genderless substance, traditionally the state of Mizoram (N=200). Of all the established gender roles regarding the cancer patients, 55.5 per cent are male and production and consumption of tobacco 44.5 per cent are female (M=55.5%, have been well defined in the Mizo society. F=44.5%). The relationship between gender and On tobacco prevalence:The total tobacco in the Mizo society may be listed number of population who consume out as follows: both smoking and non-smoking forms · Women make zozial and men of tobacco accounts for 51 per cent of smoke: In the Mizo society women and the population and 30.0 per cent older girls are expected to acquire the skill consume only non-smoking forms of of preparing zozial (traditional smoking tobacco. Smoking tobacco without non- tobacco). For a woman to lack this skill is smoking forms of tobacco is consumed traditionally considered unacceptable and by 11.5 per cent of the population. displeasing. It is the role, even today, of Individuals who do not consume any the mothers or wives to roll out tobacco form of tobacco account for 7.5 per cent.
168 Zozial is smoked by 27 per cent of the believe that gender roles exist in tobacco population. Cigarette and Zozial are consumption (smoking is appropriate for smoked together by 22.5 per cent of the male but not for female, smokeless population and 13 per cent smoke only tobacco is appropriate for female more cigarette. than for male) and 10.0 per cent holds the On smokeless tobacco and betel nut view that no gender role exist in the consumption: 27 per cent of the consumption of tobacco. population consume betel quid without Cancer across the Gender Landscape tobacco, 19.0 per cent of the population in the Mizo Society do not consume non-smoking forms of tobacco. Betel quid is consumed in High Prevalence of Lung Cancer combination with tobacco – (Sahdah and among Male: Male respondents with lung Tuibur) by 19.5 per cent of the population. cancer account for 11.5 per cent of the Sahdah is consumed by 16.5 per cent of respondents and female respondents with the population, 10.5 per cent consume all lung cancer account for 3.0 per cent. Male forms of non-smoking tobacco, Tuibur respondents with no lung cancer account and Sahdah are consumed in combination for 44.0 per cent of all respondents and by 4.0 per cent and Tuibur only is female respondents with no cases of lung consumed by 3.5 per cent of the cancer account for 85.0 per cent of the population. total population. Overall, lung cancer was On smoking behavior and amount of present in 14.5 per cent of the total smokeless tobacco consumed: Addicted population and absent in 85.5 per cent of smokers account for 34 per cent of the the total population. respondents. Chain smokers account for To test the association between 22.5 per cent.Habitual smokers account gender and lung cancer, chi-square test for 4 per cent of the respondents. was conducted. Chi-square test gave the Occasional smokers account for 2 per result: C2 1,N=200 =7.7=.005. According cent.On smokeless tobacco, 61.5 per cent to this test, there is a significant of the respondents are heavy users. Light association between gender and lung users account for 19.5 per cent and 19 per cancer. Lung cancer is more prevalent cent are non-users. among male than among the female Age of initiation of tobacco respondents. consumption:89 per cent of the Smoking is More Prevalent among respondents started taking tobacco at Male: Male who smoke account for 41.5 teenage and 3.5 per cent started taking per cent of the total population and 21.0 tobacco between the ages of 20 to 30. per cent of respondents are female who On Gender Roles in Tobacco: In this smoke. Among the population, 14.0 per population, 90 per cent of the respondents cent consists of male who do not smoke
169 and 23.5 per cent consists of female who consumption. Smokeless tobacco do not smoke. Overall, 62.5 per cent of consumption is more prevalent among the total population smoke and 37.5 per female than among male. cent do not smoke. Domestic Preparation of Zozial by To test the association between Mothers or Wives: In 33.5 per cent of the gender and smoking tobacco, chi-square households, mothers or wives make zozial test was conducted. Chi-square test gave for their husbands. Mothers or wives make the result: C2 1,N=200 =16=.000. zozial for husband and sons in 7.0 per cent According to this test, there is a significant of the families. Households where mothers relationship between gender and smoking or wives never make zozial for the family tobacco. Smoking tobacco is more account for 59.5 per cent of the households. prevalent among male than among female. Conclusions Smokeless Tobacco is More Gender roles exist in every society. Prevalent among Female: Female From cooking, hunting and gathering, respondents who consume smokeless fixing electrical appliances at home, to tobacco account for 31.0 per cent of the driving, and to leadership, gender roles respondents while their male counterparts determine what is traditionally considered account for 22.0 per cent of the total appropriate for male and female and population. Male and female respondents distribute responsibilities accordingly who do not consume smokeless tobacco across the gender landscape. Mizoram is account for 33.5 and 13.5 per cent of the no exception, and tobacco consumption total population respectively. Overall, 53.0 is only one such manifestations of gender per cent of the population consumes roles. As per this study, male smoking and smokeless tobacco and 47.0 per cent of female consuming smokeless tobacco are the population does not consume both considered as socially approved smokeless tobacco. behaviors. This is one such way of how To test the association between society gets into the body as these gender and smokeless tobacco behaviors have different bearings on consumption, chi-square test was health outcomes. Therefore, cancer is conducted. Chi-square test gave result: C2 considered a social problem that needs not 1,N=200 =17=.000. According to this test, only a change of diet and lifestyle, but to there is a significant association between address a preventable disease that requires gender and smokeless tobacco major personal and social adjustment.
References Amanda Amos, Lorraine Greaves, Mimi Nichter, Michele Bloch, Women and tobacco: a call for including gender in tobacco control research, policy and practice,Tobacco Control
170 2012;21:236e243. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050280 http://tobaccocontrol. bmj.com/ (Accessed October 15, 2016) Amanda Amos, Margaretha Haglund, “From social taboo to “torch of freedom”: the marketing of cigarettes to women” Tobacco Control 2000;9:3–8 http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/ content/9/1/3.full (Accessed October, 2016) Gender, Health, and Tobacco, Gender and Health, World Health Organization, 2003 http:// www.who.int/gender/documents/Gender_Tobacco_2.pdf (Accessed October, 2016) Gender and Tobacco, Tobacco Free Initiative (TFI), World Health Organization, http:// www.who.int/tobacco/research/gender/about/en/ Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Fact Sheet, India: 2009-2010. http://www.who.int/ tobacco/surveillance/en_tfi_india_gats_fact_sheet.pdf (Accessed October, 2016) Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Fact Sheet, Mizoram, India: 2009-2010. http:// GATS_India_FS_080610_Mizoram_Populated_30SEP2010_REV_Tag508 (Accessed October, 2016) Greaves, Lorraine “Sifting the evidence: gender and global tobacco” WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, World Health Organization 2007, ISBN 978924159540 http://www.who.int/tobacco/resources/publications/ Sifting%20the%20evidence.pdf (Accessed October, 2016) Kate Hunt, Mary-Kate Hannah, and Patrick West,(2004) Contextualizing smoking: masculinity, femininity and class differences in smoking in men and women from three generations in the west of Scotland,Health Education Research, Vol.19 no.3, Oxford University Press, Kate Purcell, (2015) Evidence review: Addressing the social determinants of inequities in tobacco use,Vic Health,Victorian Health Promotion Foundation Mizoram State (All Districts), Individual Registry Data( 2003-2004)Population Based Cancer Registry, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). Civil Hospital, Aizawl. Nancy Krieger,(2001) Theories for Social Epidemiology in the 21st Century: an ecosocial perspective. International Journal of Epidemiology; 30: 669 – 677. Raj Narain, Sarita Sardana, Sanjay Gupta et al, ( 2011) Age at initiation & prevalence of tobacco use among school children in Noida, India: A cross-sectional questionnaire based survey,Indian Journal of Medical Research 133, March, 300-307. State Programme Implementation Plan 2011-12, National Tobacco Control Programme, National Rural Health Mission, Assam. http://www.nrhmassam.in/state_pip/ntcp.pdf (Accessed October, 2016) World Cancer Factsheet,(2012).International Agency for Research on Cancer,Cancer Research United Kingdom, August,.
171 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
A Descriptive Study of Blogging by the Mizo
Lalremruati Khiangte* R.N. Mishra**
Abstract The present paper focuses on the Mizo bloggers and their society and on the ways in which Mizo bloggers view the society through blogging. The article briefly analyzes thm and their demographic background such as gender, educational qualification, languages used in blogging, the kinds of topics covered in the blogs, participation and impact of communication in Mizoram. The study also summarizes that blogs are significantly utilized by the educated Mizo bloggers to air their voices without fear and to write about issues neglected and forgotten by the mainstream media. Keywords: Mizo blogs, Mizo bloggers, Participation and communication, Main stream media Introduction maintaining their own websites. This The advent of digital technology and however, has been done away with due to internet in the twenty-first century proliferation of digital technologies and witnessed dramatic changes in the societal literacy among the people. The emergence life and has created a positive impact on of free blogs service providers, various the societies. It has made it easy and forms of self-presentations and convenient for the people to create their autobiographical writings have redefined own content in various forms such as the form of social media among the young images, words, audio and video which can groups in the society. be in-housed through blog. This is primarily Oreoluwa Somolu (2007) in her intended to share their own resources, article explored how African women have personal things to a specific and identified embraced the blogging phenomenon and group of individuals or public in general, how blogs can be used to promote those who could be reached on Internet. women’s equality and empowerment. One Mention may be made that, only 10 years of the reasons frequently cited for a lack before, it was technical people who were of interest by African women in capable of creating their own contents and information and communications
* Lalremruati Khiangte is Assistant Professor, Department of Mass Communication, Mizoram University, Aizawl- 796004, Email: [email protected] **Prof. R.N. Mishra is Head of Department of Library & Information Science, Mizoram University, Aizawl- 796004, Email: [email protected] 172 technologies (ICTs) is the lack of content observed that bloggers have complete available that is relevant to their needs. control over content and form and that the Blogging provides a way for these women only drawbacks are information technology to become active creators and and imagination. The Internet combines disseminators of knowledge, writing about the mass communication and what is important to them. The author interpersonal communication in a single stressed the importance of identity in the channel—Internet allows users to obtain study of blogs and bloggers. Andreas information and respond to it in the form Kitzmann (2003) viewed that blogs of feedback. This promotes audience represent the emergence of the “modern activity to a higher level. This reversal of individual self,” a claim that is also made roles of Internet user as “author” as well with regard to the literary genre of as “audience” opens up new avenues of autobiography. This represents the diary research. as ‘a place or medium in which the self is Significance and Scope of the Study at the centre of all meaning—the place from which the world is examined, Blogging as social media is interpreted, and remembered.’ Some extensively used by corporate and business bloggers find this very aspect of organisation and are gaining momentum in ‘broadcasting one’s private life’ as present days. As the popularity of blogging ‘powerful.’ There are awards for best writer, is on the rise, blogs can become a great best design, and best new journal.This is participatory tool for communication perhaps the ‘most extreme example’ of especially in today’s information society. wanting to be ‘mediatised.’ Adam Reed In particular, blogs provide arenas for (2005) suggested the ability of individuals discussion, dissent, and debate, which to produce texts free and easily on their precipitate to knowledge, and a feeling of weblog without the permission of an editor empowerment that is critical for social or publisher, who may transform transformation and development (Susan C. journalism and thus, democratise the Herring, et al. 2004). current mainstream media environment. According to a country wide report Dan Li B.A. (2005) in his thesis published in 2012 by Open Society explored the patterns of blogging, blogging Foundations, the two of the top 10 social motivations, and the roles of motivations media sites in India, as of 13 July 2011, as well as demographics as predictors for are Blogspot, Wordpress.com and blogging behaviours. He stated that there Wordpress.org which are all blog is a transition of people from being platforms. Blogspot has a total of traditional message consumers to message 31,764,272 users in India. Wordpress.com producers. Names of influential bloggers has 8,743,508 and Wordpress.org has a start to show up on news stories and be total of 2,540,195 Internet users (Mapping mentioned by news anchors. He also Digital Media, 2012).
