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Chapter V Socio-Cultural Organization and Change
5.1 Introduction From very early times the Poumai Naga have been practicing a direct democratic form of government in the village, combining it with their own culture and tradition, to retain their identity as the people of Poumai. The Poumai Naga tribe is in a transitional stage: though they practice agriculture as the main occupation, they have not left hunting and gathering fruits which still continues side by side
There was no written history of Poumai Nagas but it is conspicuous that there were changes in their economic and socio-cultural life. In retrospect, to understand the changes within the Poumai Naga community, from pre-British period to the present day, the history of socio-cultural changes have conveniently been divided into different periods.
5.2 Pre-British arrival to tlie Naga Hills (- 1832) Before the arrival of the British to the Naga Hills, the Poumai Nagas were not exposed to the outside world. Headhunting at this time was at its zenith, with lots of pride but hatred, fear and jealousy filled their hearts. Fishing, hunting and shifting cultivation were the main occupations in the pre- British period. The Poumai Naga had no caste system in terms of high or low, pure and untouchables, rich or poor. It functioned, as an independent democratic society within a community set-up where helping ones clansmen in every respect was the hallmark of their lives.
5.2.1 Family The Poumai Naga community believes in a patriarchal family system. In many of the Naga villages, large families ranging from to 8-10 members in a family are common. More members in the family at the time were considered a boon, since a large labour force was required to work in the paddy fields. However, Family Planning message is yet to make any significant impact in the villages where contact with the outside agencies is limited. The Poumai Naga community follows the patrialocal and monogamous family 108 system. They have Nuclear families, with Joint families seldom found in the village. In the past, the size of family was automatically reduced because of high infant mortality and many children used to die before reaching maturity. However with the availability of modem medicine, the size of family increased, especially after the 1950s. In most villages, it is not uncommon to find between 8-10 members in a single family, till the early 1980s. The recent field survey showed that most households now have between 4-6 family members.
5.2.2 Clan A clan is generally a group of people who have one common ancestor. According to Vidya, “A clan is constituted of all the relatives from either the mother’s or the father’s lineage and all the off springs of one ancestor, in a lineage.' In every Poumai Naga village, there are some clans or khel as they are called, ranging from 2-6 khels, e.g. Koide village has 6 Khels (Khii), Tungjoy has 3 Khels, Liyai Khullen has 4 Khels and Phaibung has 2 Khels. The size and number of Khels depends on the population size and presence of Khels from other villages. In most of Poumai villages, intra-khel marriage is restricted. However, in some villages like Tungjoy, Phaibung, etc. there are further divisions within the Khel known as Seisou. In some villages, intra-khel marriage is allowed but this is restricted to only intra-seisou marriage. For example, there are thirteen Seisou in Phaibung village but they are prohibited to marry among the same Seisou. i). Role of Clan Elders: The Poumai Naga follows a pure and direct democratic form of governance even in a small unit like the Clan. The elders of the Clan play an important role in keeping the community harmonious and peaceful within their own clan and with members of the other clans in the village. From each clan one or two representatives are selected to represent in the village council known as Kabora or Gaonbura (G.B). ii). Community life: All the clans in the village are tied to each other by close bonds of community life. For instance, when a clan member falls sick during paddy transplantation or harvesting -it is commonly observed that the other people from the same clan or Khel come forward to help the sick in different ways. After Christianity was introduced in the Poumai villages, the Christian missionaries too began to spread good will by lending a 109 helping hand. Be it the sick or infirm, they were ever ready to offer help to the needy, be it in harvesting or paddy transplantation, even cutting firewood, and this help was given regardless of clan affiliations. Community life continues to play an important role though these ties are gradually w'eakening as people have become more individualistic in their outlook, following greater interaction with more modem societies who are fast making in roads into traditional Naga life. iii). Judicial Powers: The clan elders with their wisdom play an important role, setjjing disputes among their own clan members and with the other clans in the village. Any problem or clash between two clans is resolved by bringing it to the village Gaonhuras (G.Bs) when they cannot settle it among themselves. There is no written constitution in the village but the Customary Law prevails. In the event of any intra-clan marriage or murder, the elders of the clan take the necessary action according to the customary law, which in all cases is binding and not overturned. The elders of the clan take on the responsibility of settling all kinds of disputes and work towards bringing in peace and prosperity for their clans.
5.2.3 Village After the tribals acquired the skill of agriculture they started adopting a more settled way of life and settled in a definite area. With consequent stabilization in the source of food, villages emerged with community life, fhe present Makhel village situated at Mao. which is believed to be the original dispersal site of the Nagas is the original village, wherefrom all the Poumai Naga villages emerged. It is believed that the majority of the Nagas came from Myanmar and settled at Makhel village before they migrated to Photo 5.1 Poumai Village different villages. All the Poumai According to genealogical records of Lanamai by Ng. Lunii (Asst. Headmaster) in 1975 at Purul Akutpa village, Senapati District Manipur, 110 they are the 13* generation living here. According to the genealogical records, the Poumai Naga migrated from Makhel village around 1375 A.D. to their present villages. On the basis of personal discussions with Mr. Salew, Headman of Makhel village, it seems that the Lepaona were the last people who migrated from Makhel.^ In antiquity, there were only two prominent Poumai village namely, Koide (the researcher’s native village) and Saranamai village. According to the Hill House Tax of 1999-2000, there are 69 villages with a total population of 1, 44505, 60 villages in Senapati District, Manipur and 4 villages in Phek District, Nagaland.
Some of the important characteristics of Poumai Naga villages show that every village is autonomous and self-sufficient in natural resources. Each village has a democratic system of governance. There is no caste system the system of landlordship is absent {Zamindari system). The villagers live in a community life without much differentiation between the rich or poor. Beggars^e unknown in the village as there is community land in every village for the benefit of the needy. Customary law is still valid and is respected in the settlement of all crimes and disputes. Apart from the village council/village authority known as Gaonbiiras (G.Bs) there is a king/chief in every village. The doors are not locked, as thefts are unknown in the village. When any public genna (holiday) has to be declared, the village King goes to a mounted Stone Platform (Chuphao/Chukho) and declares the genna with a loud voice. Then the message is passed to the other villagers who could not hear the announcement of the genna. The village council has the sole authority to run the village administration. The village Gaonburas (G.Bs) are representatives (around 20 members) from different clans and are considered to have wisdom, maturity, experience and intelligence and capable of maintaining peace, prosperity, law and order and justice in the village. ii). The Poumai Masou Me (Poumai Naga Union): During the headhunting era, the Poumai Naga community was not a single unit, but after headhunting ceased in the areas and modem education was introduced, this led to the formation of the Poumai Masou Me. The Poumai Masou Me (PMM) is the apex body and the largest social organization found in the Poumai Naga community. The PMM was earlier known as Poumai Progressive Union (F’PU), formed in April 1957, wiien the Late Mr. Sani Dahrii of Tungjoy and Mr. Kh. Thaiho of Purul were elected as President and General Secretary, respectively. In 1967 the Poumai Progressive Union was re-christened as Poumai Naga Union (Poumai Masou Me). In addition to the PMM, there are a number of subordinate organizations that are actively involved in the over all development of Poumai community like: i) Poumai Tsiidoumai Me. PTM (Poumai Students' Organization) ii) Poumai Naotoumai Me, PNM (Poumai Women Organization) iii) Chiliive Naga Union, CNU (North Eastern Poumai Organization) iv) Lepaona Naga Union. LNU (South Eastern Poumai Organization) v) Paomata Council. PC (Western Poumai Organization) vi) Razeba Public Organization, RPO (Northern Poumai Organization in Nagaland).
Apart from these general organizations, there are Christian missionary organizations for spiritual development namely, Poumai Naga Baptist Association (PNBA) and Poumai Catholic Mai Me. (PCM)^ All the village councils and other organizations are autonomous in nature. However the village council and other organizations come under the Poumai Masou Me. The PMM plays ans important role in the over all development of the community.
5.2.4 Village Gate The Poumai Naga villages are in a compact settlement. Earlier there v/ere village gates in all the villages. The village gatekeepers opened the gates in the morning and evening for the villagers. Since headhunting in ancient time was a common practice, all the village gates were closed every night to protect the people from the headhunters. Whenever there was any festival in the village some share of the meat was always reserved for the village gatekeepers. Generally, well-built young men Photo 5.2 Ancient Vilage Gate 112 were appointed as village guards. They used the buffalo horn to blow like a bugle to scare away the headhunters. The village gates remained a prominent cultural landmark till headhunting ceased altogether in the Poumai villages. But one can still stumble upon some dilapidated village gate surviving as a relic of a past culture no longer relevant.
5.2.5 Feast of Merit The Feast of Merit “Zhosouyu ” is a special ceremony observed among all the Naga tribes. The culture of Feast of Merit still exists in the Poumai Naga community. A similar kind of Zhosouyu is also found among the Igorots (Philippines), an ethno-linguistic group like the Ifugao who gave “Hagabi”, a feast for the wealthy and the “Uyauy” a feast for those immediately below the wealthiest. The Feast of Merit is the cultural practice that wealthy men in the village follow when everyone is treated to a feast with meat and rice beer On this occasion when the sculptured beam of buffalo horn (Kikai) is put up at the eaves and a Stone Monolith is erected in honor of the person who is allowed to wear a special cloth called Zhosousa. A person who performs the Feast of Merit is highly recognized and honored in society. Elwin Verrier writes, “The Feast of Merit brings the donor an honor both now and after death and henceforth he has the privilege to wear the ceremonial cloth and ornaments, and decorate his house in a special way.”"*
In the Poumai Naga community a person who can afford to perform the Feast of Merit is eligible to wear Zhosa (Shawl for those who performed Feast of Merit). Zhosousa or Zhosa is a cloth of honor to be worn only those who have performed the Feast of Merit. There are two kinds of Zhosa, namely Riidusa or Nghasa and Khaopeidasa. Riidusa is fully white with large stitch or knot and Khaopeidasa is a black cloth embroidered with elephant heads. It is customary for those who wear the Zhosoti to abstain from sexual intercourse with their wives for a year and carry out all the religious rites. It is believed that after the Zhosou the person will become poor in case he does not carry out all the prescribed religious rites and rituals during the Zhosou. The Feast of Merit is usually held in the month of Thounii khou (January). In Poumai village, Mr. Th.Sahriinii and Mrs Sahriinii at Liyai Khullen hosted the latest Feast of Merit in January 2004. In this same village Mr.D.Dahrii hosted the Feast of 13
Merit in 1995, after a gap of nine years.'^ Another Feast of Merit was held at Koide village (author’s native village) in 1999, which was held after a gap of 22 years. When a person is to perform Zhosou, all the households of the village bring rice beer and all kinds of meats to him in the month of Ngekhou (September). 1'hen after two months the host or donor (Zhosoupu) treats all the villagers with rice beer for three months. Dragging of stone is done to erect the stone monolith in his honor in the month of January. On the day of dragging the stone, all the male folk go to help drag the stone and the female folk are forbidden to do any work in the field. Photo 5.3 Feasts of Merit Donors, 2004
In the month of Siipakhou (February), all the villagers come and drink rice bear Rice beer (Pou Yao) at the residence of Zhosoupu. On the first day of "Hohu ” only the woman folk come to drink Yao (rice beer). The next day both the men and women come to have Yao together. They make a big bonfire and sit around. The guests sing folksongs and enjoy the feast with lots of rice beer. The third day is another special day when a male buffalo with spectacular horns is tight with ropes and pulled by men and then released in the open field and the young men beat the buffalo mercilessly with a big stick. People enjoy watching the scene, though sometimes it can be very risky when the rope breaks and cases of the man being killed by buffalo have been reported from some villages. When the buffalo is beaten thoroughly and loses his senses, he is takes to the host’s residence and killed after some religious rites and ritual are performed by the village priest (Napao). rhe meat is cut and distributed to all the villagers according to the number of males in the family, curiously the meat is never offered to the widows.
5.2.6 Headhunting In Poumai tribe, headhunting is known as Reipeihuyou. Headhunting culture was not only found among the Poumai Naga; it was practiced worldwide among the indigenous tribes. Headhunting was a practice of beheading and preserving human heads due to a belief that 14 since the soul matter is located in the head, the removal of the head is meant to capture the soul matter within and add it to the community, where it is supposed to contribute to the fertility of the human population, livestock and crops.
In Kfirish (now Nurestan), in eastern Afghanistan, headhunting was practiced until to the end of 19’'^ century/ In northeast India, the Nagas were well known to the world as headhunters. Some of the writers also refer to Garos, Khasis and Kukis in the northeast as headhunters. In Myanmar, some of the tribes had the practice of headhunting The Wa people observed a definite headhunting season, when the fertilizing soul matter was required for the growing crops and way farers moved at their peril.^ In Philippines the ethnic linguistic group of Igorots also did headhunting before the arrival of the Dutch . rhe practice was reported in the Philippines by Martin de Rada in 1577, and was abandoned formally by the Igorots and Kalinga people of Luzon only at the beginning of the 20‘’’ centurv. in parts of Micronesia the head of the slain enemy was paraded about with dancing, which served as an excuse for the chief to raise taxes to defray public expenditure. Later the head would be lent to another chief for the same purpose‘s The last headhunting case was reported in 1958, in India among the Naga tribes."* The reasons for headhunting are complicated yet interesting. The belief was that by taking Photo 5.4 Human Skulls the head from another village, a new injection of vital and creative energy would come to the aggressors’ village when he brings the head home." So whenever there was no good harvest in the village, the warriors went out to other villages to bring the heads. It is also their belief that if they killed the animals in hunting, their misfortune vanishes. To bring a good harvest to the village or to restore good fortune the warriors and hunters would continue to hunt the head of man and animals Today about 98.5% of the total population 115 of Poumai Naga tribe are Christians and though the old culture of hunting wild animals to restore good fortune in the village still continues even among the Christians, headhunting has stopped. For example in 2003, there was inter-circle Vosou (wooping) competition. The Poumai tribe could not perform well in the competition, as the villagers were heavily drunk. At the Recognition Celebration, the Koide (the author’s native village) chief and other elders summoned all the males and suggested that they go for wild animal hunting to restore the good fortune.
Another important reason of Headhunting practice among the Poumai village was also to raise the social status of the village and since everybody wants to be recognized in society the warrior brings the head The social status and recognition also depends on how many heads he has brought from other villages. Headhunting was also practiced to attain manhood and to win the heart of the fairest girl of the village in marriage. If a man brought the head of the victim, he shows his manhood and has better chances to marry the most beautiful girl in the village. The religious warrior believed that after his death, those captured and killed souls would carry his luggage to the land of the dead. The warriors are highly recognized and respected while they are living and believed to be recognized thereafter even in the land of the dead.
In the modem world, traditional headhunting is abandoned and regarded as primitive acts. However, the same concept or essence still exists with the civilized people, who practice in different forms or perspectives in doing some kinds of job or business to raise their social and economic status and to have eternal life after death. The practice of taking the victim heads differed from tribe to tribe among the Naga tribes. The Tangkhul and Konyaks Naga, after performing the necessary rites, kept the skulls in rows on the wall for exhibition, while the Aos, Semas, Lothas, Sangtams etc used to hang the skulls at the village gates. The Angami, Rengma, Zeliangrong etc buried the captured head after the necessary rites and even returned on request.'^ The Mao and Poumai Naga returned the heads through a neutral village or threw it into a pit if the neutral village was not ready to mediate. The headhunting warriors usually chopped off the head and left the body on the 116
spot where killed. So the body was buried in a grave minus the head, but in case the head is brought back through a neutral village, the skull was also buried in the same grave.
In Poumai Naga tribe, when a warrior brought the head to the village, the village chief performed religious rites at his residence. The genna (holiday) was carefully observed through out the village. A cow had to be killed by the warrior and distributed to all the villagers. This genna is called Ripya Datouyu or Feast of war. After this genna the head is sent back to his native village for burial. Usually the married women from the victory village carries it to the defeated village.'^ If the victims heads are not returned after performing all the religious rites, the chopped off heads are kept in a pit. The headhunting warriors not only chop off the heads of the victims, they also take the spear, shield, dao etc from the victims. The Nagas held the belief that the whole human personality is in the head. This is the reason human hair was so prized in Naga society for decorating spears, daos and headgear of the warrior.'"*
There are three Circles or sub-tribe in Poumai tribe: Paomata, Lepaona and Chiliive (Proumai). In the past, every sub-tribe or circle had 5-6 villages; however today there are 15-25 villages in one circle. There was inter-village headhunting between different circles as told by the elders. For e.g. there was inter-village headhunting between Koide village (Lepaona) and Saranamai village (Paomata). During the inter-village headhunting between the Purul and Phuba village; the Phuba village took help from (Chakhesang Naga (Nagaland) particularly Kami and Lakreni village and fought against the Purul village. Similarly, the Purul villagers also attacked the Phuba village with the help from Meitei (Manipuri). Most of the Paomata villages extended their political relations with Chakhesang and Angami tribe, while the Lepaona and Chiliive extended their political relation with Metei and Tangkhul Nagas.
The Poumai Naga performed a religious genna for a Peace Treaty known as Soutouyou. The good relationships between the two villages were developed after the Soutoii. When the two villages want to have Soiitou, the village leaders first deliberate and fix the date. Many Poumai villages did not made Peace Treaty with other neighboring villages but the 117 better relationship and friendly nature was escalated after the introduction of Christianity in Poumai villages. The latest Peace Treaty or Soutouyon in Poumai village was made in 1993 between Koide village (Poumai tribe) and Maram Khullen (Maram tribe).
5.2.7 Festivals Nil (Festival) is one of the important social activities for human beings since time immemorial. Festival is a time to celebrate together with the loved ones from far and near. There are some important religious festivals of Poumai Naga and it involves some religious rites and rituals. However in recent yeasr, the Christians celebrate all kinds of festival without any traditional religious rites and ritual. Some of the important festivals of Poumai Naga tribe are Thounii, Laonii, Paonii. Rounii. Loukunii, K h i i n i i . Taithounii, Donii. Daonii. Duhnii etc. Most of the festivals are celebrated only in some villages except the Thounii. Laonii and Paonii and Donii. which are celebrated in all the Poumai villages or circles. i). Thounii: Thounii is one of the most important and biggest festivals of the Poumai Naga tribe. It is celebrated in all the Poumai villages. The word Thounii is probable derived from the word Thouthou that means new paddy. Nii means Feast. It is more appropriate to call it the Harvesting Festival. It can also be called New Year festival since Thou means New and Thounii is celebrated in January. It cannot be called as Seed sowing festival as some of the writers suggest because seed sowing commence from February or March. I'he
Poumai Masou Me (PMM), the apex body Photo 5.5 Traditional Dance Troupe Thounii 2002 of Poumai community has fixed January to celebrate Thounii in all the village, towns and places where Poumai Nagas are dwelling.'^’ The Poumai Thounii was first celebrated together from 4-7 January 2002. Around 20.000 Poumai Nagas came from different villages and towns of Manipur and Nagaland for Thounii celebration. In this Thounii. many cultural dances and folksongs were presented from different villages. Thounii is 118 generally celebrated for five days. When Thounii is not celebrated, the villagers celebrate in their own villages. They kill buffaloes, cows, pigs, chicken etc and enjoy with their family members and friends. Breads are also baked and exchanged with their relatives and friends. It is their belief that if they do not carry out the religious rites with reverence and sincerity, they will become poor in the New Year. When the Thounii Festival is finished, the village chief first tills the soil and sows the seed for the heathens while the Christian Priest/Pastor pray and pronounce that all the villagers can starts tilling the soil and sow the seed. Generally, if the villagers want to establish a new settlement or village, it is after the Thounii they settle down after performing the necessary religious rites and rituals. ii). Laonii: Laonii is another important festival celebrated after rice transplanting. It is usually celebrated every year in the first week of July. In Lepaona circle, it is celebrated for nine days and five days in Paomata circle. As a custom of the Yaosomai (traditional religion believers) or Heathens, no villager is allowed in rice transplant rice after the Laonii Festival. The First day of the festival is known as Kikhaiyou. On this day, all the Yaosomai or Heathens take two small branches of Mousii (a kind of small tree) and insert it in the side of the wall of the house as a custom. The Second day of the festival is called Sepoyou and the Third day is called Murasouyou or Ranaiyou. On the third day, the cattle are not taken out for grazing in the open space; fodder is brought to them in the shed. The Fourth day is called Loutouyou. The new bom sons are given a birth ceremonial celebration. For this a rooster is a must to be sacrificed on this day in his honor signifying it is a boy. On this day, all the male folk above 10 years old have separate a kitchen from the female folk. The fire to cook the food is also ignited from a stick after long rubbing with a split small bamboo rope. Due to friction it catches fire. This is symbolic of the olden days when there were no match sticks.
The fifth day is called Niidu, which means the main day of the feast. Lots of meat is cut and smoked in the kitchen for the next four days’ use. The Sixth day is called Sepaoyou, which means sending off the visitors/guests. Meat and rice beer is given to all their 119 relatives/guests on the departure day. The women married in other village sand friends and relatives who came from the other villages to join the Laonii festival are bid farewell on this day. It is the customary among the Poumai to give Sousha (some pieces of meat) to their younger sisters; who are married in other village, a sign of blessing and remembrance. Sometimes aunts and nieces are also given Sousha. Giving Sousha reflects the bond of love and remembrance even though they are married in other villages. Thus a bond of love and close ties are still maintained even after the women are married in other villages through such kind of festivals.
On the Seventh day all the males have separate kitchen like on the Fourth day. A rooster is killed on this day and had together by all the males in the family. On the Eight Day is called Hahpayou, which mean the cultivators can go back to their paddy fields to work. The young men and women go to the paddy field for weeding in groups on this day. On the Ninth Day, the last day of the Laonii Festival, as the custom of Poumai Naga tribe, the head of the family takes achild beyond the village gate and kills a chicken. The chicken is cut into two pieces and one piece is thrown to the right and other to the left. It is their belief that through these religious rites and rituals their sins are forgiven and God will protect them from all kinds of diseases. In the olden days, the young men and women who slept in the Kheloukizii or Reipeiki (Dormitory) celebrated this festival with fiall joy and excitement. In this festival, pork is the main meat, which is eaten. The young men and women celebrate the Laonii in their Khekizii (bachelor dormitory) and Loukizii (Ladies dormitory). Today, though 98.5% of the total population is Christian but Laonii Festival is still celebrated every year after rice transplantation..
iii). Paonii: Paonii is a festival of paddy transplantation. It is known as the paddy transplantation festival. It is celebrated every year commencing from first week of May to first week of June according to the different locations of the Poumai villages. Each village has a different Paonii and it is not celebrated together with the entire Poumai community. Paonii is a very popular festival in Lepaona circle villages though it is also celebrated in Paomata and Chiliive villages. The chief of the village first transplants the paddy from the nursery then the villagers follow. Paonii is one of the best festivals to 120 enjoy by the youngsters. It is celebrated for three days. The First day is called Ranaizhou. The villagers prepare for the feast on this day. Some of the villagers also pluck rice seedling plants from the nurseries for rice transplantation on this festival. The Second day is called Thaopaizhou, (means rice seedling plucking day from the nurseries), when the people take out the rice plants from the nurseries to be transplanted the next day. Photo 5.6 Indigenous Wrestling
In the morning lots of animals are butchered for the guests arriving on this day. Depending on the number of the households in the village, the animals are killed but on an average one household is ready with 10-12 Kilograms of meat for this festival, which can suffice for more than 30 guests. On this day many friends and guests come from different villages to assist in rice transplanting. Many young men also come from different villages for the traditional wrestling competitions. Photo 5.7 Paonii Revelries, 2004 which are held in the evening after the dinner. Usually the wrestling competition is held between the host villagers and the wrestlers who come from other villages. Some times the wrestling competition continues till dawn, depending on the number of wrestlers. Paonii is a festival where you don't need to know anybody in the village. Guests can go to any ones house and have food and drink without any hesitation. Guests can just call or knock on the door and the host will always warmly welcome you.