173 It is widespread and even reaches remote target a population of 252 Mizo bloggers places such as the North East of India and which is 75% out of the total number of consequently Mizoram where the native 336 registered bloggers as on April16, people are known as the Mizos. Blogging 2014, in the Facebook directory called started becoming popular among the Mizo Bloggers, residing both within and Mizos (mostly Non Resident Mizos) from outside Mizoram, so as to make the study around 2004. According to a blog more transparent. A total of 177 bloggers directory made by Kima, a Mizo blogger responded to the questionnaire based on who has more than 60,000 visitors since which findings have been derived.The Dec, 2004, has more than 300 members main objective of this study is to find out registered. There is no doubt that there are the demographic background of Mizo 50 or more which are not registered in the bloggers and the kinds of topics these particular directory with new blogs being blogs deal in. created every day. This global Results and Discussion phenomenon has also impacted the small state of Mizoram with a population of Overview of Media in Mizoram 10.97 lakhs (2011 Census). Mizoram (21,087 sq. km.) is to one Objectives and Methodology of the north eastern states of India. The main form of media includes print (local There is an obvious need to pay newspapers and magazines), audio closer attention to the trend of blogging (radio), visual (local cable networks) and and its impact on Mizo society as a whole the internet. The media language is pre- and particularly on the youth and what it dominantly Mizo. The internet is the means to the communication process. most recent form of media in Mizoram. Mention may be made that, on a Its reach is still limited to the urban worldwide scale, Technorati (2007), the population. For instance, Aizawl, the most notable blog Internet search engine, capital of Mizoram set up the first cyber tracks 70 million blogs, and records the café “Sparkle” in November, 2000. creation of 120,000 new blogs Today, there are cyber cafés in almost internationally every day. The significance all the localities in Aizawl. There are 26 of the study lies with the fact that, Mizo community information centres run by bloggers are commendably active, the state government in Mizoram. These especially in the ICT environment among centres are equipped with internet the youth, in information exchange, facilities. BSNL is the main provider of sharing of personal data, and literature internet, telecom and mobile among others, through blogging. connection. It has given out This study employed the survey approximately 33265 broadband method. A structured questionnaire Internet connections till 2012 (Economic relating to the study was distributed to Survey Mizoram 2012-2013).
174 There has been an emerging trend in the Mizo cyber community from around the state where local newspapers and 2004. It is not possible to say who the first magazines have started to employ the Mizo blogger was because there are so internet to post their online journals. The many Mizos worldwide whom we do not reason behind the trend may be to expand know about. It is similar to having an the readership to the cognate tribes living email account. It would be virtually outside Mizoram. There are numerous impossible to know who the first Mizo Mizo websites that are registered online person was to open up an email account. from Mizoram. At the same time, there An online structured questionnaire are websites published by non-resident was developed with the help of Google Mizos (NRM). Their purpose may be to Docs, free Google software for creating keep in touch with the issues concerning online survey. The study finds that there are with their native place. In this process, 119 male bloggers and 58 female bloggers blogging started becoming popular among from the total 177 respondents (Table 1.1)
Table 1.1: Mizo Bloggers: Gender Sl.No. Gender Respondents Percent 1 Male Bloggers 119 67 2 Female Bloggers 58 33 Total 177 Source: Primary data
The Mizo bloggers come from that 32% of them have college degree, diverse socio-economic background 62% of them, master’s/professional ranging from students, teachers, degree and 6% of them have Ph.D as well government employees, bureaucrats, (Table 1.2). We also find that 44% of the research scholars, mothers, fathers, bloggers are either working or studying priests, missionaries, freelance writers, outside Mizoram while 48% of them are journalists and so on. The educational based in Mizoram and 8% are from qualifications of the Mizo bloggers are outside India itself (Table 1.3). Table 1.2: Educational Levels of Bloggers Sl.No Occupation No. of bloggers Percent 1 Elementary 0 0 2 High school 0 0 3 College 57 32 4 Master/Professional degree 110 62 5 Ph.D 10 6 Source: Primary data
175 Table 1.3: Location of Bloggers Sl.No Location No. of bloggers Percent 1 Mizoram 85 48 2 Outside Mizoram, In India 78 44 3 Outside India 14 8 Source: Primary data The lingua franca plays an respondents blog in Mizo, 49% of them important role in deciding the blogs’ blog in English and14% of them blog reach and popularity. The most prominent both in Mizo and English, and only 3% languages used in Mizo blogs are English of them blog in other dialects. Most of and Mizo. Other Mizo dialects such as them blog in the English language Mara, Paite, Lai, and Hmar are also used. because they feel it reaches wider According to the information gathered audiences since their readers come from from the bloggers,34% of the different parts of the world. Table 1.4: Languages used by Mizo Bloggers Sl.No. Language used No. of bloggers Percent 1 Solely Mizo 60 34 2 Solely English 87 49 3 Combination of Mizo and English 25 14 4 Other 5 3 Source: Primary data Table 1.5 gives a detailed academics, business, religion/ frequency distribution of Mizo bloggers spirituality, politics/politicians, blogging on specific topics. The topics technology/science, arts/culture, include entertainment, interest/hobbies, humour, creative work, personal family/friends, sports, education/ experience and other topics. Table 1.5: Topics of Mizo Blogs Sl. Frequency of blogging Percentage of bloggers on each topic No. on topics Very % Often % Sometimes % Rarely % Never % often 1 Entertainment 4 2 40 23 52 29 50 28 31 18 2 Interest/hobbies 48 27 54 31 35 20 16 9 24 13 3 Family/friends 6 3 27 16 50 28 43 24 51 29 4 Sports 10 6 10 6 27 15 46 26 84 47
176 5 Education/academics 28 15 30 17 40 23 37 21 42 24 6 Business - 1 3 2 7 3 72 41 95 53 7 Religion/spirituality 14 9 59 34 44 25 12 8 43 24 8 Politics/politician - 13 7 24 14 37 21 103 58 9 Technology/science 15 9 22 12 43 24 47 27 50 28 10 Arts/culture 25 13 72 41 39 22 24 14 17 10 11 Humour 30 17 41 23 55 31 30 17 21 12 12 Creative work 63 35 54 31 23 13 18 10 19 11 13 Personal experience 83 47 48 27 35 20 2 1 9 5 14 Other 23 13 50 28 56 31 31 18 17 10 Source: Primary data Content of Mizo Blogs azialo.blogspot.com and Blogging is a way of self-expression, thangtharculture.blogspot.com are high giving opinions on any issues regarding profile blogs which post current issues on the culture, tradition or political scams, social, political and economic topics. among others. As far as content is There are also people who blog randomly concerned, the Mizo community blogs on on any current issues which may include various topics ranging from politics to politics, sex, sting operations, jokes, social issues, state news to national news, photography, poetry, cooking recipes and academic research papers to special so on. articles, personal diaries and anything else Based on content, we can divide under the sun. For instance, them into people who write Mizo centric aduhi.blogspot.com, posts, general posts, issue-based topics youpurplepeopleeater.blogspot.com, and personal diaries and so on. Kima is a apatea.blogspot.com, 10,000th technorati1 blogger, which zothlifim.blogspot.com, means he is in the top 10,000 websites in nohiddendepths.blogspot.com, the entire world, and is the only Mizo there butterflyeve. blogspot.com are based on who is also a Google Page Rank 3 holder. personal diaries, opinion and life Recently, misual.com too graduated to experiences. The other blogs such as Google page rank 3. Not many Mizo sites minhnemtu.blogspot.com, are page ranked 3. Kima or Sandman, as johnnytlau.blogspot.com and eng- he is known in the blog world, claims that kim.blogspot.com deal mostly with the reason why he has such a high ranking computer technology and popular music. is because he has a worldwide audience. Misual.com and lawrkhawm.com are And the reason why he has a large blog-based community websites that international audience is because he writes publish current news contributed by different types of posts. He writes Mizo readers. Mizohican.blogspot.com, centric posts for his Mizo readers, Indian
177 centric articles for his non-Mizo friends, commenting at a particular post will not global general topics for his be commenting at another post, they will International friends and so on. Simply be replaced by a different group. Many put, he writes based on his audience of the blogs are personal, “what’s on my demography. He adds, “If I had stuck to mind” type musings. Others are just one category, there would be no way collaborative efforts based on a specific I would have reached such a rank”. If topic or area of mutual interest. Some you carefully go through his past few blogs are for play. Some are for work. posts, you will see that a group of people Some are both. Table 1.6: Types of Mizo Blog Readers Sl.No. Readers No. of bloggers Percentage % 1 Myself 45 25 2 Family 10 6 3 Friends 25 14 4 Colleagues 10 6 5 Internet acquaintance 21 12 6 General Public 66 37 7 Other 0 0 Source: Primary data From Table 1.6, we can find out that enables direct audience participation. the readers of Mizo blogs come from all The audience can participate by hues of people. When asked who their debating. Lawrkhawm.com is a Mizo readers are, 37 % of the bloggers community based website which responded that their readers are from the entirely runs on the support of the general public which means anyone can readers. The readers contribute, vote and read and their contents are not necessarily publish the news. In this way, the readers designed for a particular audience. 25% do agenda setting and gate keeping. of the bloggers themselves also admit to According to the administrator Jimmy, reading their own content, 14 % of their lawrkhawm.com is the first user driven readers are friends, 6% of them are content web site from Mizoram. All the colleagues, 6% are family and the contents on this site are voted by the remaining 12% are the internet community (users). Users choose and acquaintances. vote what content or post should be Participation published on the front page. “In short, An attractive feature of blogging this site is about democracy” says is the ability to post comments which Jimmy. Comments are what make blogs are published on the web. This feature different from a web site.
178 The opportunity to interact and newspapers in the state, features news converse with the creator of a web site and contents from blogs such as Misual.com and with other readers is almost unique to blogs. Lawrkhawm.com. There are various other Visitors to a blog can leave a comment on newspapers and magazines which take news each post.Sometimes, visitors comment in and articles from other Mizo blogs. response to what they read; sometimes, the Unfortunately, sometimes there is a problem message is a suggestion or question. of giving due credit to the original source. Because any reader can leave a comment, Blogging helps an individual on his/ comments are even left about other her writing skills and makes him/her become comments. Not every blog allows critical on his/her views. It also helps comments. Many popular bloggers find that maintain a healthy debate that may enrich a they’re overwhelmed by the sheer volume person’s view on certain issues of of responses they get and must turn off comments because they can’t keep up with importance. Often as a response to media them. For most bloggers, comments are an bias (across the political spectrum), they will important way of developing a dialogue mainly be commenting on the news, giving with readers. There have always been closer analysis to issues they feel have been complaints of misconception, misrepresented or glossed over by misrepresentation or even lack of mainstream news. Further, Mizoblogs help representation of Mizo people or Mizoram in shaping the perception of Mizo among itself in the mainstream media and the non-Mizos giving a different perspective interaction between bloggers and their from a different lens, perhaps more genuine readers from across the world make it more and honest, which the mainstream media fail transparent and clear whatever seems to represent in most cases. There is a sense ambiguous. Mizo bloggers telling their own of seriousness and honesty in such blog posts stories in the alternate media space using which is highly inviting for readers who are blogs is a great way of giving more looking for more honest representations of coverage to the Mizo stories that need to an individual, society or culture. be told. One blogger stated, “I have always Conclusions been disappointed by the lack of coverage of news and stories of the Mizo people, but Blogging is an emerging media and I’ve realized that only we ourselves will is gaining popularity among the Mizos. be able to give a fair coverage of content In the present scenario, when it comes to from this part of the world”. the impact, blogs are becoming more and more useful for Mizos outside Mizoram. Impact on Communication Blogging acts as one of the cohesive Many of the newspapers and factors binding together all the tribes under magazines in Mizoram depend on blogs as the Mizo umbrella, where the Diaspora their source for their news and articles. For use it as means to keep in touch with instance, Aizawl Post, one of the leading home. It enables people from all over the
179 globe to participate in Mizo society. It in media as some popular media of creates a new world and space where Mizoram turn their attention to Mizo people interact, share and discuss on all bloggers. Finally, many non-resident topics of their interests. Easy accessibility Mizo bloggers can take part in the of internet among the non-resident Mizos developmental process of Mizoram has provided a new space that also allows through their blogging. The study also a new level of interaction. Most of the recapitulates that blogs are significantly content in Mizo blogs is ‘Mizo-centric’ utilized by the educated Mizo bloggers above any other issues. This clearly to air their voices without fear and to shows that most Mizo bloggers want to write about issues neglected or possibly link to the state of Mizoram through their forgotten by the mainstream media, and blogs. It strengthens citizen participation it is a true digitised democracy.
References Dan Li B.A. (2005) “Why do you blog: A uses-and-gratifications inquiry into bloggers’ motivations”. A thesis submitted to Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Retrieved from http://commonsenseblog.typepad.com/ common-sense/files/ Li_Dan_Aug_2005.pdf . (Accessed on 18th August 2013) Economic Survey Mizoram 2012-2013. A Report by Planning & Programme Implementation Department, Government of Mizoram.Retrieved from http://www.mizoram.gov.in/ documents/19. (Accessed on 25th November 2013) Kitzmann, Andreas (2003), “That different place: Documenting the self within online environments.”Biography 26.1.Retrieved from http://www.Muse.jhu.edu/journals/ biography/v026/26.4index.html. Accessed on (Accessed on 18th August 2013) Mapping Digital Media: India: A Report by the Open Society Foundations. 15 December 2012. Retrieved from www.mappingdigitalmedia.org. (Accessed on August20, 2013) Reed, Adam (2005)’’My blog is me’: Texts and persons in UK online journal culture (and anthropology). Ethnos, 70, 2,220–242.Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 00141840500141311. (Accessed on 18th August 2013) Somolu,Oreoluwa (2007). “Telling Our Own Stories’: African Women Blogging for Social Change”. Gender and Development, 15, 3, 477-489. Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Oxfam GB. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20461231. (Accessed on 29th May 2013) Susan C. Herring, et al. (2004). A Longitudinal Content Analysis of Weblogs: 2003-2004. School of Library and Information Science Indiana University, Bloomington.In M. Tremayne (Ed.), Blogging, Citizenship and the Future of Media. London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.136.3038 & rep=rep1&type=pdf (Accessed on 18th August 2013) Technorati (2007) ‘The State of the Live Web, April 2007’, Retrieved from www.sifry.com/ alerts/archives/000493.html. (Accessed on 12th February 2014)
180 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Framing Muslims as Illegal Migrants in Assam: Media Hype or Social Reality?
Anbarasan Perumal* Tenepalli Hari**
Abstract In Assam and the rest of Northeast India, the most common perception is of illegal migrants from across the border threatening to outnumber the local population. This discourse dominates the regional media every now and then and peaks at times of unrest. The danger looming large is that it would seemingly upset fragile demographic ecology of the region that besides eating into distribution of economic resources would one day takeover the political reigns. There is obviously no one dimension to this problem. There are arguments and counter arguments. Some say that the problem is overhyped while others argue that majority of the Bengali speaking Muslims came prior to 1971 Bangladesh war who were given legitimacy. Whether it is real or perceptual, the threats have given rise to a number of violent responses resulting in large number of casualties. Further, every time there is violence, thousands of people move into camps leading to a huge number of permanently internally displaced persons (IDPs) living in refugee camps for decades in subhuman conditions without any hope of redress. Moreover, this has given rise to a situation of volatility. The State perceives them as vulnerable recruits of subversive elements. On the other hand, politically, new players have emerged promising succor and better socio- economic security. One such political outfit, All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF) has been gaining electoral victory over the years. Thus, the media mostly takes the angle of burgeoning illegal Muslim population that is threatening the political stability rather than approaching it as a humanitarian crisis. The paper therefore, would examine the trends of media discourses using qualitative methods like textual analysis and how it generalises a complex set of population. Key words: Illegal immigrants, Assam movement, Bodo-Muslim conflict, Media hype, Political outfit.
Introduction in general and Assam in particular. Tags like outsiders, foreigners, and Northeast is known for the diverse ethnic illegal migrants overshadow discussions communities that are also beset with on any sort of violent conflicts in northeast intermittent violent conflicts involving
*Dr. AnbarasanPerumal is Associate Professor, Tezpur University, Tezpur ** Dr.TenepalliHari isAssociate Professor, Assam University, Silchar 181 one community or the other. One large can be dismissed as illegally acquired. community that is at the receiving end of The consequence of this situation is most violent clashes are the Muslims or detrimental to both the sections. Keeping more precisely the Bengali speaking a huge section of the population on the Muslims. While no one can say for certain edge is explosive for both. Frequent who is an illegal migrant from Bangladesh disturbances lead to a large number of into Assam or any other part of Northeast unstable group of population to live with India, but the tag can be easily labeled mutual suspicion of being targeted on the without any fear of social, political or one hand and seen as a threat to stability cultural disapproval, to any Bengali and security on the other hand to those Muslim. That is the antagonism most sections of ‘indigenous’ population. Muslims in Northeast India have to live The Muslim populations at the with. Stories and images of Bangladeshi receiving end in Northeast are primarily migrants in Assam are ubiquitous in the in four states, namely Assam, Manipur, local Assamese press. We are told that Meghalaya and Nagaland. The dynamics migration from Bangladesh is Assam’s involved in dealing with the conflicts are “most fatal malady”, “a plague” and a different in different states. In the case of “ticking bomb” while the migrants Manipur, the antagonism is at times themselves are referred to as “infiltrators” unleashed by bloody reactions by and “encroachers” who pose a threat both underground insurgents. They might any to the security of the state and the identity fine day bump off a few ‘migrants’ and of the Assamese people (Glebova Ksenia, send a strong signal for others to leave the 201:20). state. The police or army is unable to There are various versions of illegal pursue the perpetuators for two reasons, migration ranging from total denial to the one, they are underground operatives and existence of some portion of population; two, since the victims are ‘outsiders’ to continuous and uninterrupted flow of there is no political or social pressure on migrants from across the border in search the law enforcing agencies to apprehend of better future. The problem is the culprits. These types of killings keep complicated for both the parties also due happening at regular intervals, sometimes to indistinguishable physical features of targeting Hindi speaking labourers and those considered legitimate citizens from sometimes Bengali speaking Muslims. In those supposedly ‘illegal migrant’. Thus, the local press, the ongoing migration while it is easy for anyone to label from Bangladesh to Assam is constructed someone as Bangladeshi, it is tough for as a security issue by means of a series of any one pointed at, to disprove the discursive strategies, most notably allegations of illegal migration. Even through arguments building a security possession of legal documents does not bridge between migration and Assamese assure anyone of legitimacy since these identity (Glebova Ksenia, 201:20).
182 The situation in Nagaland is A few conclusions can be drawn different, especially after the ceasefire from this bizarre incident; first, there is agreement, the civil society looks upon the an accumulation of anger against Bengali speaking Muslims as potential ‘outsiders’ within and among the Naga threat not just to law and order problem people; the law enforcing agencies have but also a perception of eventual developed cold feet when it comes to outnumbering the local community. The protecting the ‘outsiders’, thirdly, the case in Tripura is cited as an example. In reaction from the larger society towards Tripura the indigenous tribal population this incident is only half-hearted; finally is outnumbered by Bengali migrants over a word of approval to this medieval justice the years and how the economic and comes from other side of the country- the political power is in the hands of the non- Shiv Sena that says people have become tribal have come to stay. The history is not impatient to the incidents of rapes (The as simplistic as mentioned, but largely it Indian Express, Mumbai, March 9, 2015), is the case. but what they tacitly do is to align with Even for argument sake, the Tripura anyone who treats the Bengali speaking case cannot be a possibility in Nagaland Muslims as ‘aliens’. The whole incident or Meghalaya with the Sixth Schedule of therefore, is not an outrage at sexual the Indian Constitution providing a assault per se, rather an impending anger safeguard for tribal states. Further, for against ‘illegal Bangladeshi migrants’, those travelling to, or working in IBM, an acronym popular in the region. Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh In Meghalaya too there are sporadic require ILP (Inner Line Permit), which incidents of protests and violence restricts entry and settlement of outsiders demanding a law similar to ILP in three on large-scale basis. other states, citing the reasons of ‘influx’ An incident in Dimapur reflects an outsiders. There has been extreme outburst of this simmering antagonism violence on some targets in the name of toward the ‘illegal migrants’. On March outsiders. Presently, there is a lull in the 5, 2015 a large crowd estimated to be momentum for the demand after the Chief around seven to eight thousand gathered Minister categorically ruled out bringing in Dimapur who killed a Muslim youth in in such a law in Meghalaya. the city square in a medieval style lynching Historical Background and public hanging in the city square tower. The man was lodged in the jail for Boundaries and borders have always alleged rape case of a local woman. The been bitterly contested between nations crowd stormed into the jail and pulled him and within nations, and northeast is not out to the town parading him naked for an exception to this rule. Northeast shares six to seven kilometers before hanging all of its borders with outside India, except him in public. about 27 kilometers of link that connects
183 with West Bengal, called chicken neck in the Indian government and Pakistan the local idiom. Borders are drawn and government (Nehru- Liaquat Agreement redrawn overnight but cultures and people 1950) enabled return of those displaced and history are age old. It is not logical to persons, 161360 in all were resettled delink both the constructs and treat them (White Paper 2012: 7). During the 1951 as separate analytical categories one census under the direction of Union Home without the other. The scope of this paper Ministry National Register of Citizens does not permit dwelling into that aspect (NRC) the Assam government much. However, one should note that enumerated each person with all the cultures and people are linked to territory details. These NRC registers were initially but not borders. kept in DCs or SDO offices but later shifted to police stations to check and Historically Northeast India was verify infiltrators. having migration from different parts of the neighbouring countries. As per the The 1961 census in Assam led to the White Paper brought out by the establishment of tribunals to scrutinize Government of Assam on Foreigners’ cases of infiltrations, the move followed Issue, historically there were migrations after the Registrar General of Census from within British colony due to various report assessed that 220,691 infiltrators reasons. The growth of tea industry had entered Assam (White Paper on necessitated import of labour force from Foreigners Issue, Govt. of Assam, 2012: Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other places. 8). The White Paper says accordingly Expansion of colonial administration, between 1961 and 1966 a total of 178, 952 local economy, discovery of oil and coal persons were either deported or brought in more people, and above all voluntarily left the country (White Paper availability of cultivable wastelands on Foreigners Issue, Govt. of Assam, attracted a large number of people from 2012: 8). As many as 35080 cases were nearby districts in the nineteenth and referred to the Foreign Tribunals who twentieth centuries. The White Paper says, disposed most of the cases. The eviction “The peasant migration from erstwhile process drew flak from various quarters East Bengal brought with it superior including international media as unfair cultivation techniques and multiple and arbitrary. The representations by bona cropping” (White Paper on Foreigners fide citizens of harassments caused to Issue, Govt. of Assam, 2012: 5). them led to revision of guidelines on the procedure. Accordingly, in 1969 the The White Paper states that due to Government decided to deport only three communal disturbances in early 1950 in types of cases: those who had Pakistani Assam lot of people fled back to the then passport, the fresh infiltrators, and the re- East Pakistan leaving their properties infiltrators. The police were given detailed behind. However, the intervention of both instructions to monitor and watch out for
184 the movement of infiltrations across the incessant influx into the Brahmaputra borders. The Indian government in the Valley since about 1905 was checked”. He meantime instructed the state government says this threat perception became part of not to send back to Bangladesh the persons the sub nationalistic moorings. The press who fled to India from erstwhile East and other communication media too were Pakistan prior to March 1971. used to spread the message to the masses The Assam Movement of the danger posed to their culture and identity. Guha (1980:1706) says in July The Assam Movement was a long 1978 the working committee of the Asam and protracted agitation between 1979 Sahitya Sabha passed a resolution and 1985 that gave momentum to expressing concern over the fresh influx Assamese nationalism. Earlier the of immigrants across the border. The subnationalistic spirit was carried out by Dainik Asam flashed the news with organizations such as Asam Sahitya startling headlines and devoted large space Sabha established in 1917 and the to cover it. Doubtful statistics, often Asamiya Samrak-sabini Sabha emanating from high officials, continued established in 1926 and renamed Asam to be poured into that exaggerated the Jatiya Mahasabha in the 1930s. influx and outsiders’ domination over The Assam Movement saw the birth Assam’s economy, polity and culture. of organizations such as ULFA (United (Guha 1980:1706). Liberation Front of Assam), AAGSP (All The Assam Movement spearheaded Assam Gana Sangram Parishad) and AGP by AASU and AAGSP demanded the (Assam Gana Parishad). The Assam Gana government to identify and expel illegal Parishad as the regional political party that immigrants. The press directed its took shape at the end of the agitation campaign against the so-called managed to come to power in the state “Bangladeshis” - all post-1951 East when elections were called at the end of Pakistani migrants and their progeny, the movement in 1985. most of whom did not possess readily The All Assam Students’ Union acceptable documents to prove their (AASU) formed in 1967 took the centre Indian citizenship that was acceptable to stage and played a leading role during the the present regime. ‘Detect, Assam Movement. According to Disenfranchise and Deport the Amalendu Guha (1980: 1703) the Foreigners’ and ‘No Deletion, No Assamese sub-nationalism was strongly Election’ were the populist demands that nurtured from 1920s among the Asamiya emerged out of the campaign. On June middle class prodded by the British civil 8, 1979, there was the first-ever 12-hour servants “that their own people would be Assam bandh called by the AASU to back turned into a minority in their homeland the demand of foreign nationals’ unless the Bengali Muslim peasants’ expulsion (Guha, 1980).