I'he Third day is Khanaizhou, is the main day of the festival. On this day all the people are supposed to go to the paddy fields for rice transplanting. Besides the above four important festivals, there are many festivals, which are not celebrated in all the Poumai villages. 121
5.2.8 Religion Religion is related to the individual’s life, yet it plays an important role in society. It acts as a powerful agency in society and discharges many essential social functions. According to the Oxford Dictionary, “Religion-belief in the existence of a god or gods, who has created the universe and given man a spiritual nature, which continues to exist even after the death o f the body. ” Religion plays the role of integration and unification in human society but at the same time disintegrates the human society in many respects.
In Poumai Naga villages, the people who believe in their traditional religion are known as Yaosomai. The literary meaning of Yaosomai means those who drinks rice beer or those who follow the rites and rituals of the King. The Poumai Naga believes in the existence of one supreme God called Rahmai. The literary meaning of Rahmai means Supreme God, the designer and the creator who will judge the good and evils acts of man. He is the god of above everything, powerful and controls everything, including all the gods residing on earth or above. Rahmai is same as Allah in Muslims; Jehovah in Christian; Bhraman in Hindu etc. Religious rituals and sacrifice are carried out by all the religions in this world. The Christians, Hindu, Muslims etc believe in their religious rites and rituals and sacrifices and the Poumai Yaosomai also have the same faith in their god. They believe in existence of one supreme god who created the universe and whoever does good things in this world will live with their supreme god (creator) after death. It is their belief that god accepts the sacrifices and release the man’s life or relinquishes the disease and sickness. They also believe that there are some malevolent gods dwelling in some specific jungle; hill, stream or gorge and they do not go to such places at odd times. i). Life after Death: The Poumai Nagas believe in life after death. They believe that the dead men live in a place called Thaimaingi, which means the village or land for the death.’’ It is their belief that anybody who does good things in life or lives a righteous life will go to Thaimaingi, like the Christians belief in life after death to live in Heaven after they die. ii). Religious Rituals and Sacrifices: The religious rituals and sacrifices of the Yaosomai are quite interesting to note. All the rituals and sacrifices have emerged due to their belief 122 in religion. They conduct various rituals and sacrifices to appease their gods at the individual level and at the village level as a whole. They make religious rituals and sacrifices in time of success or in adversities. The diviners examine the omens, which is very common in all the Poumai villages. There are many ways in which the diviners or soothsayers examined the sick or for any event to be held in the village or in other villages. Some of the omen examinations are done from grain of paddy (Kiithou), small piece of split bamboo, Lou (a kind of scented small plant), Miithou (embers). Legs and intestine of strangled chicken etc. a) Examination witli piece of split bamboo: The examination from the village diviner with a small split bamboo is very common and observed for many purposes. In antiquity, according to the omens, all kinds of works are carried out in many ways, as they are superstitious. Even today some Christians believe in such kind of examination with a small piece of bamboo. i). Wild animal hunting: When the villagers want to go for wild animal hunting, they first go to the village diviners and see the omen/chances from a piece of split bamboo. If the omen is good for any particular spot; they go to that particular place for hunting otherwise they select another spot and see the omen from the diviner. ii). For Headhunting: During headhunting, the same omens were examined from the split pieces of bamboo. The head-hunters go to the village where the prediction is favorable. The examination of omen from the split piece of bamboo is very famous and common till today. iii). To trace the lost animals: When somebody lost their domestic animals, they would go to the diviner to ask where the lost animal might be. After examination from the diviner with split bamboo, the villagers would go to search in that particular place. b) Examination with Egg: When a small child is sick, the diviner or soothsayer breaks an egg and examines the egg, which is first touched by the child. It is said that when a child is met with an evil god or witchcraft, there is black or brownish color in yolk but if the child is sick due to epidemic or any other sickness, a black spot is not found in yolk. It is alleged that there are some Haomai (a kind of witchcraft who can cause stomach pain) in some villages and they cause stomach pain. When Haomai cause stomach pain. 123 the elders examine from the egg yolk, which becomes brownish or with dark spots on it. c) Examination with Kiithou: Another way of examining the sickness of the people is through a kind of rice called Kiithou with Lou (a small smelly medicinal plant). Two pieces of Kiithou are brought together and touched with two small pieces of Lou. When the two pieces of Kiithou are touched with Lou, it moves or jumps in a specific direction, which shows that sick person met the malevolent god in that direction. Then the soothsayer advises the sick family members to sacrifice an animal, egg or hen in a particular spot according to the seriousness and age of the sick person. Then the sacrificed meat is distributed to all the villagers according to the number of male persons in the family. d) Examination with Chicken: Another interesting examination is done with chicken. The chicken legs, heart and intestines are observed if the sick person is sick due to meeting with evil spirit or due to a natural epidemic. When a cock or hen is strangulated, they observed the crossing legs. It is their belief that if the right leg is kept crossed on top of the left leg, it is considered as a good omen; it reveals that the sick person would recover soon from the sickness. If a small child is sick, a small chicken is killed and the heart of the chicken is examined.. It is also observed in the intestine of the chicken.
Formerly there was no doctor or medicine available in the village. The sick people were examined by the soothsayer or diviners. The Yaosomai believed that people get sick due to two reasons - one is because of malevolent gods and other is due to epidemic or viral fever due to change in seasons. It is their belief that when some one meets evil gods in the jungle or any solitary place, the evil god (Rahsi) torments the man, bringing sickness. The Yaosomai believe that through sacrifices of animals and other religious rites and rituals, the evil god is pacified and he releases the sick man. The Yaosomai perform different kinds of religious rituals and sacrifices till today in Poumai villages. The old traditional rites and ritual continue to be part of the Yaosomai and some of the nominal Christians continues to believe in the old traditional examination with a small piece of split bamboo and other examinations. 124
5.2.9 Marriage and Divorce i). Marriage: Marriage is not a matter of ephemera; it is a lifetime matter. Marriage is sacred and one is supposed to abide by the marriage vows to the end of their last breath. According to Vidya, “Marriage is an institution which admits men and women to family life. It is a stable relationship in which a man and woman are socially permitted to have children implying the right to sexual relations.” Horton and Hunt defined “Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons established a family.”’’
In Poumai Naga community, monogamy is practiced. There is no child marriage and dowry system. There is not bride price system among the Poumai community. Intermarriage between the same clan or Khel is prohibited. Marriage with ones own sister and paternal cousins is restricted but marriage with the maternal cousin is accepted. Generally, engagement takes place in the months of July and August. The wedding ceremonies are held in the month of September. In antiquity, arranged marriages were common in the Poumai community. But in the present situation, love marriages are becoming more common. After the boy’s parents discuss with their son and close relatives about the girl, they send the message for engagement to the girl’s parents through someone and go to the girl’s parents for engagement. In the olden days - a dream was considered one of the important aspects in a marriage engagement. The girl’s parents first observe the dream and if the dream is good, negotiations for the engagement continue; otherwise it ceases. During the engagement, the boy’s parents share with the girl’s parents what they will give to their son after the marriage. Generally some immovable property like a paddy field, house etc is given by the parent to their son but the bride’s parents do not give any immovable property, except in some cases when her parents are very rich or have no son.
In ancient times, old women administered the marriage ceremonies. The marriage ceremonies are generally held in the evening in the month of September. The groom with his friends and some elder women go to the bride’s residence to take the bride. The bride tramples the right foot on the spade and leaves her house. When the bride and bridegroom reach the bridegroom’s residence, a spade without a handle is given to them. The 125 significance of giving iron spade is that iron is cold and they may be cold as iron, which means they may live peacefully, they also exchange banana leaf cup with rice beer as a mark of respect and love for one another. On the first day of their marriage, a small girl, the bridegroom’s relative sleeps with the bride and bridegroom. It is a taboo that they should not sleep together before completing five days of their marriage. Today the old traditional marriage system is not found in any of the Poumai villages, since there are no Yaosomai youth. All the marriage ceremonial rites and rituals are performed biblically as they have adopted Christianity.
After 2-3 months of marriage, the couple is given a special lunch and dinner known as Kotouyou. Kotouyou is a kind of honeymoon for the couple. The bridegroom is introduced to all the bride’s relatives and a good rapport is developed. Kotouyou is held after the harvest i.e. in the month of December or January. The bride’s relatives sponsor the couple’s the lunch and dinner with rice beer. One chicken is a must to be killed during Kotou. The engagement season or time continues to be followed in the old traditional way, which is usually carried out in the month of July - August. But today the marriage ceremony takes place in any month of the year, according to the convenience of the betrothed couple. ii) Divorce: Naotayou (divorce) is not common in Poumai Naga society. There is no
Marriage Act for the Poumai Naga but the customary law is applied to all th6* divorced couples. According to the customary laws, if the husband divorces his wife, he is liable to give his movable property to his wife. If the wife divorces her husband, she loses everything, including all the gifts she received during her marriage.
If the wife is pregnant at the time of divorce, then the husband gives a maintenance allowance for the child to his ex-wife. During the divorce, usually the husband takes sons and wife takes daughters. In Christian society, divorce is strictly observed and all the Poumai abide by the marriage vows taken in church. However, in some rare cases, divorces are found in some villages. 126
5.2.10 Birth and Death Ceremony There are some religious rites and rituals performed during birth and death. There was not much preference given to a male baby in Poumai community earlier, but now there is a distinct preference for a male child. . If there is no male child in the family, the entire property is inherited by the paternal brothers. i). Birth: There are some religious rituals and ceremonies performed after the birth. During the birth, the husband and some elderly women assist in delivering the child. In antique there was no doctor or hospital and delivering child is depended on the experienced women who help in delivering the baby. The labor pain women are usually given some salty chicken soup in order to deliver the baby with good strength. The young boys a When the baby is bom, either the mother or father cuts the umbilical cord with a sharp bamboo knife and buries it in the ground inside the bedroom. This custom of delivering a baby is still in practice in the village. ii). Christening the child: Today naming of child is done in the church and blessed by the priest and the entire congregation as the Poumai Nagas have become Christians. There is a change in naming of the child since the early 1970s. The Christians mostly use only the Biblical name and or other exotic names. However since the late 1990s, the people have reverted back to the traditional names for their children. iii). Death: Some of the Naga tribes like Konyaks and Ao expose the dead on bier or platform; they do not bury the dead. The Poumai Naga buried the dead body only after the Napaoh (undertaker or Mortician) has performed all the religious rites and rituals. The Poumai Naga believes in life after death. They believe that those who do good things while they are living on earth will live in Thaimaingi (a village for the dead), which is an underground abode.^° The death body is ceremonially washed and dressed with fine garments and laid on a bed till the dead body is put into a coffin to be buried. Washing the dead body signifies that the death body is going to live in a different world meant for the dead. It is also their belief that if the dead body is not washed, it will become alive again and may harm the other people. The elderly women and men wash the death body 127 and he relatives and friends pay their last homage to the departed soul and the sing dirge.
A cow is killed in honor of the dead and distributed to all the households according to the number of the males in the family. This is known as Pahdayou. Some time a pig is also killed for those people who dig the grave. There is no specified cemetery for the Yaosomai and they buried the death body adjacent to their house. The village Napaoh does all the religious rites and rituals during the burial ceremony. When a man dies, the shield, spear, Kho (machetes) and some other materials, which he frequently used when he was alive, are buried with him. When a woman dies, a Shaosii (specially designed iron walking stick), Ro (basket), weaving tools, and some other clothes are buried with her. After the dead body is buried, the family also performs some religious rites and rituals for some days. When a married woman dies, it is the customary for the people to give a cow or paddy to the (maternal) nearest relatives as a token of love, which is called as Thaimai Doupeiyou. When the author’s mother died in 2003, the father gave a cow to the maternal brother as a token of love. Giving Thaimai Doupeiyou signifies the wish to keep a good relationship with all the maternal relatives even after the mother dies. Most of the Poumais are Christian but the old customs and traditions are still practiced and preserved.