185 On August 26, 1979 the All Assam lakhs then, to be declared stateless and Gana Sangram Parishad was formed removed. They were mostly toiling (AAGSP) as an umbrella organization that peasants, artisans and workers, born or consisted of Asam Sahitya Sabha, Asam residing in the state for a period of upto Jatiya Mahasabha and others. The year 30 years, virtually as naturalized citizens. 1980 began with a 58 hour bandh followed They were given shelter and relief, and in by large-scale genocide in Kamrup. many cases even wastelands by the Boycott of the Lok Sabha elections, government. Being poor and illiterate and schools and colleges were closed and there because of constant mobility in search of was virtually no administration in Assam, a living and in the wake of recurrent riots, and the officers were often seen taking most settlers lost their ‘border slips’, camp their orders from the AASU and the Gana cards and even refugee registration Sangram Parishad. The January genocide certificates. Most of the settlers were in North Kamrup alone caused death of already assimilated or were on the way to some two hundred persons, and 25 assimilation into their new homes (Guha thousand people were rendered homeless 1980: 1709). by large scale arson. At the end of 1980 After six long years of agitation that unofficial estimates put the number of included many violent incidents, the deaths due to violence, around 1000 and movement came to an end in 1985 with most of the deaths of minorities went Assam Accord signed between AASU, the underreported and mostly unlamented in Government of India and Government of the press. The press in which the Asamiya Assam in the presence of then Prime progressive weekly, Kalakhar is printed Minister, Rajiv Gandhi. The Accord set was attacked and damaged, and a students’ March 24, 1971 as the cutoff date for and youth rally, opposed to the movement, identification and deportation of at Guwahati was broken up by force immigrants from East Pakistan into Assam (Guha, 1980: 1707). (White Paper on Foreigners Issue, Govt. The AASU was invited to Delhi to of Assam, 2012: 13). The Accord created hold talks on resolving the issue. The a provision for citizenship to any person delegation met then Prime Minister, Indira who came to Assam on or after January 1, Gandhi. In all more than 20 rounds of talks 1966 to March 24, 1971. An Act made in were held and the bone of contention 1983, the IM (DT) Act (Illegal Migration remained, fixing the cutoff date for Determination by Tribunals Act) was identifying and deporting foreigners from enforced from earlier Foreigners Tribunals Assam. AASU and the Gana Sangram to deal with the problems. The Assam Parishad estimated the number of such Accord that featured a definition of who foreigners at 45 lakhs, which meant that is an Assamese agreed upon by the the AASU and the AAGSP wanted nearly signatories. The definition was then used one-fourth of Assam’s population of 188 as the basis for the controversial Illegal
186 Migrants Determination by Tribunals Act tribe were said to have carried out the passed in 1983. The repeal of the Act in attack. The decision to hold state elections 2005 increased coverage and debate in the in 1983 in the middle of Assam agitation regional media. was said to be the immediate cause that sparked the massacre. Regarding the Conflicts, Muslims and Media Nellie massacre, Assam’s regional While on the one hand the issue of newspapers clearly supported the illegal Bangladeshi migrants occupies movement as well as ULFA’s aspirations predominant positions in any political of reversing economic exploitation and discourse in the state of Assam and media neglect. But the absence of critical media uses the same framework for looking at also led to the targeting of those who events and issues in general and all the questioned the chauvinism of the more during the height of violence and protestors. In 1991 press freedom took a bloodshed. The issue of illegal migrants big hit when Kamala Saikia became one becomes the lens through which other the first journalists to be killed by the flashpoints of any violence such as the militants after he dared to criticise them humanitarian crisis, specificities, the role (Sen, 2011, Reuters Institute Fellowship of state actors, individual agents, and Paper University of Oxford). Even though restoration of normalcy and rehabilitation the massacre was sought to be passed off works. Let us look at some major violent as a spontaneous act of violence by the incidents that broke out in Assam and how exasperated native Tiwa community, that the media responded. they were cunningly instigated and it was The Nellie Massacre a premeditated act is beyond reasonable doubt. None came to be indicted for the The Nellie massacre remains the horrific act (Nilim Dutta, 2012, goriest of all violence in Assam to this day. Kafila.org). The Nellie massacre took place in Nagoan district when the Assam Movement was Assam Floods at its peak in 1983. It was said to be a six- In addition to man-made disasters hour mayhem on the morning of February natural disasters like floods which are a 18, 1983 across 14 different villages perennial phenomenon in Assam sends claiming 2, 191 lives, most of them lakhs of people every year out of their women and children. (Unofficial figures homes to temporary shelters. The put it at more than 5,000). The villages changing course of Brahmaputra and its included Alisingha, Khulapathar, tributaries erodes vast land areas eating Basundhari, Bugduba Beel, Bugduba people’s homes and cultivable lands. Habi, Borjola, Butuni, Indurmari, Mati When houses are washed away preserving Parbat, Muladhari, Silbheta, Borburi and the papers is not a priority of anyone but Nellie. Most of the victims were Bengali saving lives is. In the process large number speaking Muslims. Neighbouring Lalung of genuine settlers would become illegal
187 overnight. Naresh Mitra, a Times News the displaced Muslim Bengali minorities Network reporter wrote that “out of 20 are not genuine Indian citizens. As the lakh people displaced in floods and homes of these people are burnt down, it erosion in the Brahmaputra valley over the is quite possible now to turn them into last six decades, 12 lakhs are Bengali Bangladeshis. As their return to homes is Muslims. Whenever these displaced becoming more and more insecure, what people move to different parts of the state is needed to be done is not merely a for jobs, they are harassed as packaged rehabilitation, but saving the Bangladeshis” (TNN, Sept. 4, 2012). camp dwellers from this test of citizenship Bodo-Muslim Conflict to which they are sure to fail, owing to burning down of their last shred of papers Bodo-Muslim conflict is a series of (Biswas Prasenjit, 2012). violent attacks that started on 19 July, 2012 in Assam among two major ethnic groups When the authors of this paper visited i.e., Bodos and Bengali Muslims. During the region few months ago, it was found the humanitarian crisis that had unfolded that few camps were still in place, with in Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon and Chirang most people having returned to their homes. districts of the Bodoland Territorial A camp in Kothalguri near Gosaigoan Autonomous Districts (BTAD) and the subdivision of Kokrajhar district has 150 adjoining Dhubri district, nearly 4 lakh families with semi-permanent structures people belonging to both the communities like tin-sheet walls and roofs, but they all were forced to move to refugee camps and are housed in shelters less than 150 square the violence left nearly 100 people dead. feet per family. There are more such camps The problem we are focusing here is how in the districts. Among the Bodos as per the media converts this huge humanitarian the information provided by an NGO called crisis and widespread violence into a NERWSN all those affected during the discourse of immigrant versus indigenous 2012 clashes have returned to their homes, conflict. The Bodos are an ethnic and however some fresh camps have come up linguistic community, early settlers of after an attack on Adivasis by militants Assam in the northeast part of India. resulting in the killings of about 100 According to the 2011 census, there are persons on the eve of Christmas in 2014. nearly 2 million Bodos in Assam which The chilling shooting down of Adivasis led makes for 5.5% of the total population in to fighting between Bodos and Adivasis the state, but within the Bodoland they resulting in coming up of new refugee comprise more than 30 per cent of the camps in the Kokrajhar district some of population. which we visited earlier this month. What is very peculiar in this situation Framing the News is the claim made by some of the The newspapers used the indigenous pressure groups that most of terminologies like ‘immigrant Muslims’ ,
188 ‘indigenous Bodos’, ‘illegal migrants’, referred to the groups as Bodo tribals and ‘riots’ and ‘communal violence’, while all Muslims. They frequently used the term the dailies have called the people involved ‘ethnic riots’ for referring to Kohrajhar in violence from both sides as miscreants violence. and rampaging mob only. The dailies used The Assam Tribune is one of the different terminologies for referring to the oldest English dailies and has high Bengali speaking Muslims. The news reliability quotient in the region. The language and the news selection showed Assam Tribune had full length lead that the news reports were not written stories with colour photographs many sensitively. The Telegraph largely days on the front page during the peak of covered the news using mostly ‘us vs. the violence. There were days in which them’ frame. An editorial referred to the entire first page had different stories on Bengali Muslims as the other. In one the violence. It used terms like the “riot instance the Muslims were referred to as hit Kokrajhar” frequently. Though it had ‘illegal Bengali speaking immigrants’. It stories with bylines, the photographs also used ‘Bangladeshi camps’ to refer were mostly credited to UB photos the Bengali speaking Muslims relief agency. The Assam Tribune highlighted camps. On July 27, 2012 a front page the need to protect the Assamese story by Pranab Bora goes as follows: Muslims as “genuine minorities”. The “Bijni is about 20km from Kajalgaon, the latter again creates a distinction between district headquarters of Chirang, under Bangladeshi Muslims and Assamese Bodoland Territorial Areas District Muslims as “fake” and “genuine” (BTAD). In both Bodo and (Glebova Ksenia, 201:21). “Bangladeshi” relief camps, there are The Seven Sisters Post was an people who talk about loved ones gone English daily launched to cater to all the missing. The Hindu saw the Assam states of northeast India. The paper closed violence as communal violence. It saw down when the news of Saradha group the issue as the conflict between Hindu scam broke out. It was first launched on Bodos and minority Muslims. Even the November 11, 2011 by Saradha Printing editorial of The Hindu termed it as ethnic and Publications Pvt. Ltd. The newspaper and communal violence. Most of the mainly covered news of north-eastern reports in The Hindu used descriptions India. Now the newspaper is closed and as Bodos and Muslims. It referred to its website has also expired due to Saradha Bodos as Hindus and Bengali speaking Group chit fund scam. It used almost Muslims as simply Muslims. campaign style journalism on “illegal The Times of India considered that immigrants”. It ran several full length lead the violence was of a communal turn. It stories and colour pictures on migrants in usually used descriptive terms like Bengali the months of April and May 2012 much speaking Muslims. Both newspapers before the clash began in July.
189 Conclusions rhetoric by legally settling the disputes. In the debate what is getting lost is Gramsci believed that media has always that the issue always takes a political hue, had a key role in telling people to do things not the fact that the two nations have shared in their everyday lives that support the a history in that not very long ago they were power structures. In media studies today, part of the same country. An environment people look at how the media supports of mutual suspicion between Hindu and power structures such as government, Muslim communities may only serve few capitalism/corporations, and patriarchy. vested interests while majority of people The dailies also tend to support the power on both sides particularly in villages live structures like government and patriarchy. constantly in fear. Overall, the media The media transforms its subjects into coverage of the issue has been prolific and “border problems”, “infiltrators” or at times could be termed no less than “refugees”, “Muslim terrorists”, “al Qaeda “hysterical” especially during electoral agents” and so on. The same can be said campaigning as migration has long been a of the northeast media discourse on top election issue in Assam (Glebova, Bangladeshi migration, where the 2011:22). The change of Congress led migrants are presented in similar terms government after three consecutive terms (Glebava 2011:23). Therefore, media was premised on the discourse that frames people into categories where they Congress had encouraged ‘illegal migrants’ are no more looked upon as respectable as vote bank. It is therefore a big challenge humans but as a mass of objects to be for the BJP led government to act beyond treated or modified.
References A White Paper on Foreigners Issue, Govt. of Assam, 2012. Biswas, P. ( 2012). Bodoland Clashes: From Humanitarian Crisis to Ethnic Pluralism.Journal of North East India Studies, July-Dec., 2012, 6-10. Dutta, Nilim. (2012). The Myth of the Bangladeshi and Violence in Assam. Kafila.org.13542, Sept. 7, 2012. Glebova, Ksenia. (2011). ‘Most Fatal Malady’: Media, Migration and Identity in Assam. Refugee Watch, 38, December 2011. Guha, Amalendu. (1980). Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: Assam’s Anti-Foreigner Upsurge, 1979-80. Economic and Political Weekly, 15(41/43), Special Number (Oct., 1980), 1699-1720. Mitra, N. (2012). The Times of India, TNN. Sep 4, 2012. Sen, Arijit. (2011), MARGINAL ON THE MAP: HIDDEN WARS AND HIDDEN MEDIA IN NORTHEAST INDIA. Reuters Institute Fellowship Paper, University of Oxford.Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, Oxford. The Indian Express, Mumbai, March 9, 2015.
190 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Policy Initiatives and Media Interventions in Preservation of Endangered Languages of North-East India
Uttam Kr Pegu*
Abstract The focus of this study is to assess the policy initiatives and media interventions in preservation of endangered languages in North-East India. The region has been a crucible for the drama of language conflicts, yet it remains an enchanting linguistic mosaic. India tops the list of countries having maximum number of dialects on the verge of disappearance with 196 of its languages listed as endangered including 80 in the north-east. While this has implications for cultural identities and knowledge systems, members of a language group must be aware of the factors that lead to language endangerment and make informed decisions about measures that ensure language continuation. While endangered languages continue to reel under the pressure of becoming extinct, the need to create awareness and preservation of endangered languages is indispensable. This paper addresses the need to preserve and maintain endangered indigenous languages. It concludes that there is an urgent necessity to preserve and document endangered languages because each language is a celebration of the rich cultural diversity. Key words: Language endangerment, Language conflicts, Linguistic mosaic, Cultural diversity Introduction diversity because each language embodies Languages have always gone extinct unique local knowledge of the culture in throughout human history but in recent which it is spoken. The focus of this study times they are rather disappearing at an is to assess the status of endangered unprecedented pace. United Nations languages in North-East India with Cultural and Scientific Organization emphasis on Arunachal Pradesh. The (UNESCO) observes that languages are pristine beauty of the region reflects a wide the centre piece of the cultural diversity splendor with each community having a of the world yet they are also a vulnerable distinct language. Language part of the world’s cultural heritage. endangerment is alarmingly increasing in Safeguarding endangered languages is a North-East and perhaps nowhere else in crucial task in maintaining cultural the world would the loss be as profound
* Uttam Kr. Pegu is Assistant Professor (Sr.), Dept. of Mass Communication & Journalism, Tezpur University, Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India. Email: [email protected] 191 as in the region. It is therefore, necessary languages in existence today will to act quickly in order to preserve them disappear during this century. Why should before they are extinct. development workers and scholars be concerned about language losses that According to UNESCO (2003), a directly impact only 4 per cent of the language is considered endangered when world’s population? it is on the verge of extinction. A language is in danger when its speakers cease to use Losing one’s first language it and when it is not passed on from one effectively means forfeiting much of one’s generation to the next. This is to say that social and cultural identity. Fishman an endangered language is one that is at a (2001) puts it powerfully and warrants an risk of falling out of use. If a language extended quote: Such a huge part of every loses all its native speakers, it becomes a ethno-culture is linguistically expressed dead language. Krauss (2007) says that a that it is not wrong to say that most ethno- language is endangered if there is no cultural behaviors would be impossible transmission of it to the younger without their expression via the particular generation. While it is a fact that many language with which these behaviors have endangered languages are only spoken been traditionally associated. Over the with no written texts, it is important to act past two decades, awareness of the state quickly in order to preserve them before of endangered languages has greatly they are extinct. While it is important to increased and along with this awareness dissect the policy initiatives in has come an increase in efforts to preservation and revitalization of document such languages. endangered languages, it is equally There are apprehensions that necessary to examine the impact of languages are going extinct at an globalization on endangered languages. increasing rate largely as a result of In the first decade of the twenty-first colonization and globalization, where the century, there were an estimated 6,800 language of the economically powerful living languages worldwide. More than takes over (Mufwene, 2001). In other half of these are endangered and taken words, the main reasons for language together 96 percent of the world’s endangerment today are socioeconomic, languages account for only 4 per cent of political, and cultural. It is observed that the world’s people (UNESCO, 2001). speakers of minority languages adopt the Most of the world’s language majority language so that their children heterogeneity, then, is under the will have better job prospects or because stewardship of a very small number of the minority language is simply not people. By a conservative estimate two promoted in the society. languages are lost each month. Most While some minority groups choose linguists agree that a large majority of the not to speak their language for fear of
192 persecution, members of other minority language-learning materials. Other efforts groups see the invading dominant culture include promoting positive attitudes as more appealing and modern and toward an endangered language both abandon their traditional culture and outside and within the community, language. Dorian (1998) observes that planning linguistic programs and these trends have accelerated with the rise enforcing linguistic policies. In all this of the nation-state and the one language- activity a clear theoretical distinction is one state ideology and with the made between what Fishman calls introduction of the Western education ‘reversing language shift’ (which is now system and economies. The globalization referred to as language revitalization) and of culture that accompanies economic ‘language maintenance’ (Fishman 1991, integration has led to English competing 2001). with national languages and endangering While language revitalization minority languages (Grenoble & Whaley attempts at increasing the number of 2006). speakers of an endangered language and Hale (1992) notes the importance of to extend the use of the language to linguistic diversity to human intellectual different domains, which requires a life not only in providing subject matter change in the attitudes of the speakers for linguists but also as forms of artistic themselves, language maintenance on the expression and cultural heritage. Most other hand would necessarily mean the important, however, linguistic diversity support given to languages that are still can be considered a human right from the vital but requires protection from speakers’ point of view (Hill, 2002). When outsiders’ attitudes (Grenoble & Whaley, a language becomes endangered, it loses 2006). Language revitalization and not only speakers but also the social language maintenance are therefore, context where the language is spoken and essential for the survival of a language. becomes impoverished and structurally India exhibits a unique mosaic of simplified with heavy influence from the more than 400 languages and 3,000-odd locally dominant language. dialects making it a very distinct linguistic, International organizations such as cultural and ethnic landscape. One unique UNESCO, linguists from all over the feature of the Indian languages is that the world, members of endangered language composition of each linguistic group communities, governments and non- includes multiple group identities in terms governmental organizations are actively of caste, class, religion or region which working to preserve endangered are more divisive and exclusionary than languages. This is done by developing the linguistic identity. That means linguistic documentation, creating membership into a linguistic group cuts orthographies, producing dictionaries and across different castes, religions, regions
193 or social classes. While India celebrates the be made to document and preserve existence of such linguistic and cultural endangered languages; however, it is also diversities which is unparalleled, the forces important to be explicit about the reasons of globalization have threatened the existence to support these efforts. of many of the languages particularly in the Objectives and Research Design North-East, particularly those which are numerically less represented. The UNESCO The study has adopted explorative report on endangered languages is a pointer research method for conducting the in this aspect. research. This study is intended to examine: That indigenous languages and cultures are disappearing at an alarming a. Endangered languages in North-East rate around the globe has been noted by with an emphasis on Arunachal Pradesh many (Krauss 1992, Hinton et al., 2002). b. Language policies in India and Perhaps nowhere else in the world would this loss be more profound than in North- c. Media interventions in preservation East India. With five language families of endangered languages (Tai-Kadai, Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan, Endangered Languages in North-East Dravidan, Austroasiatic) represented in North-East constitutes a single well over one hundred languages amongst linguistic region with about 220 its 8 states, the region perhaps could well languages in three different language be the most linguistically diverse region groups (Indo-Aryan, Sino-Tibetan and in the world. Many linguists today see it Austric) that share common structural as their obligation to assist in preventing features. Assamese, an Indo-Aryan this great loss to mankind by documenting language spoken mostly in the and describing languages and working Brahmaputra Valley, developed as lingua with communities to preserve and/or franca for many speech communities. revitalize their languages. The hill states in the region like There is an utmost necessity to Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, document and revitalize endangered Mizoram and Nagaland are languages as many of them will disappear predominantly inhabited by tribal people within the next few decades. Several with a degree of diversity even within the scholars predict that up to 90% of the tribal groups. Besides the indigenous world’s languages may well be replaced inhabitants, people from Tibet, Burma, by dominant languages by the end of the Thailand, West Bengal and Bangladesh twenty-first century which would reduce have migrated into the region at various the present number of almost 7,000 periods of history. Table 1 shows the languages to less than 700. It seems clear details of Major Tribes in North-East and unequivocal that every effort should India, state-wise.