In the olden days, when the Chief of the village dies, he is not declared as dead to other villages for 2-3 days. The villagers then send out some brave men secretly to collect the hair of some men or a piece of cloth from the other village. When such brave men have brought the hair or piece of cloth, he is declared dead publicly to the other villages. The collected hair or piece of cloth is then put into the grave of the village chief. He who brings these materials is adorned with animal furs made into a kilt like dress (Khyasoukai) as a token of honor. After the burial of the chief, the villagers observe rites and rituals for five days continuously. No villager is allowed to sell anything for one year to the neighboring villages or to others. Special religious rites and rituals are also performed when the warriors or head-hunters die. All the villagers come to pay their last respects to the departed warrior. All the materials that he used during his headhunting days are buried together and the firing of gun is a must for them as it signifies a brave man. This is done for the chief of the village, warrior and brave wild animal hunters and 128 sometimes even for the ordinary man to honor him. When a heathen dies, the old culture of burying the death and other rites and rituals are still followed but the Christians follow the Church death rites and rituals.
5.3 During British period (1832-1947) The British came to the Naga Hills for the first time in 1832. The British were in contact with the Manipur King since 1762, when the Rajah solicited British help to repel the Myanmarese (Burmese) invasion. The Political Agent of Manipur Mr. Grimwood was killed in 1891 by the public executioner. Then the British officials including Mrs. Grim Wood retreated to Assam. After a month - the British military occupied Manipur valley. Senapati Tikendrajit and General Thangal were tried and hanged on the 14**' of August 1891 in the bright day while Kulachandra Singh and his brother were deported to Andamans.^' The the British nominated a young boy name Churachand Singh, as heir to the throne. When the Rajah attained maturity in 1908, he was officially crowned king but the British continued to retain extensive powers. The British administration in the valley and hilly areas gradually commenced after 1891. The British administration in hilly areas especially in Poumai areas was ineffective until 1900s.
5.3.1 Soutouyou (Peace Treaty) One of the greatest changes brought to the Poumai tribe during the British administration in the hilly areas is pacifying the people against headhunting. The British coming to the Poumai areas had some significant socio-cultural impact. The inter-village and inter-tribe feuds in Poumai Naga tribe gradually ceased after British intervention in their headhunting. The British made Peace Treaty and brought reconciliation between the two headhunting villages. The people could freely visit other villages after the Peace Treaty and the traditional trading between different villages commenced like, salt, Earthen pots, bam and other goods.
5.3.2 Introduction of Christianity Introduction of Christianity to the Poumai tribe is another very important event that brought changes in the socio-cultural and economic life of the Poumai Naga tribe. Many 129
Poumai villagers accepted Christianity but the majority of the populations were non- Christians during the British period in the Naga Hills. A Christian missionary Rev. Pettigrew introduced Christianity in Manipur State in 1894. Rev. Pettigrew came to Mao Naga area and then went to Imphal valley to start his Christian mission but as the people were not ready to accept him; he ultimately went to Ukhrul District Manipur (Tangkhul Naga areas) and started his mission there in 1896.
In Manipur Christianity was started from Ukhrul then spread to other Districts. The Tangkhul missionary introduced Christianity to the Mao Naga and then Mao Naga Missionaries brought Christianity to the Poumai Naga. Evangelist Mikrii Lohro (Mao) was the first person who introduced Christianity to Maiba village (Poumai village) in 1934. Mr. T. Vio from Maiba village was the first Poumai who became a Christian in 1934, and the first Church was established in 1937 at Maiba village.
M. Lorho planted the seed of Gospel to Phuba and its neighboring villages. The Phuba villagers did not prevent the Missionaries and Evangelist from visiting their villages; as a result Lorho paid more attention to Phuba village than any other village to introduce Christianity. He also invited Rev. Dr. Brock, to visit Phuba village in 1943, and preach the gospel of Jesus Christ. The Phuba village is the second Poumai village, which accepted Christian religion. Initially, there were many resistances from the Yaosomai in many villages not to accept the Christian religion. When the Christian missionaries first came to Thinga Khullen village, seeing him approaching - the village chief shouted, “The enemy, whom we have been waiting with readiness is arriving,” Then the villagers rushed to the spot with arms and surrounded him and made a mockery out of him by inciting some children to soil his clothes with mud and cow-dung. Others even planned to kill him. The early Christians were discarded and ill treated by the Yaosomai in the village. Many earlier Poumai Christians were thrown out from their villages but slowly they were empowered with help of the Holy Spirit and spread more vigorously the Christian faith to many villages. As Christianity percolated in the heart of Poumai Naga, Yaosomai are gradually vanishing. Today about 98.5% of the total population of Poumai is Christian. With the advent of Christianity in Poumai areas, the socio-cultural life has 130 changed drastically. Yaosomai and Christians have major differences in worshipping, faith and other religious rites and rituals so initially the Christians were ill treated in many ways.
5.3.3 Dress and Ornaments All the tribes in India have very colorful dresses and ornaments. The Naga tribes have different types of colorful shawls and clothing. The Poumai Naga tribe has different kinds of dresses and adornments for different purposes. The dresses and adornments, which are used at different festivals, are not used in casual wear. Before wool was imported in the
Poumai villages, only Khailousa and Dolousa (made from wild jute) was mainly used for dresses.
i). Khekaisa: There are three Poumai Naga community shawls for the different categories of people and their achievements. A kind of shawl woven in recent years is
known as Khekaisa. It is a dignitary shawl to be worn by the elected public leaders to be worn by the elected public representatives (MP/MLA/MDC), Gazetted officers, Ordained
Ministers (Reverend) and social activists. For males Khekaisa a shield, spear and cock is embroidered at both ends and the sun is in the core strip of the shawl. The Shield, Spear and Cock are the essential signs of a man. The sun signifies good services to the people
as the sun does. The dignitary shawl for ladies is known as Loukaisa. Loukaisa is
embroidered with a Roh, Saosii and Rahou at both ends, an essential sign for the woman and the half mask moon in the middle of the black stripe of the core signifies the good service to the people as the moon does.
ii). Zhosousa: Zhosa (feast of merit performer shawl), Riidusa or Nghasa (white with
large stitch), and Khaopeiteisa or Khaopeidasa (embroidered elephant head in black cloth) etc are entitled to be worn by only those who have performed the feast of merit.
iii) Community Shawl: All the sections of Poumai community use the Sousa or Teisa (Rainbow color stripe). Some of the important designs commonly used in Poumai shawls are embroidered with Spear, Shield; Buffalo horn, Saosii, Roh, Rahou, Sun, and Half
mask Moon etc. Khailousa and Doulousa, Teisa (Rainbow stripe shawl) is used both by
the male and female. Teisa for the male is embroidered with a Spear, Shield, Cock and 131 three Stars at the middle with black background), Teisa for the female is embroidered with a Roh, Saosii (special designed iron walking stick), Rahou (Pigeon) and three Stars with a white background.
In the cultural Festivals, Dance, Whoopee, or Peace Treaty ceremonies, the males are adorned with colorful dresses and ornaments. The males wear Tousiirounii (Kilt- embellished with two-three rows of cowries knee-length skirt in black color), Lai/Rohlai (diadem or headgear), Touh (Necklaces), Ha/Hra (Sash or small cloth draped on shoulders), Louvii (worn on the waist with colorful designed knots), Pheida (ankle ring),
Vaohushoii (hombill feathers), Phanubo (strand of cotton for earlobes). Be (gun), Moiisii
(properly designed white stick), Nghoii (spear) etc. The females wear and use Peiphurai
(a thread on hair), Touh (Necklaces), Baosa (bracelets), Shapu (Wear on shoulders)
Shakheavea, (wear on waist as skirt) Saosii (specially designed iron walking stick), Pheida (ankle ring), Phanubo (strand of cotton for earlobe) etc. All the adornments for males and females are beautifully and colorfully designed.
Earlier the Poumai wore Tousiirouniih. a vest on an otherwise bare body. Clothes are generally made from jute. Women wear Lakiteisha (black shawl with red stripes parallel on the sides), Poupiinii (white skirt black and green stripes in both edges). In ancient times - the people were half-naked or with scanty clothes. All the young boys and girls did not use any clothes until their teens. People walked bare feet without sandals or shoes. The change in dress is conspicuous due to Christianity and modernization of the village with better transport facilities. With the construction of NH39, there were more goods brought to Poumai villages. Jute clothes are replaced with cotton, silk and wool clothes. Today almost all the villagers have started to wear shoes and have better clothes.
5.3.4 Hairstyle The change in hairstyle is also conspicuously noticeable after Christianity was introduced in the Poumai village. Before the people accepted the Christian religion, men’s heads were fiilly cut or they shaved half of the head, keeping long hair in the little portion, in the middle of the head. Generally the women’s head were shaved or kept short before 132 marriage. But they after they get married they do not cut or shave their hair and the long hair are rolled into a bun and suspended on the nape or plaited. It was easy to distinguish between unmarried and married women earlier from their hair. But today it is impossible to make out the difference between the married and unmarried women in the village.
5.3.5 Music and Dance The identity of a tribe also shows through their unique traditional music and dances. All the Naga tribes have similar music instruments and dances but the Poumai Naga tribe has their own music and dances. After Christianity was introduced in Poumai Naga villages, all the traditional music and dances declined. From 1960 to 1990, about 30 years in
Poumai Naga history can be called as Dark Age in traditional music and dances. In this period, the Christians ignored the traditional music and dances. However after 1990, the people came to realize the importance of keeping alive their rich traditional music and dances. i). Music: There are different types of Poumai Naga folksongs like Patriotic folksongs, Poetic folksongs. Romantic folksongs, Rice men folksongs and Feast of Merit folksongs. Most of the folksongs are composed playing Lana and Chii. The main musical instruments are:
i) Lana (a long string with a stick attached to half gourd shell) or (single stringed Bango)
ii) Chii (mouth organ) made of small split bamboo
iii) Nghakai (a mouth organ made of buffalo horn) kind of bugle
iv) Shah and Be (mouth organ made of hollow small plant) v) Mouth organ made of bamboo with four holes
The males use the Lana, Nghakai, Shah, Be and mouth organ made of bamboo in singing traditional folksongs while the females usedonly Chii. Folksongs are generally sung in ceremonial festivals, Kheloukizii (dormitory), and Chiikho (mounted stones platforms). The traditional folksongs and musical instruments are gradually dying out but the modem songs or country songs in Poumai dialect are becoming very popular in all the villages. There are many Audio Cassettes and Video films, which continue to produce in Poumai 133 dialect for commercial purposes since the late 1980s. The popularity of folksongs and musical instruments are vanishing in Christian dominated society in Poumai villages; but all kinds of musical instruments are still found in most of the villages. ii). Dance: Traditional dances are another important part of cultural life for the Poumai Nagas. They have their own rich cultural dances. The Poumai Naga dance is very colorful with traditional attires. There are different types of dances such as the War cry dance, Whooping dance and Feast of Merit dances etc. The men wear Tousiirounii, Lai, Pheida,
Vaohu shii, Phanubo, Hra etc. Women wear earlobe colorful strand cotton, Sousi, Shapu,
Shakheavea, Pheida etc. As the Poumai Naga dances are exposed to other tribes and recognized by other people, from time to time they present their rich cultural dances in Manipur State and the dance troupes have even performed in Delhi. Whenever there is any V.I.P visiting in Poumai village, cultural dances are presented to the V.I.P guests showing their token of love and gratitude. After 1990, there were some inter-village cultural dance competitions to promote and keep alive the rich cultural dances.