194 Table 1: Major Tribes in North-East India State Major tribes Arunachal Pradesh Adi,Abor,Aka,Apatani,Nyishi,Galo,Khampti,Khowa,Mishmi,Momb a,Sherdukpen,Singpho,Hrusso,Tagin,Khamba Assam Barmans in Cachar, Boro, Borokachari, Deori, Hojai, Kachari, Sonwal, Lalung, Mech, Miri, Rabha , Dimasa, Hajong , Singhpho, Khampti, Garo Manipur Aimol, Anal, Angami, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Kabui, Inpui, Rongmei, Kacha Naga, Liangmai, Zeme , Koirao,Thangal, Koireng,Kom, Lamgang, Mao, Maram, Maring, Any Mizo (Lushai),Tribes, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Purum, Ralte, Sema, Simte, Suhte, Tangkhul, Thadou, Vaiphui, Zou, Poumai Naga, Tarao, Kharam, Any Kuki tribes, Mate, Meghalaya Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, Chakma, Dimasa, Kachari, Garo, Hajong, Hmar, Pnar, War, Bhoi, Lyngngam, Any Kuki tribes, Lakher, Man (Tai Speaking), Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes, Mikir, Any Naga tribes, Pawi, Synteng, Boro Kacharis , Koch, Raba, Rava
Mizoram Chakma, Dimasa (Kachari) , Garo, Hajong, Hmar, Khasi and Jaintia, (Including Khasi, Synteng or Pnar, War, Bhoi or Lyngngam), Any Kuki tribes, Lakher, Man (Tai-speaking), Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes, Mikir, Any Naga tribes, Pawi, Synteng, Paite
Nagaland Naga, Kuki, Kachari, Mikir, Garo Sikkim Bhutia (including Chumbipa, Dopthapa, Dukpa, Kagatey, Sherpa, Tibetan, Tromopa, Yolmo), Lepcha, Limboo, Tamang Tripura Bhil, Bhutia, Chaima, Chakma, Garoo, Halam, Bengshel, Dub, Kaipeng, Kalai, Karbong, Lengui, Mussum, Rupini, Sukuchep, Thangchep, Jamatia, Khasia, Kuki (Source: Annual Report, 2013-2014, Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India)
Researchers found that Assam with the survey has come up with languages 55 languages, Gujarat 48, Maharashtra 39 that are spoken by less than 10,000 people and West Bengal 38 are among the most many from tribal areas, nomadic linguistically diverse States. “As per the communities and from the interiors of 2011 Census, there are about 122 north-eastern part of the country,” as noted languages spoken by more than 10,000 people. Of them 22 are the scheduled by G.N. Devy (President of People’s languages. Other than the 122 languages, Linguistic Survey of India).
195 Arunachal Pradesh is the richest among It is an irony to note that efforts to the states with 90 languages. Work on the save these dying languages are minimal. independent survey, now in its final stages, The languages of small communities like has so far thrown up interesting results. Meyor and Bugun face the biggest threat. For instance, it has been found that West Dwindling population coupled with the Bengal has the highest number of scripts onslaught of Hindi and Assamese at nine, according to G.N. Devy. languages are gradually giving slow death to these unique languages. According to Arunachal Pradesh is home to the UNESCO (2009) Atlast of the World’s numerous tribes who speak a wide variety Languages in Danger data, 36 languages of languages. The pristine beauty in the of Arunachal Pradesh have been identified region, each place reflects a wild splendor as endangered. What is worrying is that and each community of people seem to even languages of largely populated tribal be the kindest and most generous in this groups like Adi, Galo and Nyishi too have world. Indeed, it will be shame if these been categorized as unsafe by UNESCO unique languages and cultures are lost. due to the heavy influence of Hindi Along with the loss of language and language. culture mankind misses out on the unique essence of wisdom embodied within these Of the endangered languages of languages and culture. Loss of language Arunachal Pradesh, Koro stands out as it and culture is tantamount to loss of human is spoken by only 800 people in the state knowledge. and most of the speakers are younger than 20. Koro adds just one entry to the list of It has been noted that 36 languages 6,909 languages worldwide. Koro was of Arunachal Pradesh are on the verge of identified by a group of Indian language becoming extinct very soon. The reason surveyors’ way back in 2003 but the could be because there is lack of proper discovery did not surface till now. The documentation or the dearth of carriers surveyors also discovered Aka and Miju, of the old legacy. There has been no effort languages belonging to the Tibeto- initiated to save some of the languages Burman language family. According to K including Koro, Nath, Tangam, Bugun, David Harrison, Koro must be preserved Meyor and Miji. These languages have since it is a source of the knowledge. It is found place in UNESCO’s list of 196 believed that a language becomes extinct endangered languages throughout the world. In the list, smaller communities every two weeks. By 2100, it is estimated like Meyor and Bugun face the biggest that more than half of the 6,910 languages threat. Even languages of largely spoken on earth will vanish. populated tribal groups like Adi, Galo While other North Eastern ethnic and Nyishi have been categorized as unsafe by UNESCO. groups like Mizo, Naga, Manipuri (both tribals and Meitei), Khasi, Bodo, Mishing and
196 others have managed to safeguard their (Table 2). There are apprehensions that language and culture, sadly the tribal languages worldwide are disappearing at groups of Arunachal have miserably failed an unprecedented rate. While this has on that account. “Historically Mizo, Naga, implications for cultural identities and Manipuris and to a certain extent Boro’s knowledge systems, members of a have all fought strongly for their cultural language group must be aware of the and linguistic identity. But they seem to factors that lead to language demise for have taken people of Arunachal for them to make informed decisions about granted and therefore is not serious about measures that ensure language saving unique tribal languages,” says Scott continuation into the future. C Delancey, Head, Department of Linguistic, Oregon University, USA. As per facts revealed by UNESCO, Language Policies in India India tops the list of countries having maximum number of dialects on the verge India has been a crucible of language of disappearance. With 196 of its conflict and contrary to the state building languages listed as endangered including efforts in other empires, India remains a around 80 in the Northeast, India is closely linguistic mosaic. The UNESCO Atlas followed by the US which stands to lose identifies 196 languages that are 192 languages and Indonesia, where 147 endangered in India, which comprise 84 languages that are ‘unsafe’, 62 languages are in peril. However, the Indian that are ‘definitely endangered’ and 6 and Government says UNESCO has put 35 languages that are respectively certain dominant Indian languages within ‘severely’ and ‘critically’ endangered the endangered category (Table 3).
Table 2: Countries with the Most Endangered Languages Degree of Vitality Country Definitely Severely Critically Totally Unsafe Extinct endangered endangered endangered endangered India 84 62 6 35 9 196 USA 11 25 32 71 53 192 Brazil 97 17 19 45 12 190 Indonesia 56 30 19 32 10 147 China 41 49 22 23 9 144 Mexico 52 38 33 21 - 144 Russian Federation 21 47 29 20 19 136 Australia 17 13 30 42 6 108 Papua New Guinea 24 15 29 20 10 98 Canada 24 14 16 32 2 88 Source: UNESCO (2009)
197 Table 3: Distribution of Endangered Languages in India as per number of Speakers Degree of Data not Zero to 5,000 to 10,000 to 20,000 to 50,000 to Above Total Vitality available 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Extinct - 9 - - - - - 9 Critically 4 22 2 4 2 1 - 35 endangered Severely - 6 - - - - - 6 endangered Definitely 4 19 8 6 6 4 15 62 endangered Unsafe 3 4 5 3 22 12 35 84 Total 11 60 15 13 30 17 50 196 Source: UNESCO (2009)
Surprisingly the UNESCO’s than 10,000 speakers, depending on the assessment includes Meitei (Manipuri), degree of endangerment. The UGC Khasi and Mizo, which are the main recently created Centers for Endangered languages of the states of Manipur, Languages in 9 central universities and 11 Meghalaya and Mizoram. The UNESCO state universities. The Ministry of Tribal list needs to be seen as an indication of Affairs has recognized the Baroda-based trends rather than as an accurate fact sheet. Bhasha Research Centre as a centre of We need our own assessment. It is an irony excellence. Also, according to G.N. Devy, to note that there has been no proper the Census of India has started a rapid enumeration of languages in India for survey of mother tongues. nearly a century. The last comprehensive exercise was carried out by George It is depressing to know that an Grierson, an Irish linguistic scholar who accurate picture of the country’s languages carried out the first linguistic surveys in does not exist. Moreover, the Census of India between 1894 and 1928, listing 189 India counts speakers rather than languages and several hundred dialects. languages and does not recognize The Government of India has languages with less than 10,000 speakers initiated a scheme known as “Protection as languages at all and just groups them and Preservation of Endangered as ‘others’ under major languages. Languages of India”. The Mysore-based Because of this, the languages that are at Central Institute of Indian Languages risk are the ones which are being ignored. (CIIL) works on the protection, The divide between major and minor preservation and documentation of mother languages and the official sidelining of the tongues/languages of India spoken by less latter which is enshrined in the VIII
198 schedule of the Indian Constitution has 96.6% of the population of India. In also resulted in a power struggle among addition to the 22 scheduled languages, linguistic communities to the detriment of there exist about 100 non-scheduled the weak. Currently an expandable list of languages having a minimum of 10,000 22 scheduled languages obliges the state speakers. Besides these two categories, to help the languages prosper and make there exist numerous other languages and official documents available in them. The dialects in India. development of non-scheduled languages The Constitution enabled the on the other hand, requires no such Parliament to create new states and obligation. underlying the major reorganization of the In India, which is linguistically an states of India in 1956 (and in subsequent extremely diverse country, there emerges years) was the rationale that linguistic several issues in respect of evaluating minorities be offered adequate government policies towards minority opportunities for political and economic languages. First, there exists a lack of growth to ensure that there is no feeling definitional clarity between what of discrimination or neglect. These 29 constitutes ‘majority’ and ‘minority’ states of India have the power to legislate language as Hindi, the official language their own official languages. It is a pity to of the Union of India, is the language of note that there has been no attempt to track only about two-fifths of the total the inventory of languages in the country population of India. In 2002, the Supreme and their conservation - the last proper Court decided that the operative unit in survey was the Linguistic Survey of India respect of determining who belongs to a conducted between 1894 and 1928, under minority within the meaning of Article 30 the direction of George A. Grierson, an will be the state and not the whole of India. official of the Indian Civil Service which Further, the Eighth Schedule of the identified 364 languages and dialects at Constitution specified 14 major languages that time. of India and it was deemed necessary in Media Interventions in Preservation the interest of the educational and cultural of Endangered Languages advancement of the country that concerted measures should be taken for the full While endangered languages development of these languages. Eight continue to reel under the pressure of more languages were included in the being extinct, the need to create awareness Schedule in subsequent years - Sindhi and preservation on endangered languages (1969), Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali becomes all the more pertinent. The media (1993) and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and could play an important role in this aspect Santhali (2003). As per the 2001 Census, as it is believed that media these scheduled languages are utilized by representational practices shape and affect
199 public perceptions. It is surprising how language extinction as inevitable as it sees little attention is paid to the loss we could the prevalence of English as increasingly have due to extinction of languages. In the dominant and essential in a global mainstream politics and media, there is environment. This necessarily means that hardly any discussion on the rich cultural any attempt at mitigating language loss reserves and heritage we have in the form through government policy or grassroots of languages and how fast this reserve is efforts seems futile in the face of these being depleted. The media seems to be a powerful forces. The media need to relook silent spectator to our understanding of at the way how it reports endangered language endangerment. languages. It should give the public or It is seen that by and large news politicians enough information to frame articles often present only the numericals sound policies on language preservation regarding the rate of language loss which and revitalization. is seen as more urgent to linguists than to While there are disagreements the general public. Furthermore, when the among language experts about how media portray the need to preserve the actively governments should be involved death of language it does not include the in the promotion and protection of necessity of empowering cultural groups endangered languages, there is an and to link the issue more clearly to the apprehension that the public is not well cause of language endangerment. While informed about the plight of the the media point to the events of history or endangered languages and the advantages the policies of prior governments as the of language diversity. It is in this aspect primary cause of language extinction, this the mass media could be very instrumental rightly underscores how policies of in meaningfully educating the people on inequality have historically affected the importance of language preservation. languages of indigenous groups in Nettle and Romaine (2000) assert that the particular. Moreover, media do not situation that is most often confronted is evaluate present day policies that might that of ‘neglect’ and according to them perpetuate such inequalities between language extinction is a fact of modern groups. life and most revitalization efforts is rather The media view language loss as too late or unrealistic in the face of something trivial and instead place the fate globalization. of languages within a broader context of People seem to be indifferent to language modernization which implies that loss or extinction particularly in the North- minority languages have no other East. Moreover, the national or the alternatives except succumb to the regional media do not consider powerful forces of globalization. The endangered languages worthy of being global media particularly consider important as this may not earn them any
200 TRPs or increase circulation. The country language reduces the linguistic diversity boasts of hundreds of TV channels, regardless of the reasons why people thousands of newspapers, community abandon their language and adopt another radio stations, yet an effort in language. There is an urgent necessity to communicating the people on endangered preserve and document endangered languages remain a distant endeavor. languages because each language is a When a language dies, the knowledge of celebration of the rich cultural diversity. a culture, customs, oral traditions and While language is an expression of a unique other inherited knowledge are no longer ethnic, social, regional or cultural identity, transmitted among native speakers. As it is the repository of the history and beliefs each language dies science in linguistics, of a community. Moreover, language anthropology, prehistory and psychology embodies a fragile human knowledge about loses some diversity in data sources. agriculture, botany, medicine, ecology and a host of other areas. As each of these is Conclusions dynamic and constantly reshapes through Language loss leads to the the behaviors of the population with which irrevocable loss of cultural heritage of a it is associated, bemoaning ancestral particular community. Thus, traditions alone may not be sufficient. It endangerment of languages raises remains unclear why there is not much of concerns not only among linguists but to an effort to preserve and revitalize the general public as well. The loss of each endangered languages.
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203 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
Hindi Education in Mizoram: A Status Study
Irene Lalhmachhuani* Lalhmasai Chuaungo**
Abstract Knowing that languages have an important role to play in national integration of India, Union government has been taking necessary steps for spreading Hindi language. As a result, three–language formulae has been adopted in Mizoram which results in the introduction of Hindi in the state’s educational system. Hindi education was introduced in Mizoram way back in 1950s by Mizoram Hindi Prachar Sabha (MHPS). On the attainment of the status of Union Territory (UT) in 1972, propagation of Hindi was started in full swing by Government of Mizoram . In 1973–74, Hindi Wing was established for the promotion and propagation of the language in Mizoram. During its span of existence, government, private and Hindi schools have produced a number of successful students in Hindi. However, considering the total population of the students in the state, the proportion of successful students in Hindi is still very low. Moreover, there are many students who have studied Hindi at formal educational settings from class V to X, but are still not able to speak or write the language. The present study was conducted to find out the status of Hindi education in Mizoram by analyzing enrolment pattern in Hindi subject at higher secondary and above levels, background of students enrolled in Hindi schools and profile of teachers teaching the subject at various levels of education. The present study found that Hindi education is not yet popular amongst the students at higher secondary, college and university levels where option for offering Hindi subject is made available. Moreover, the ratio of Hindi students and the total enrolment in the institutions is very low. The background of students enrolled in Hindi schools is inferior to that of general students. Most students were with poor academic background. Their parents are with low educational qualification and are engaged in agricultural farming and cultivation. Majority of the teachers engaged in teaching Hindi subject are with HSLC qualification and works at school level. Most of them are engaged on contractual basis under Centrally Sponsored Scheme. Hindi subject is even more unpopular among boys. Key words: Hindi education, Status, Enrolment pattern and ratio, Background, Profile
*Irene Lalhmachhuani is Research Scholar, Department of Education, Mizoram University, Aizawl. ** Dr.LalhmasaiChuaungo is Professor of Education, and Dean, School of Education & Humanities, Mizoram University, Aizawl. Email: [email protected] 204 Introduction the growth and progress of Hindi Knowing that languages have an Education since the state is a non–Hindi important role to play in national speaking state. The investigators are integration of India, Union government curious to know the status in this regard. has been taking necessary steps for As Mizoram is a non–Hindi spreading Hindi language. Learning of speaking state, it would be interesting to more and more of languages would bring know the enrolment pattern and the along the necessary social, culture and enrolment ratio at higher secondary, political cohesiveness amongst varying college and university levelsof education. sections of our society and provide us with Besides the introduction of Hindi in an opportunity to study and realize the formal educational institutions, Mizoram national cultural heritage (Bhat, 1986, Hindi Prachar Sabha (MHPS) runs Hindi p.64). schools in various parts of the state for As recommended by various the promotion of Hindi language. Who are Educational Commissions and the NPE the students enrolled in these institutions? 1986, three – language formulae has been What backgrounds do they come from? adopted in Mizoram which has resulted Answer to these questions will enlighten in the introduction of Hindi in the state’s us and help us to know the status of Hindi educational system. Hindi education was education in the state. introduced in Mizoram way back in 1950s by Mizoram Hindi PracharSabha The success of Hindi propagation (MHPS). On the attainment of the status and education depends on the teachers to of Union Territory (UT) in 1972, a great extent. Who are the teachers? What propagation of Hindi was started in full educational and professional backgrounds swing by Government of Mizoram . In do they come from? What is the nature of 1973–74, Hindi Wing was established for their recruitment? These are some of the the promotion and propagation of the questions that arise in the minds of the language in Mizoram. During its span of investigators. Only an intensive research existence, government, private and Hindi study will be able to give answers to these schools have produced a number of queries. Thus, the present study is entitled successful students in Hindi. However, ‘Hindi Education in Mizoram: A Status considering the total population of the Study’. students in the state, the proportion of Operational Definitions of the Terms successful students in Hindi is still very Used low. Moreover, there are many students who have studied Hindi at formal Hindi education: Hindi education in educational settings from class V to X, but the study refers to Hindi as a subject of are still not able to speak or write the study imparted at different stages of language. Much effort needs to be put for education.
205 Status: In the present study, the term Sample 2: A sample of 196 Hindi teachers ‘status’ refers to the present position or were selected from 139 educational existing condition. institutions comprising of 72 private Objectives of the Study schools, 15 Hindi schools, 24 government middle school, 24 government high 1. To study the enrolment pattern and schools and also from 2 higher secondary work out the enrolment ratio in Hindi schools i.e, Mizoram Institute of subject at higher secondary, college and Comprehensive Education (MICE) and university levels of education in Mizoram. Kendriya Vidyalaya Aizawl, one college 2. To analyze the backgrounds of namely Government Aizawl College, and students enrolled in Hindi schools in Hindi Department of Mizoram University, Mizoram. by following random sampling method. 3. To prepare and analyze profiles of Tools Used Hindi teachers at different stages of Personal data sheet for Hindi education in Mizoram. teachers and Personal data sheet for Methodology students for studying their background The present study belongs to the constructed by the investigator were used. category of ‘Descriptive Research’. Data Collection: Population The required data for studying This study has two groups of enrolment pattern and ratio in Hindi population. These are:- Subject at Higher Secondary, College and University levels were collected from 1) Population of Students: All the students enrolled in Hindi schools in secondary sources such as annual Mizoram form the population for this publications of School Education study. Department and Annual Reports of Mizoram University. Data for studying 2) Population of Teachers: All the the background of Hindi students were teachers teaching Hindi subject in any collected by the investigator through her educational institution form the second personal visits to Hindi schools in group of population. Mizoram. For the purpose of preparing Sample Hindi teachers profile, primary data were The present study comprises of two collected from the teachers teaching Hindi groups of samples. subject in different types of educational institutions. Sample 1: A sample of 75 Hindi students were selected from 15 Hindi schools Findings of the Study spread in four districts of Mizoram 1. Enrolment Pattern and Ratio in through random sampling technique. Hindi Subject at Higher Secondary,
206 College and University Levels of the college level, Government Aizawl Education in Mizoram. College, Aizawl, is the only college, which offers Hindi as elective subject. Besides Only two higher secondary schools this, Mizoram University offers in Mizoram, i.e. Mizoram Institute of postgraduate programme in Hindi in its Comprehensive Education (MICE), Hindi Department. The following table Aizawl and Kendriya Vidyalaya (KV), reveals popularity of Hindi subject and its Aizawl offer Hindi as elective subject. At status in the state: Table 1 Enrolment Pattern and Ratio in Hindi Subject at Higher Secondary, College and University Level Level of Total Number of Students Total Number of Students ER Education Enrolled who Opted Hindi Subject 2012 – 2013 Male Female Total Male Female Total Higher Secondary 10851 10621 21472 25(34) 48(66) 73 (0.34) 1:294 College 7524 7231 14755 3 (33) 6 (67) 9 (0.06) 1: 1639 University 667 517 1184 - 8 (100) 8 (0.68) 1:148 Total Number of Students Total Number of Students ER 2013 – 2014 Enrolled who Opted Hindi Subject Male Female Total Male Female Total Higher Secondary 11152 10935 22087 28(34) 54(66) 82 (0.38) 1: 269 College 7173 6851 14024 - 2 (100) 2 (0.02) 1: 7012 University 739 562 1301 1 (8) 12(92) 13 (1.00) 1:100 Total Number of Students Total Number of Students ER 2014 – 2015 Enrolled who Opted Hindi Subject Male Female Total Male Female Total Higher Secondary 11352 11210 22562 31(37) 52(63) 83 (0.37) 1:271 College 8334 7860 16194 2 (29) 5 (71) 7 (0.04) 1: 2313 University 988 704 1692 1 (11) 8 (89) 9 (0.53) 1:188 *Figures in Parentheses indicate percentages The above table shows that the number of students who opted for Hindi Subject in the last three years was very low in comparison to other subjects. Regarding enrolment pattern in three consecutive years i.e., 2012-13, Hindi subject, there were more girl 2013-14 and 2014-15. Moreover, at students than boy students. At Higher college level there were no male students Secondary level, girls led with the in the year 2013-14 where female students percentage of 66, 66 and 63 over boys in made up the enrolment with 100 per cent,
207 and in the year 2012-13 and 2014-15 the produced around 47767 (from 1954 till percentage of female enrolment were 67 date) successful candidates who have and 71 respectively. At the level of passed various standards of Hindi University also, there were no male education. As majority of the existing students in the year 2012-13 where female Hindi Teachers of the State Government students made up the enrolment with 100 Schools are the products of MHPS, per cent, and in the next two consecutive background of the Hindi School students years i.e., 2013-14 and 2014-15, majority reveal the product of MHPS in terms of of the students enrolled were female their quality, educational qualification, students with the percentage of 92 and 89 gender etc. respectively. The highest percentage (39%) of the With regard to enrolment ratio in students enrolled in Hindi schools was Hindi subject and total enrolment, the aged between 20 to 24 years of age, while highest gap found was at college level with 31 per cent were between the age group the gap of 1: 1639, 1: 7012 and 1: 2313 in of 15 to 19 years. Age group between 25 the years 2012-13, 2013-14 and 2014-15 to 29 years made up to 18 per cent out of respectively.This indicates that there was the total sample and the least percentage only one college student opting Hindi of age group i.e., 13 per cent was between subject in every 1639 college students in 10 to 14 years of age. 2012-13, in every 7012 college students Majority (61%) of the students were in 2013-14 and in every 2313 college females and the rest 39 per cent were students in 2014-15. Next highest gap was males. This clearly shows that Hindi found at the Higher Secondary Level with Education was more popular among girl the ratio of 1:294, 1:269 and 1:271 in the students in Mizoram. year2012-13, 2013-14 and 2014-15 respectively. The closest gap was found Regarding the class in which reading in University Level with the ratio of 1:148, by the students,the highest percentage i.e., 1:100 and 1:188 in the year 2012-13, 27 % of the sample students were in 2013-14 and 2014-15 respectively. Praboth (Class – X) and the next highest percentage i.e., 21% was made up by the 2. Backgrounds of the Students students who were in Praveshika (Class – Enrolled in Hindi Schools in Mizoram VIII). 17 per cent of students were in in Terms of Age, Gender and Class in Praveen (BA) while 16 per cent of students which Reading were in Visharad (PU). 12 per cent of the Mizoram Hindi Prachar Sabha students were in Madhyama (Class – VI) (MHPS) runs Hindi Schools (morning and only 9 per cent of the total sample shift) in various parts of the State. population were in Prathama (Class - IV). Currently there are 44 schools functioning 3. Academic Background of Students actively within the state which have Enrolled in Hindi School in Mizoram