5.3.6 Food Habit Food habits depend on geographical location, personal likes of different races and religious beliefs. The same geographical location and races can have different food habits due to certain taboos and personal likes. Some religions prohibit beef and pork; while some tribes or races like Maram tribe (Manipur Naga) are prohibited from having pork since their legend says that their progenitor was breast fed by a pig. The Poumai’s food is less spicy. No spices or very little spices are used in their food.
Generally the foods are braised with some spices without frying with oil. There are no vegetarians in Poumai villages. They have three heavy meals in a day. The Poumai eat all kinds of wild animals and birds, except some animals like tiger and leopard. It is a taboo for the woman to have some of the wild animals but a man can eat all kinds of wild animals. Many people said, “If you eat mutton, you can have dog meat; there is not much difference in the taste between mutton and dog meat. If you eat fish especially Eel; you can eat snakes too. Since the taste of Eel and snake is very similar.” But many do not take either dog 134 meat or snake because they are no acquainted or expose to the custom of eating such things. Most of the old men and women chew tobacco in earlier times. Rice beer is also their favorite drink however the Christians are restricted from taking tobacco and rice beer after conversion to Christianity. The habit of chewing tobacco and drinking rice beer has drastically declined. There is not much change observed for the Poumai Naga as far as the food habits are concerned. The Yaosomai had forbidden the women to have certain sacrificial food, including some other wild animals but after Christianity was introduced, the women also eat all kinds of food.
5.3.7 Dormitory System Kheloukizii (Dormitory or Morung) was found in all the Naga villages. In the earlier times the Naga young men and women slept in groups in their dormitory. Many social activities were carried out in the dormitories. In Naga society, the dormitory was a big house where the young men and women slept in groups in different dormitories and trained in different fields before their marriage. It was partly a training centre and partly a Clubhouse for entertainment. There were separate dormitories for boys and girls. The boys could go to girls’ dormitory but the girls were restricted from entering the boys’ dormitory. It is their belief and the custom that if the women enter the boys’ dormitory, the entire village would meet with misfortune. About the dormitory system in Khiamnungan society (Naga tribe). Major General S.C. Sardespande write as,
“D orm itories are useful institutions where young boys and girls rub shoulders with their friends, develop their character and personality, learn the arts and crafts, get best possible social and cultural education and are methodically initiated into the basically strong tribal customary discipline o f co-operative living, accommodating other opinions and thoughts, adjusting the self
to the group, and identifying the group as more important then the self. Problems of ego, complexes, imm orality, selfishness and shyness are smoothened, and a much wholesome, mature and polished personality emerges as a social individual
In Naga villages, different tribes have different names for dormitory. The Poumai Naga
call a dormitory a Kheloukizii or Reipeiki the dormitory is known as Champo among the
Lotha tribe, Arichei among the Aos, Dekhachang among the Sema and Lonsghin among the Tangkhul Naga. Kheloukizii is decorated with skulls of buffaloes and man sculptured 135 on the planks and hanged/attached to the front wall. The boys’ dormitory is known as "Khekizii’’ and girls’ dormitory is known as “Loiikizii. ” The young men and women go to their own Kheloukizii to sleep after having dinner at their parents’ house.
i). Khekizii: Khekizii is one of the important social institutions. There are 2-3 Khekizii in every village according to the size of the village. Khekizii was an educational institute for the Poumai Naga in earlir times. When a boy attains adolescence he goes to sleep in Khekizii with other friends. It was prevalent during the headhunting days and strict discipline was taught and they were trained in different fields in Khekizii. They also leamt the skill of being warriors, wrestling, leadership, history, folksong and dances, folklore, discipline, teamwork, morality and many other arts of life.
Khekizii was not just a training center and a house to sleep but there was lots of fun and entertainment daily. The boys help in cutting firewood and carry out some other jobs for
the owner of the Khekizii. There were also certain rules and regulations in the dormitory to maintain discipline and dwell together harmoniously with tranquility. The seniors in
Khekizii are the main leaders and every one was cooperative in the dormitory. By nature, the Poumai Nagas are liberal and frank with all the boys and girls as far as friendship is
concerned. The boys generally go to Loukizii in groups to compete in singing folksongs and other indoor games.
ii). Loukizii: In girls’ dormitory {Loukizii), the young girls slept together in groups.
Loukizii is another important social institution for the village girls. The girls go to their
own Loukizii to sleep when they attained adolescence till they get married. Elwin Verrier writes about the Nagas’ dormitory system as, “Prominent in many villages is the Morung or dormitory for the young unmarried men-some tribes also have small houses for the unmarried girls. The Morung are guardhouses, recreation clubs, centers of education, art and discipline and have an important ceremonial purpose”^^ In Loukizii, the girls are also trained in different fields. The girls also leamt and trained in different aspects like, singing songs, dance, discipline, teamwork, folktale and many other womanly chores. The girls help the owner
of Loukizii in carrying firewood at least twice in a year. The girls play "Chii” (a kind of mouth organ) and every girl learns from their seniors or someone who is an ace in 136 playing Chii. Earlier, courtship took place in Loiikizii. The boys frequently visited the Loukizii in the evening to have fun with them and also to court them. In ancient time, courting had no privacy like today as the boys go in groups to Loukizii where many girls are also present in Loukizii. The only way to show any attraction towards a girl was through gestures and by exchanging romantic songs. Many young men and women become experts in singing romantic folksongs. They present love songs to the girls or boys whom they like and through such exchange they fall in love. The boys and girls are very candid and have fun together but cases of molestation and immorality are hardly known. After the Poumai Nagas converted to Christianity from their traditional religion the dormitory system has totally vanished.
5.3.8 Inheritance In Poumai Naga community, father has the sole authority to decide about the distribution of property for their children as per their tradition. All the ancestral and acquired properties are shared with all the sons. The sons inherit the immovable property according to the customary law. The daughters inherit the movable property; however according to the wishes of the parents. In a family where there is no son, the immovable properties like paddy fields are inherited by the paternal brothers or given to their daughters during marriage. According to the Poumai customary law, the eldest son gets the lion-share. Father gives the best or biggest paddy field and a house to the eldest son. The second son and third son get lesser share of the immovable property. In a family with 4-5 sons, the youngest son hardly gets any paddy field since all the paddy fields are given to the elder brothers.
The youngest son in a rich family gets a good share; otherwise no share for him if he is from a poor family. However it is interesting, that the eldest son has the responsibility of looking after the ageing parents and also his youngest brother in case he is not in a position to look after himself Paddy fields and plot for house are given to each of the sons, however the jhuming land or jungle land for firewood are keep as common property for all the sons. Daughters are excluded from inheritance of their father’s immovable property. In the absence of sons, the paternal brother or first cousin brother inherited the 137 immovable properties. In rare cases, some of the families give the immovable properties (paddy field) to their daughters; however sometime it can be used only for her lifetime; after she dies, her parents or paternal brothers take back the immovable property. A dying father can gift to anybody who attended and served him during his sickness as a token of love and gratitude. Generally the father’s dearest one or son gets the gift of immovable property like paddy fields or jhuming land. In Poumai community, there is no dowry system and the couple to set a family is solely dependent on inheritance from the bride’s parents during the marriage engagement. On observing the different social and cultural organizations - it is found that there are changes in different social and cultural organizations but the culture of inheritance is one of the cultural traits that continue to be practiced unchanged in Poumai villages regardless of introducing modem education, Christianity, contacts with other people etc.
5.3.9 Signs and Symbols Different communities have different cultural, sign symbols, etiquettes, gestures etc. Non-verbal communication is communicated with gestures, signs and symbols. According to different races and communities, different kinds of gestures, signs and symbols are used. In earlier times, the Poumai Naga tribe never sent any message to the other villages through writing for Peace Treaty, Surrender, Friendship etc. but different articles were used as a signs or symbols to convey them. i) Sounii or Sousha peiyou (Giving a piece of Meat): It is customary for the Poumai to give Sousha during the Laonii and Paoyi festival to their younger sisters, who are married in other villages. It is a sign and symbol of blessing and remembrance. Sometimes, aunts and nieces are also given Sousha. Giving Sousha reveals the bond of love and remembrance even though they are married to other village. ii) Poudziiziiyi (Twisted knot on the grass): The twisted knots on the grasses near the beehives, wasp, stone etc symbolize as reserved or had been first spotted by others. When such a kind of symbol is found, the new comers do not destroy or steal the reserved things as a respect and right to reserve by other people. The knots on the grasses are decayed after one or two years and if the preserver wants to continue to reserve, then a 138 new twisted knot of grass are put up. Poudzii (^twisted knot on the grass) also symbolizes that something is there or kept. iii) Poudziihisiithouyi (A stick pierced into twisted knot on the grass): The stick pierced into grass knot has deeper meaning and greater significance. It symbolizes not to be touched. It is generally used in private properties like in fish ponds, vegetable gardens, a plot of land etc. iv) Poudziikaonaiyi (A slant knot on the grass): A slanting knot on the grass shows the direction of the hunting partner gone ahead or gone this way. The hunting expedition to unknown areas used such kinds of signs and symbols to make sure of meeting together and to go home safely. v) Siiberaikho (Rope tied to a tree): If a tree is found tied with a rope, it symbolizes the tree is reserved by other people. A straight or good tree, which can be used for a pillar or can be sawed into pieces for building materials are generally reserved. The reason behind this is the whole village has common property such as jungle; forest etc and anybody can cut down if the tree is not reserved with a symbol. From time to time, a rope is tied replacing the old rope as to continue to reserve the tree. When a tree’s bark or out layer is removed it also symbolizes reserved status. vi) Pouhuduhi kakouyou (A small long grass across on the way): A small long grass across on the way symbolizes something is there ahead of you on the way. It is a sign of precautions. It may be a trap or any dangerous thing there ahead of you. In such a kind of symbol one needs to take precaution and look around before going ahead. vii) Kikhusiini tyayi (Door closed with stick across): When the door is closed with a stick or wooden plank across it symbolizes that no one is there in the house. In earlier times, people generally did not lock the door with a key; only a wooden plank or stick is attached across the door. People are very honest; hardly any burglar goes inside the house to steal in absence of the owner. viii) Chuhthouyi alia Siishoh (placing stones and planting trees): Placing stones and planting trees symbolizes or shows the boundary of the land. Misplacing of stones and planting trees can bring land dispute. Therefore placing of stones and planting trees on the boundaries are done with circumspection. ix) Sahpeiyou (Giving shawl): Giving a shawl to other symbolizes intimate friendship or 139 having a desire to keep good friendship. Giving a shawl is a sign of bond of love and remembrance. Generally shawl is presented when a closed friend or relative dies. Giving the shawl to the V.I.P guests symbolizes respect and token of love for the visit. x) Nghoupeiyi (Giving of spear): During the headhunting, spears are widely used to fight the enemies. Giving of spear has great significance, which shows peace or no more war. The defeated group gives a spear to the conqueror means a sign of surrender; not to fight again. A warrior’s spear taken by other villagers is a bad sign, which means the village can be defeated in the future. xi) Zhaiseiveiyu (sending blood): Sending the blood to another village is a sign that there will be blood flushing in the village. In olden days people used blood as warning to other villages. It is alleged the NSCN spilled around with blood the 21 Assam Rifles camp before the NSCN attacked the camp on 9* July 1987. xii) Soushi Ho (Sending Chilly powder): Sending Soushiho to another village symbolizes that there will be problem and panic in that village where the chilly powder is sent. It is a kind of warning to that village by the sender. xiii) Meivipeiyu (giving charcoal): Sending charcoal to another village means that their houses or village will be burnt into charcoal. It is a warning and challenge to that person or village where the charcoal is sent. xiv), Maipeisiseiyu (sending human hair): Maipeisi seiyii symbolizes that a crowd of people are coming to your village to fight and it may take away the hair of the men. xv) Bahzii siiyi (to show your fist): When someone, especially an elderly person clenches his fist when lying on the ridden bed before they are about to die; it symbolizes that they are passing on the curse to their children or to anyone on whom they have a grudge.. xvi) Khaoto sei you (Piece of rice taken out from the plate): Taking out a piece of rice from the plate before taking food symbolises respect and this means offering it first to god as it would remove all the impurities in the food. It is also a sign of reverence and thanks giving to god for providing food. xvii) Lou Ki khaiyou (placing a small smelly medicinal plant at the front door): Placing or inserting Lou in front of the main entrance door is a signal that no visitor is allowed.. This is usually done during fasting of the first paddy harvesting. xviii) Siibo Rohmii hi khaiyou (a bunch of plants placed at the village gate): It 140 symbolizes that no visitor is allowed to enter the village. And anybody found violating the customary law can be fined or punished.