208 The various levels of examinations such 4. Educational Qualification of both as Primary School Leaving Certificate parents in respect of Students Enrolled (PSLC), Middle School Leaving in Hindi Schools in Mizoram Certificate (MSLC), High School Leaving The highest percentage of fathers Certificate (HSLC) and Higher Secondary and mothers (41% and 51%) were below School Leaving Certificate (HSSLC) HSLC and only 11 per cent of the fathers examinations were passed by the and 1 per cent of the mothers were following percentages of students i.e., 100, graduates. Parents with HSLC 92, 65 and 19 respectively. At all levels, qualification comprised of 27 per cent and majority of the students were the product 38 per cent of the fathers and mothers of government institutions with the respectively, while HSSLC was the increasing percentage of 71 in PSLC, 71 qualification obtained by 21 per cent of in MSLC, 96 in HSLC and same per cent the fathers and 9 per cent of the mothers. in HSSLC. 5. Occupation of both parents in respect Regarding the divisions in which of Students Enrolled in Hindi Schools in students passed, III division is the one Mizoram attained by the highest percentage of students at different levels of education. The occupation of the highest At PSLC level, there were 34 per cent of percentage (45%) of the fathers and 38 per students passed in III division while only cent of the mothers of students enrolled 9 per cent of them passed in Distinction. in Hindi schools was farming and The other 32 per cent and 25 per cent cultivating. The next highest percentage passed PSLC in II division and in I of both fathers and mothers comprising division respectively. At MSLC level, 36 of 28 per cent each were engaged in small per cent of the students passed in III business or petty trade. Government division while only 7 per cent of them service was the occupation of 17 per cent passed in Distinction. The other 30 per of the fathers and 7 per cent of the mothers cent and 27 per cent passed in II division and business was the occupation for 7 per and in I division respectively. At the level cent of the fathers. Of the fathers and of HSLC, there were no students who mothers, 3 per cent each were missionary passed in Distinction while there were 63 and 24 per cent of the mothers were per cent, that is, quite a large proportion, homemakers. passed HSLC in III division. Only 4 per 6. Profiles of Hindi Teachers at Different cent passed HSLC in I division and the Stages of Education in Mizoram other 33 per cent in II division. At the level In terms of age, 40.30 per cent of of HSSLC, no student passed in teachers were in the age group of 26-35 Distinction or I division. Majority (86%) and 34.70 per cent were in the age group of the students passed in III division while of 36- 45. The smallest group of teachers, the other 14% passed in II division.
209 that is, 10.20 per cent were in the age teachers out of 196 sample teachers. group of 46-55 whereas 14.80 per cent Among them 19.39 per cent were trained were between16 and 25 years of age. in Parangat (B.Ed), 22.96 per cent in In terms of gender, female teachers Praveen while 14.28 were trained teachers take majority at every level of education. with the degree of Shikshan Diploma. Over all percentage of females is 66.33 8. Profile of Teachers in Terms of Years per cent while males made up only 33.67 of Services and Mode of Recruitment per cent. Teachers who had served for 11-20 Teachers of High Schools years constituted the highest percentage constituted the highest per cent of teachers (i.e. 34.70%) of Hindi teachers. Teachers i.e. 36.73% followed by teachers of with 1-10 years of experience constituted Middle Schools with 35.20 per cent. 30.10 per cent, 21-30 years 25.51 per cent While there were only 2.55 per cent of and 31-40 years of experience formed 9.69 teachers at University level, 6.12 per cent per cent of Hindi teachers at various levels of teachers each were at the level of of education. College and Higher Secondary School. In terms of the nature of their 7. Profile of Teachers in Terms of appointment, 55.61 per cent of Hindi Educational Qualification teachers were contract, 23.47 per cent In terms of general education, the were regular or permanent and 20.92 per largest number of teachers i.e., 36.73 per cent were appointed under Centrally cent were HSSLC passed. The next largest Sponsored Scheme. number of teachers i.e., 26.02 per cent Conclusions were HSLC passed, followed by MSLC, The present study reveals that Hindi BA (Hindi) and MA (Hindi) with the education is not yet popular amongst the percentages of 17.35, 13.26 and 5.61 students at higher secondary, college and respectively. University teachers were the university levels where option for offering only teachers with the degree of M.Phil Hindi subject is made available. The and Ph. D. number of students opting for Hindi In Hindi educational qualification, subject at these levels is very low and 40.82 per cent of the teachers were negligible. Moreover, the ratio of Hindi graduate (Praveen) while 25 per cent of students and the total enrolment in the them were Visharat (PU level). Followed institutions is very low. The background by Praboth (10 standard) and Praveshika of students enrolled in Hindi schools is (8 Standard) with the percentage of 8.16 inferior to that of general students. Most and 2.04 respectively. students were with poor academic Regarding professional background. Their parents were with low qualification, there were 111- trained educational qualification and engaged in
210 agricultural farming and cultivation. Mizoram. In order to improve Hindi Majority of the teachers engaged in education in the state, the government as teaching Hindi subject are with HSLC well as the imparting institutions have to qualification and work at school level. propagate Hindi education in a more Most of them are engaged on contractual effective manner. As Hindi is the national/ official language of the country, basis under Centrally Sponsored Scheme. Hindi education should be given more As a whole, Hindi subject is all the more importance and the quality of Hindi unpopular among boys. Girl students Education should be monitored and outnumber boy students and female enquired from time to time at different teachers outnumber male teachers. Such levels of education in order to impart the is the status of Hindi education in language effectively.
References Bhat, R.K. (1986). Linguistic and language teaching.Delhi: Media Publishers. Internal Quality Assurance Cell, Mizoram University. (2013). Annual reports (2012-2013). Aizawl: Author. Internal Quality Assurance Cell, Mizoram University. (2014). Annual reports (2013-2014). Aizawl: Author. Internal Quality Assurance Cell, Mizoram University. (2015). Annual reports (2014-2015). Aizawl: Author. Statistical Cell, Directorate of School Education, Government of Mizoram. (2013). Annual publication (2012-2013).Aizawl: Author. Statistical Cell, Directorate of School Education, Government of Mizoram. (2014). Annual publication (2013-2014). Aizawl: Author. Statistical Cell, Directorate of School Education, Government of Mizoram. (2015). Annual publication (2014-2015). Aizawl: Author.
211 Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol II Issue 2, December 2016 ISSN: 2395-7352
212 213 214 215 216 217 218 Concept of ‘Tradition’ and ‘Impersonality’ of T. S. Eliot
Dr. Bandana Bharati*
Abstract
In this article, the important concepts of T. S. Eliot such as tradition and impersonality in literature are examined. Eliot has made it clear that the meaning of tradition is not to be taken for orthodoxy or for some blind imitation. In other words, it is the presence of the past and history in the present, in the contemporary poets and writers. He insists on recognizing the relations of a poem or a work to the works of dead poets and artists. He regrets that in our appreciation of authors we hardly include their connections with those living and dead.Tradition is a continuous flow which collects and blends the best experiences of social and cultural life, literature, art and philosophy. Without knowing this continuity in life and tradition, no writer can contribute greatly. If someone is lost in relating only the personal miseries and pain, being forgetful of the sense of tradition, then he will go alienated from the greater ends of poetry. As to impersonality in poetry, Eliot says that poetry needs no expression of one’s personal emotions, because the poet happens to be a medium for expressing ideas and experiences which are relevant to poetry. It means that his personal emotions are irrelevant and mostly meaningless, while the meaning of poetry depends more on his depersonalised and objective experiences. Thus in this article, these two important and interrelated concepts of Eliot have been critically discussed.
*Dr. Bandana Bharati, Hindi Officer, Mizoram University, Aizawl Email Id: [email protected] 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 The Life of the Lower Middle Class in the Novel ‘Naukar Kee Kameez’
Ms. Aradhana Shukla* Prof. Sanjay Kumar**
Abstract
Vinod Kumar Shukla is a well-known author of contemporary Hindi Fiction. In his writings, he narrates the reality of the socio- economic and cultural scenario of post-independent Indian society. ‘Naukar kee Kameez’ is his debut novel. In this novel, he narrates the pain, poverty and hopes of the lower middle class society. He also expresses the struggles of this class in attaining freedom from their painful existence. In this article, this famous novel of Vinod Kumar Shukla is critically analyzed. This novel explores and examines the day- to- day exploitation and humiliation of the lower ranking staffs of the government offices by their superiors. By his conscious critique he brings to view the painful sufferings of the lower middle class in Indian society.
*Ms. Aradhana Shukla, Ph.D. Research Scholar, Dept. of Hindi, Mizoram University, Aizawl Email: [email protected] **Prof. Sanjay Kumar, Professor, Dept. of Hindi, Mizoram University, Aizawl Email: [email protected] 235 Guidelines for Contributors
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236 Declaration
Name of Journal : Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences.
Nature of Journal : A National Refereed Bi-Annual journal
Priodicity : June & December
ISSN : 2395-7352
Publisher : Registrar, Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram
Chief Editor : Prof. Margaret Ch. Zama
Address for Communication : Mizoram University, Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram
Email : [email protected]
237