In olden days some of these signs and symbols were used to give warning or offer open challenge to their opponents in the village. However, some of the signs and symbols are used to pacify, as a sign of love, precaution and reservation.. In addition to the signs and symbols described above - there are many more signs and symbols like Peisishohpiiyou (keeping long hair), which symbolizes mourning due to death of dear and loved ones,
Ngheipheiyu (winking the eyes) symbolizes not to tell. Repaohi meikhaoyii (smoke of fire in the hut) means someone is there in the paddy field hut. Peisidaovuyu (burial of human hair) symbolizes the greatest promise for the lovers to marry and to love till they are buried in the ground; Voudukheiyu (biting ginger) symbolizes the promise between two lovers to marry and to love to the end of their last breath.
Today the world is fast changing and traditional cultures are getting mixed up with other cultures and getting modified as per the need of society in a fast globalizing world where revolution in information technology and communications is making any place look like every place in this shrinking world. In tribal cultures many signs and symbols used since time immemorial are still preserved and used even today in Poumai villages .For example, even today if you go to Poumai villages, one can find that some of the trees are tied with a rope, resembling a girl wearing an engagement ring on her finger. The twisted knot on the grass is also commonly found near the beehives, wasps, stones etc, which symbolized as reserved by other people.
5.3.10 Games and Sports Different traditional games and sports are held in Poumai Naga villages during the important festivals. Different games are played in different seasons and at different festivals. Some of the important games which are commonly played in the Poumai villages are, wrestling. High jump. Shot put. Long jump. Carrying a big stone, Kaka,
Kabbaddi, Climbing on bamboo pole, Deidei, Louka, Bow and Arrow, Tug-of -war, cCtapult, Hawk and hen chick etc. Wrestling competition is always held every year in 141 different villages in different seasons. In Lepaona circle and sometimes in Paomata circle, wrestling competitions are held during Paonii (paddy transplanting festival). During Laonii festival, wrestling competitions between-villages are held. In every village there are 6-8 big stones weighting around 30-50 Kg, which were Photo 5.8 Stone for testing strength of man used for lifting to test the strength of the males in the village. Climbing bamboo pole is another interesting game.
During Laonii the young boys put up a very long bamboo pole on which pork's fat is smeared to make the bamboo slippery in order to make it difficult to reach the top where usually some meat is kept as a reward. The women also play all the games except games like wrestling, climbing on bamboo pole, shooting catapult and bow and arrow etc. In recent years, all the modem games have been introduced in Poumai village like football, volleyball, cricket, basketball, shooting ball etc. Every two years, the Poumai Tsiidoumai Me (PTM) (Poumai Students’ Union) organizes the games and sports tournament. In this all the villagers participate in different games. The last PTM sports meet was held at Phaibung Khullen village in the month of January 2006.
5.3.11 Housing Structure & Traditional Festivals With the advent of Christianity to Poumai villages, the house structure and decorations are changing fast. All the houses decorated with buffalo’s skulls and other animal skulls are gradually being taken down from the wall. I'he great significance of real buffalo skulls and sculptured horns of buffaloes and other animals’ skulls hanging on the walls of the house is getting lost after Christianity came to the village. The Christians do not host the feast of merit and only those people who have held the feast of merit can build a house with Kikai or House Horns. So the beautiful houses with horns are slowly getting dilapidated and are disappearing from the village. Today hardly one or two such beautiful houses can be found in one village. The early Christian missionaries and Christians 142 taught the new believers not to celebrate the Heathen’s traditional festivals as it involved some religious rites and rituals. And due to this reason, the popularity of the traditional festivals is gradually vanishing with the introduction of Christianity in Poumai areas. As the popularity of traditional festivals is slowly vanishing - people have even started to ignore the traditional folksongs and dance.
5.3.12 Contact with other people In antiquity, the Poumai Nagas were also exposed to other tribes through their trading with the neighboring tribes like Angami (Nagaland), Tangkhul, Maram and Mao tribe. In ancien times, the Poumai Naga traded in Pouli (Earthen pot), Poutai (salt) and other goods with Angami, Tangkhul, Maram, Mao etc. i) Trading in Salt: Many hill tribes did not have any knowledge about producing salt in ancient times. But the Poumai Nagas were manufacturing salt since the ancient times and trading in salt and salty water with other neighboring tribes. In ancient times, some of the tribes in the Assam valley used only the burned banana and plantain leaves as salt. In term of manufacturing sah, the Poumai tribe was more advanced than any other tribe in Naga Hills and they had salt trading relations with the Ao, Angami, Mao tribes. ii) Trading in earthen pots: Poumai are also in contact with others through earthen pot trading. It was the custom of the Angami, Mao and some other tribes that Poumai’s earthenware is a must to be used for cooking food in the newly bom son’s religious ceremony. The earthen pots made by the Poumai Naga were once the only utensils of the early of people of the Angami and Chakhesang, the western Tangkhul of Ukhrul district and of the entire Shepoumaramth people in Senapati District, Manipur.^'' With exposure to other people in trading salt, earthen pots and other agricultural products, slowly they began to assimilate other cultures and customs and learnt new skills of agricultural work and other things.
Conclusion: Some of the changes were brought to the Poumai community during the British period. The people could freely move to other village after headhunting ceased. Better relationship was fostered with all the Poumai villages through the Peace Treaty known as Soutouyou and reconciliation made between the rival villages. The hatred 143 between the villages was pacified and they started to mingle with other tribes and plains people. The other significant change which occurred during the British Period was the introduction of the Christian religion this altered forever the fundamental animistic beliefs of the Poumai people. The Christian Missionaries taught the people to love and help one another, which was a boost to stop further headhunting in Poumai villages. The main reasons for social and cultural changes in Poumai villages till 1950 were only due to British intervention in headhunting, and contact with outside people and the introduction of Christianity.
5.4 Post Independence to Present day (1947-2005) There were some changes in Poumai Naga villages during the British Period in Naga Hills but the major changes and development commenced only after 1950. The traditional headhunting ceased and Christianity spread rapidly in Poumai villages during the British Period. It was Christianity and the coming of the British who awakened the hearts of the Poumai Nagas and exposed them to new social mores and environments. Besides modem education, contacts with other people, improvement in infrastructure etc has in no small way helped to change the social and cultural life of the people.
5.4.1 Spreading of Christianity after 1950 One of the important changes that took place in the Poumai Naga tribe after 1950 is due the continuous spreading of Christianity to all the villages. Christianity first came to Poumai the villages in 1934 when the Poumai accepted Christianity, and one person of Tangkhul called V. Phanitphang became a Graduate in Theology^^ In the practice of Christianity and education, the Tangkhul tribe is much more advanced than the Poumai in those days. Maiba village is the first Poumai village where the people accepted the Christian religion. There were only about 15 people at Maiba village in 1941. By 1951 there were 18 villages who had accepted the Christian religion and the number of Christians increased to 800 members. Till 1951, there was not a single Catholic in the Poumai villages. The first Catholic Chiistians came to Poumai villages in 1957.The total number of Christians (Baptist and Catholic) were about 2,600 members in 1961.The total number of Christians in Poumai villages increased to 5500 and 30 Churches are found in 144 different villages by 1971. According to the field survey, there are 1.366 Yaosomai and about 800 Hindus and other religious groups who inhabit the Poumai villages. The Pagans constituted about 0.95% of the total population and Hindus and other religion constituted about 0.55% of the total population in 2004. Table 5.1 Growth o Christianity in Poumai Community from 1934-2004 (70 Years) Christians 1934 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2004 No. of Churches 18 30 *55+1 *59+20^ 94# Baptized members 10 200 500 2000 7765* 8728* NA Non baptized 600 2000 3500 8500 26300 NA members Catholic 100 1650 4500 10558 NA Total Christians 15 800 2600 7150 20,765 45,586 1,42339# Total 10000 13000 17000 22000 27000 population 30,898 53,494 1,44505® % of 0.01 0.1 4.7 11.8 26.5 60.7 85.2 98.5% Christians Sources: *Manipur Baptist Convention Annual Report. ^ Catholic Church ** Tribal Benchmark Survey, Senapati District, 1984, # Field Survey in 2004 *** Census of India 1991, Series-15 Manipur, District Census Handbook, Senapati @HilI House Tax 1999-2000 Note; The total populations from 1934 to 1971 are only the estimated population since the data for these years are not available
According to a 1985 report at the Manipur Baptist Convention (MBC), the total membership of Baptized Baptist Christians was 7765 in 55 Churches^*’. However, the total number of baptized members including the non-baptized members was about 16,265. There are about 18 Roman Catholic Churches with a total population about 2500 people in 1981. Fig 5.1 Growth of Christian Population from 1934-2004
100 90 0) o> 80 70 sc 60 0) o 50 k_ 0> 40 Q. 30 C 20 10
1934 1941 1951 1 961 1971 1 981 1991 2004
Christians —■—Non-Christians 145
The Manipur Baptist Convention annual report in 1992 showed that there are 59 Baptist Churches in Poumai villages with 8728 baptized members and including the non-baptized members about 35,028. There are about 20 Catholic Churches with a total population about 10558. In 2004, there are about 71 Baptist Churches and 23 Catholic Churches in 60 revenue villages and the total number of Christians is about 1,44,505, which is about 98.5% to the total population of Poumai Naga tribe. There are 446 Pagans or Yaosomai households with a population of 1,366 in 60 Poumai villages in 2001. There are 37 villages where there is not a single Yaosomai household.
5.4.2 Changes brought through Christianity The Christian Churches played an important role in education as well. When the first Poumai Hymnal was published in Poiila (Poumai language) in early 1980s, many young men and women were enthusiastic to sing and learn Poumai Hymnal, which is written in Roman Script. Literary works came to Poumai tribe very late as compared to Tangkhul tribe in Manipur. The first Tangkhul New Testament Bible (N.T.B.) was published in 1926 by the missionary Rev. Pettigrew^^ After 72 years Tangkhul published their N. T. Bible, the first Poula New Testament Bible was published in 1994. The publication of Poumai Hymnal and New Testament helped many young men and women to learn how to read and write Poula and English, which also contributed to social andcultural change in Poumai community. The New Testament Bible is published in Poula, however the Old Testament Bible is still in the process of translation into Poula.
The coming of Christianity had brought some changes in Headhunting, Feast of Merit, Dormitory system, Marriage and Divorce, Birth and Death, Food habits, Dressing and Clothing, Hairstyles, Music and instruments. Housing Structure, Change in Family relationship, Traditional Festivals, etc. The Christian missionaries and early Christians taught personal cleanliness by keeping cows and buffaloes in the outskirts of the village and to keep pigs in pig’s sty to avoid stink in the house. The early Christian missionaries not only taught how to keep cleanliness in their houses and the village but also taught them how to wear western clothes. 146
5.4.3 Reasons for converting to Christianity It is interesting to note that in the last 70 years about 98.5% of the total population became Christian in the Poumai villages. The Poumai Naga traditional religion is not much different from Christianity. The Poumai Yaosomai believes in One Supreme God, the creator of the universe and earth. The Poumai have similar names for God like the Muslim God, which they called as Allah and in Poumai they called as Ramai. Ramai represents the supreme God who created the heaven and the earth. They believe that the dead live in the land of the dead or a village for the dead people. However they have no conception of resurrection in their faith like the Christians. The early missionaries and Christians worked not to convert but also to genuinely help them in education, morality, cleanliness, compassion towards other people etc, which became a great inspiration and attraction to the innocent villagers. Affinities between Poumai Naga religion and Christianity and inspiration from the early Christians were the main reason for mass conversion to Christianity.
5.4.4 Modern Education Education in Poumai villages commenced very late as compared to the neighboring tribes like the Tangkhul and Mao in Manipur. However, modem education spread so swiftly to many Poumai villages and brought in tremendous changes in their primitive way of life. Among the tribals in Manipur, the Tangkhul is the first tribe to be converted to Christianity and the first mission school was opened at Ukhrul in 1896. In Mao Naga areas, the first mission school was opened in 1927 at Punanamei village.^^ The first mission primary school was established in Poumai village in 1944 at Phuba village i.e. after 48 years, after Tangkhul stared modem education. Later some primary schools were established at Maiba, Tungjoy and Tunggam village in the 1950s.
In addition to government schools in the village, the Christian missionaries play an important in bringing education to Poumai villages. The Catholic Christians established some schools in Poumai villages. The first catholic Christian school was established at Tungjoy village in 1970s. The first persons amongst the Poumai Naga who took to 147 education display distinct changes and reveal the early history of education. The table given below shows the first educated males and females in the Poumai Naga community. Table 5.2 First Persons in Education amongst the Poumai Naga Tribe Name Educational Village Year Qualification Late Modoli N. (Male) 1®' Matriculate Tunggam 1932 Modoli Ngaoleru (Female) 1®' Matriculate Tunggam 1965 Late Modoli N. (Male) 1®' B.A. (Graduate) Tunggam 1949 Modoli Salle (Female) 1^' B.A. Tunggam 1973 Th. Hrai 1®' B.Sci. Tunggam 1982 Pani Solomi 1^'B.Sci Liyai 1996 Mr. Asoso Yonuo (Male) 1^'M.A. Tunggam 1966 Rao Solomi (Female) 1^'M.A. (Eco.) Oinam Hills 1995 Pusherou, Elizabeth and Maiba, Oinam 2000 Nakhuru 1®' M.Sci and Purul R.K. James 1 S'M. Phil. Phuba 1990 P.T. Hitson 1^' Ph.D Mahika (Liyai) 2003 Modoli Ngaoleru 1®' B. Sci .(Nursing) Tunggam 1970 Th.Yulle (Male) 1='MBBS Maiba 1980 Saziiru (Female) 1®' MBBS Maiba 1986 Ng. Dazii 1^' B.E. (Mech.) Phaibung 1986 L. Julita (Female) 1®' B.E. (Civil) Purul 1996 James Hosea (Male) 1®' LLB Oinam 1978 LT, Veishoru (Female) 1®' LLB Khamsom 1996 Salle Dosong (Female) 1®' B. Theology Tunggam 1973 Thiping Sonela (Female) 1^' B. Divinity Oinam Hills 1997 Thiping Sonela (Female 1^1 M. Theology Oinam Hills 2003 V. Martha 1=' to go abroad (Japan) Purul 1988
Source: Poumai Chronicles by Putul The above table shows that Poumai started taking education very late. The first male matriculate passed out in 1932 and female in 1965. Table 5.3 Total No. of Poumai Naga Graduates and Post-Graduates, 2002 Qualification Total No. Qualification Total No. Qualification Total No. Matriculates 5304 Graduates 1311 Post Graduates 148 Doctors 17 MBBS 8 Nurses 72 B. Engineering 18 D. Engineering 12 M. Engineering 1 M.Phil. 2 Doctorate 5 PhD. Student 12 B. Theology 106 B. Divinity 29 M. Theology 6 Sisters 35 Clerics 15 Fathers 12 Source: Poumai Cfironlcles 2002 and Directory 2005-06 Poumai Naga Catholic Mai Me. 148 The above table shows that there are 5304 matriculates. Most of the primary schools in Poumai villages are established in 1960s and Junior schools in 1970s but during that time hardly few High schools were established. There was revival in modem education in Poumai villages in 1980s. The first arithmetic book in Poula was published in 1965 by Modoli, which helped many Poumai people to learn Mathematics in their own language. Earlier the government high schools at Purul, Oinam, Phaibung, Paomata and Tungjoy village were good but by the 1980s the reputation of those schools had vanished away. Table 5.4 Institutions in Poumai villages in 1984 CIRCLES Primary Pre- Middle High Total Primary School Paomata 12 5 6 5 28 Lepaona 9 10 10 7 36 Chiliive 11 12 5 4 32 Total* 32 27 21 16 96 Sources: Tribal Benchmark Survey 1984 According to Tribal Benchmark, 1984, there were 16 high schools and 21 middle schools in Poumai villages. But in 1991, it shows 10 high schools and 18 medium schools showing little variation. It is interesting to note that there were 5 High schools in Chiliive Circle but it has the least population with only 12,301 people as compared to Lepaona and Paomata circle. Table 5.5 Literacy Rate of ST, SC & Non-SC & ST in India Year Scheduled Scheduled Non SC &ST Caste Tribe 1961 10.27 8.53 27.86 1971 14.67 11.30 33.80 1981 21.38 16.35 41.30 1991 37.41 29.25 62.25 2001 59.4 48.6 NA Sources; Educational statistics of SC and ST Ministry of Human Resource Development 1993 The above table shows the literacy rate of scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and non scheduled castes and tribes. The average literacy rate in India was 52.1% and in Manipur it was 60.9% and for scheduled tribes it is 29.60% in 1991. According to 1991 Census 149 report, the literacy rate of Poumai community is only 38.1%. The literacy rate of Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes in 2001 is 59.4% and 48.6% respectively. CircleA/illage Percentag Total Literate Age 0-6 Male Female e Poumai Naga 38.1 20,810 8055 13430 7380 Paomata Circle 40.62 5220 2715 3548 1672 Paomata Center 73.3 247 89 165 82 Tungjoy 63.4 1777 572 1082 695 Phuba Thapham 48.9 332 104 215 117 Maiba 46.9 294 134 183 111 Phuba Khuman 44.0 565 165 423 142 Makhufii 42.6 87 49 51 36 Lepaona Circle 50.9 7243 2278 4435 2805 Purul Rosofii 69.8 164 32 101 63 Oinam 68.3 1615 159 930 685 Koide Makha 57.7 455 163 310 145 Purul Akutpa 56.9 1595 544 956 639 Khabung Karong 58.5 192 90 130 62 Thingba Khuiien 50.9 615 196 360 255 Thingba Khunou 50.0 553 202 359 194 Purul Atongba 46.6 713 216 407 306 Koide Mathak 44.7 441 48 297 144 Sorbung 44.4 92 19 59 33 Tingsong 42.7 209 125 137 72 Chilevai Circle 41.6 4423 1671 2940 1485 Khongdei Shimp. 67.8 286 59 173 113 Thiwa 66.8 412 69 224 188 Khongdei Ngawar 64.3 83 8 49 34 Ngari Lishang 59.1 169 59 110 59 Kodom 55.8 258 54 219 39 Lakhamai 51.2 724 178 466 258 Ngari Khullen 47.7 254 112 180 74 Khongdei Khuman 45.5 260 61 151 109 Chlngmei Khullen 45.2 159 122 122 37 Phaibung Khullen 43.6 581 267 387 194 Phaibung Khunou 43.3 142 50 112 30 Katafumei 42.9 63 21 46 17 Others villages* 50.6 3924 2506 2506 1418 Kongpao 86.5 447 252 252 195 Makhreliu 65.5 655 472 472 183 Kathikho 62.6 117 79 79 38 Mahika 60.8 220 142 142 78 Kalapahar 53.4 2180 1362 1362 818 Sources: Computed by Researcher from Census of India 1991 Series-15 Manipur, District Census Handbook Senapati *Those villages located near the NH39 150 5.4.4.1 Changes due to Modern Education Education plays a very important role in socio-cultural life of the people. Through modem education in Poumai villages, many educated people migrated to towns and cities all over India to work. The modem education in Poumai areas had brought significant shifts in occupations. Earlier all the villagers were engaged in shifting cultivation and terrace cultivation. But today many people are employed in State and Central government services. According to field survey in 2005, about 17.2% of the total households surveyed are govemment employees and about 8.7% are engaged in business. With the advent of modem education in Poumai areas, the Poumai Nagas are actively involved in politics since 1972 and since then there was always an MLA or Cabinet Ministers from this tribe. Since 2003-2004, there are two Cabinet Ministers, one in Manipur State Legislative Assembly and another in Nagaland State. There is also one MLA in Manipur Legislative Assembly. 5.4.5 Contact with other people In antiquity the Poumai Naga peoples’ contact with other neighboring tribes was through salt and earthen pot trade, but after 1950 their contact with other people had broadened. Their contact with others includes both emigration and immigration of the people. After the NH39 from Nagaland to Imphal was constmcted in 1890s, many Poumais were going to Imphal and Kohima for marketing. The people from Poumai villages started living at Imphal and Kohima after 1950. There is no statistical record of emigration and immigration. However small scale emigration commenced after the 1950s, as many students started going out to study at Imphal, Kohima, Dimapur, Jorhat, Gawahati, Dibrugarh, Shillong etc. The Poumai Tsiidoumai Me, Shillong (PTMS) was formed in 1978 and had their Silver Jubilee Celebration in October 2003. There is the Poumai colony at Imphal, Chingmeirong. There is also another Poumai colony at Dimapur (Nagaland). Poumai Baptist Churches are found at Chingmeirong (Imphal), Senapati, Kohima, Dimapur, Karong and Kangpokpi. 151 In 2004, the Poumai Naga Baptist Fellowship was also started in Delhi. Besides, many Poumai Naga students are studying in different town, cities and metropolitan cities in India. Table 5.7 Poumai villages in the periphery of NH39______Name of Village Population Village Population Phyapou 583 Mahika 453 Kalapahar 4553 Kongpao 386 Kathikho 460 Senapati village 1331 Khabung Karong 1481 Makhreliu # 3036 Phyapou Taphou 1774 Rikhumai Taphou 1704 Zaikarii # 8 3 5 Total population 8851 Total population 1704 Grand population of eleven villages is 12607 Sources: Hill House Tax in 2000 # Makhreliu and Zaikarii village comprised of some other tribes but the dominant or majority of the population is Poumai Naga tribe. Since it is grouped/listed as Poumai Naga village The above table shows the villages, from which the Poumai Naga migrated to the periphery of NH39. Some of the villages like Kalapahar, Kongpao, Senapati, Kathikho, Khabung Karong etc sent a large number of people from Poumai dominated areas around 1960s to settle near the National Highway39. Many people also permanently settled in Kohima and Dimapur. Besides, some of the Poumais also settled in other cities and metropolitan cities having their own flat/house. For instance, two Poumais had purchased their flat/house in Pune city and they are permanently settled in Pune since 2001. There are some Poumais who had purchased a flat/house in Delhi and settled there. There are intermarriages with the plains people and with other tribes. Today there many Poumais who have married with many other tribes and plains people from other states of India. Assimilation of other cultures is conspicuous in today’s Poumai society. As the people come in contact with other people, there is development and learning of new languages for better communication. According to the survey conducted in 2004, there are 1121 people (includes students and employees) in metropolitan and other cities in India. There are 470 Poumais in Delhi, including the employees and students. There are 360 students studying in Shillong, 55 people in Gauhati.^^ In addition to these cities and towns, there are other Poumai Naga living in other towns and cities. In August 2007, the 152 total number of students in Delhi had rose to 850 students, there are also 20 students in Goa, 250 students in Bangalore and 60 students in Chennai. Table 5.8 Poumai in Metropolitan and other cities in 2004 Sl.No. Metropolitan cities/ No. Of Poumais cities (Includes Students and employees) Delhi 470 Bangalore 130 Kolkata 26 Mumbai 16 Chennai 23 Pune 33 Shillong 360 Kerala Gauhati 55 Grand total 1121 Sources; Email and Phone contact from Poumai Students Union 5.4.6 Changes due to availability of infrastructure Infrastructure is another important attribute bringing change to the socio-cultural life of Poumai Naga. The availability of transportation and communication, electricity, drinking water etc brought some significance changes in this tribe. Road Transportation facilities The changes in some villages due to road transport are conspicuous. Many footpaths, jeepable and bus roads are constructed in the last two decades. The first road linking to NH39 was constructed from Tadubi to Tungjoy village in the western part of Poumai villages in 1890s. According to 1991 Census report, there are six villages where there is bus stop/station. These villages are Tungjoy, Makhufii, Liyai Khunou, Khabung Karong, Kathikho and Kalapahar. One of the important bus plyable roads linking Maram Bazar with Purul village via Koide village was constructed in 2001. The below table shows that the bus service facility is available in 1970s only in the western part of Poumai Naga dominated areas (Paomata circle), while in the other villages the bus service facility started only in 1990s. Before 1998 there was no bus 153 plying from Maram-Phaibung Road, the nearest bus station was at Maram Bazar to go to Nagaland or Imphal, which took around 5-10 hours on foot from the interior of the villages. In 2001, buses are plying in the Lepaona and Chiliive circle, but the road is small and difficult to pass through for two buses. Table 5.9 Bus Service Facilities Available in Poumai vi lages in 2004 Circle Village Year of Bus Service Available Paomata Tungjoy, Tunggam Afii, Paomata Center, Makhufii, 1975 Saranamai, Tunggam Khullen Liyai Khunou 1980 Liyai Khullen 1993 Phuba Khuman, Phuba Thapham, 1994 Maiba, Kaikho 2003 Lepaona Koide Makha, Koide Mathak 1998 Oinam 2002 Purul Akutpa, Purul Atongba, Purul Rosofii 1998 Chiliive Lakhamai, Sirong 2003 Laii, Laii Shirafii, New Laii 1982 Phaibung Khullen & Khunou, Chlngmai Khullen, 1992 Other Kalapahar, Kathikho, Senapati, Khabung Karong, 1970s villages* Phyapou Kongpao, Mahika, Makhreliu, Taphou Phyapou, 1980s Taphou Rikhumai, Zaikarii Sources: Personal Interviews and field work in May 2004. ‘Those villages located near the NH39 5.4.6.1 Changes due to transportation i) Changes in use of kitchen ware and Clothing: Before the roads were constructed in the village there were only earthen pots and wooden utensils. With the dawn of transportation facilities in the villages, the kitchen utensils and agricultural implements were brought from outside. Today, all the Poumai are well dressed mostly in western clothes. The improvement road transportation eases and reduced travel time to only 3-5 hours on foot to catch the bus from the nearest village bus station. ii) Housing Materials: The houses made of Ngai (thatch) are replaced with C.I. sheets and RCC building. According to my field work survey in May 2004, there are 335 concrete building (including RCC) and 907 Ngaiche (a special kind of thatch) house. 154 Table 5.10 Poumai Housing Material in 2001 Circle No. of Concrete No. of Ngaiki Building (Thatch house) Lepaona 24 266 Paomata 76 146 Chiliive 33 388 Other village* 202 107 Grand total 335 907 Sources: Field Work survey in May 2004 * Villages in the periphery of National highway 39 In antiquity, people used only Ngaiche for roofing house, then slowly it had shifted to C.I. sheets for roofing and now people started to build concrete buildings in the villages. 5.4.7. Marketing Facilities There are not marketing facilities available in most of the villages. All the surplus agricultural products are consumed in the village or sent to Maram Bazar, Senapati, Tadubi or Kohima. 5.4.8 Communication Facilities i) Postal Services: The north-western parts of the Poumai country have better transport and communication facilities as compared to other parts of the villages. In 1991, there are 18 sub-post offices but no telegraph offices in Poumai villages. ii) Telephone Services: The Satellite telephone was opened in some villages in 1997 but later all these Satellite telephones were disconnected to due some unknown reason. The BSNL telephone service is linked to some villages in Paomata circle in 1990s. From 1991 till 2001, nothing has changed in the communication infrastructure except in one village where the Internet facility is provided at Purul Akutpa village in 2000 AD for the Poumai Naga community at Community Information Center (CIC). Hi) Television and Radio people started using T.V. very late in Poumai villages. However Radio came to Poumai villages in the early 1930s. There are only 14 villages using Television, out of which only 3 villages are in Poumai dominated areas and the rest 155 are in the periphery of Highway39 iv) Newspaper and other printed material: With the introduction of modem education and improvement in road transportation in Poumai areas - the local Newspaper and National Newspapers regularly come to some villages since 1990s. 5.4.9 Electricity supply According to Tribal Benchmark Survey in Senapati District in 1984, there were 3 villages in Poumai villages, which are electrified. There are 58 villages in 1991 and out of 58 villages 25 villages are electrified. Circle Name of the villages Electrified Villages Paomata Tunggam Khullen, Afii, Tungjoy, Makhufii, Saranamai, Rakuto, Kaikho, Maiba, Liyai Khullen, Chilao, Paomata center, Phuba Thapham and Khuman 13 Lepaona Koide Makha, Koide Mathak, Purul Rosofii, Purul Akutpa, Purul circle Atongba, Oinam, Thingba Khullen and Khunou, Kapeo 9 Chiliive Laii, Shirafii, Phaibung Khullen and Khunou, Lakhamai, Chingmai Khullen and Khunou, Katafii, Kodom Khullen and Khavii, Sirong 11 Other Kathikho, Khabung Karong, Makhreliu, Zaikarii, Senapati, villages* Phyapou, Rikhumai Taphou, Phyamai Taphou, Kalapahar, 11 Kongpao, Mahika Grand Total Electrified villages 44 Sources: Personal Interviews and Fieldwork Survey 2004 * Villages situated near to National highway 39 In 1991 there were only 25 villages, which are electrified 44 villages were electrified by 2004, which accounts for about 67.7% of the total electrified villages. As far as the electricity in Poumai villages is concerned, the voltage is very low and irregular. There were lots of complaints from the villagers due to irregularity of light and dim light. 5.4.10 Drinking Water (Potable) Supply According to 1991 Census, there are 12 villages out of 58 villages where there is tap water in the village. The other villages are depending on springs or river water for their consumption. There is water supply in the village for common use where there is common tank but no tap water is connected to any individual house. The villagers come to fetch water from the common well for all the domestic use and other purposes. 156 Table 5.11 Circle Name of the villages Total villages Paomata Tunggam Khullen, Atii, Tungjoy, Makhufii, Saranamai, Rakuto, Kaikho, Maiba, Liyai Khullen, Chilao, Paomata center, Phuba Thapham and Khuman 13 Lepaona Koide Makha, Koide Mathak, Purul Rosofii, Purul Akutpa, Purul circle Atongba, Thingba Khullen and Khunou, Oinam, Khamsom and Kapao 10 Chiliive Laii, Shirafii, Phaibung Khullen and Khunou, Lakhamai, Chingmai Khullen and Khunou, Katafii, Kodom Khullen and 11 Khavii, Sirong Other Kathikho, Khabung Karong, Makhreliu, Senapati, Phyapou, villages* Rikhumai Taphou, Phyamai Taphou, Kalapahar, Kongpao, Mahika 10 Grand Government Water Supply villages 45 Total Sources: Personal Interviews in May 2004 * Other villages means those villages situated near the National highway 39. According to 1991 Census report, there were only 12 villages, which have government water supply in the village and in 2004 it has increased to 45 villages. 5.4.11 Medical Facilities In antiquity, people used only herbal medicine. Even today the herbal medicines are widely used for different sickness. Today, there are some PHC and Sub-Center but only a few centers have Doctors and Nurses. In Poumai villages, most of the Health centers are in a pathetic situation without any Doctor or Nurse. 5.4.12 Cooking fuel and bio-gas In Poumai villages only some households use LPG gas and bio-gas. Table 5.13 Poumai House liolds Using Gas cylinder, 2004 Circle Lepaona Paomata Chiliive Other villages* Total No.of Housholds Nil 221 Nil 1325 1546 Using LPG * Other villages are those villages situated in t le periphery of NH39 Out of 16462 households, only 1546 households are using LPG gas and other bio-gas for cooking and other purposes in 2004,the rest depend on fuel wood for domestic use 157 Conclusion The Poumai socio-cultural life has changed in many aspects due to different reasons. The above description and analysis shows that the Poumai Naga socio-cultural life started to change from the time the British penetrated the Naga Hills. It is observed age old practices from centuries ago were going on and nothing had changed before the British set foot on Naga soil. The British intervention in stopping headhunting and making Peace Treaty was one of the important factors that brought peace and security to life in Poumai villages. The introduction of Christianity changed the belief system of the people altogether. The hatred, fear and jealousy, which dominated during the headhunting era, were gradually erased with the advent of Christianity in Poumai villages. The continuous spread of Christianity boosted the moral and changed for the better while leading to a more progressive socio-cultural life for these isolated people. The introduction of modem education helped to remove many of the superstitions and irrational traditional beliefs. Today with the introduction of modem education - many people from this tribe are employed in govemment services, which have brought them into the mainstream of national life. In addition to the social and cultural factors of change - the availability of infrastructure has also played an important role in bringing change in this tribal habitat. References 1. op. cit. Vidya and Sachdeva, (1998): (31®‘ Edition), An introduction to Sociology. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal p.286 2. Salew (Headman Makhel village): (2004) Personal Interviewed on 16'^ June at Makhel 3. Kaba, R.K. (2003): General Secretary’s Report. Souvenir: Poumai Thounii 158 Celebration 2002 on January 4-7, at Liyai village, p-38 4. Verrier Elwin (1969); The Nagas in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press, p.lO 5. Personal Interviews with Sahriinii on 8th 2004 (Th. Sahriinii, who held the Feast of Merit in January 2004) 6. Website: www.lard.net/headhunters.html (Copyright 1996, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc) Website visited on 12-02-03 7. Ibid 8. Ibid 9. Ibid 10. Verrier Elwin, (1969), p-12 11. Ibid; p-11 12. Shimray R.R. (1985); Origin and Culture of Nagas. Delhi: Somsok Publications, p-76 13. James, R.K. (1985); The Poumai Naga Tribe of Manipur; A Socio-Cultural Study. M. Phil Thesis, Manipur University, Unpublished, p-56 14. Shimray, R.R.(1985), p-73 15. James, R.K. (1985), p-101 16. Salloni, L. (2002); Thounii: The Customary Festival of Poumai Naga, Souvenir; Celebration on Poumai Tribe Recognition 2002 January 4-7 at Zhaimai Village, p-15 17. Vio R., (1987); Origin and Historical background of Poumai Naga (Private Publication), p-26 18. Vidya and Sachdeva, (1998 3T‘ edition), p.325 19. op.cit. Vidya and Sachdeva, p-325 20. R.Vio p-28 21. Lolly, 1985 The Baptist Church in Manipur (A historical survey of the mission Strategies and development of the Baptist church in Manipur North East India, 1894- 1983) Published by Mrs. R. flhathingla Lolly, In ^^ al p-16 22. Sardespande S.C. Major Gen. (1997): The Pakoi Nagas. Delhi: Daya Publishing House, p-35 23.Verrier Elwin (1969); The Nagas in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press, p-8 159 24. Banee Benjamin: 2000, Golden Jubilee Souvenir 2000, A history of the Oinam Hill Baptist Church, p-11 25. Lolly, 1985, p-47 26. Ibid: 152 27. op. cit. Lolly, p- 60 28. Lolly, 1985, p-34 29. Field Work Survey in May 2004