Flag Research Quarterly, September 2017, No. 14

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FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE EN VEXILLOLOGIE

SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 No. 14 A research publication of the North American The Aztec Heritage of Vexillological Association-Une publication de recherche de l‘Association nord-américaine de vexillologie the Mexican Flag By John M. Hartvigsen

Right: Current flag of Mexico. Source: The Mexican flag is not only recognizable and effec- http://encircleworldphotos.photoshelter.com/image/ tive, but it is also beautiful and beloved. In 2008, 20 I0000ERYcGfnhpag Minutos, a free Spanish language newspaper, ran a Background watermark: Golden-linear version survey contest to pick the “most beautiful flag in the of coat of arms of Mexico, adopted 1968. world.” Although the publication is based in Spain, the contest was picked up Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_ Mexico#/media/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico_(golden_ by other publications in Latin America. One of a series of “best-of surveys,” the linear).svg contest asked readers to rate the flags of 140 nations. Although this was a self- selecting sample and not a scientific survey, it was an interesting outgrowth of the phenomenon of flags. The contest attracted 1,920,000 entry ballots, which was three times the number of participant entries that are normally attracted by similar “best-of contests.” The article’s title announced the results dramati- cally: “Mexico sweeps the most beautiful flag in the world list.” Mexico’s flag received 901,607 points, or 47% of the vote.1 This, of course, does not prove that the Mexican flag is actually the most beautiful flag in the world, but this and extensive anecdotal evidence demonstrates that the flag “works” and is a beloved banner. Another indication of the esteem in which Mexicans hold their flag has been the erection of “monumental” Mexican flags (banderas monumentales) in the capital city, regional metropolises, and at important locales on the border of the United States, including Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez. These flags, with dimensions of 14.3 meters by 25 meters (47 by 82 feet), are flown on 50-meter INSIDE / SOMMAIRE Page (164-foot) flagpoles and are visible for great distances (figure 1).2 The decree Editor’s Note / Note de la rédaction 2 authorizing the construction of the monumental flags gives some insight into the The Flags of Courland 10 pride that Mexican citizens take in their flag: “The National Coat of Arms, Flag From Flying Flags to Museum Flags: A Case and Anthem are the Patriotic Symbols of the United Mexican States and repre- Study in Using Minimally Invasive Preservation Techniques to Allow Maximum Flexibility in sent our identity and culture, as well as the superior principles of our Nation;… Display and Interpretation 13 it is the duty of the authorities of the three levels of government, to make every effort to renew and promote the veneration of the Patriotic Symbols, for which reason they should promote and encourage the practice of honoring them in all parts of the national territory.”3 continued on page 3 SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 Page 2

Editor’s Note / Note de la rédaction FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE EN 2017 is a year of remarkable anniversaries. When I had the privilege of attending the VEXILLOLOGIE NO. 14 annual meeting of the Organization of American Historians this spring, much of the 2017 discussion revolved around the centennial of the entrance of the United States into September / Septembre 2017 Vol. 5, Issue 3 / fascicule 3 the First World War, which changed so much about American society—including a ISSN 2334-4407 (print) renewed interest in flying the Stars and Stripes. Overseas, thousands of Canadians ISSN 2474-1884 (online) and Britons gathered in France this year to remember the great battles of Vimy A research publication of the North American Vexillological Association-Une publication de Ridge and Passchendaele, in which so many soldiers fought for King and Country recherche de l’Association nord-américaine under the flags of the Empire. And, while the people of Russia are doing little to de vexillologie. Published quarterly / Publié quatre fois par an. commemorate them, both the February Revolution and the October Revolution, Please submit correspondence and with its abundance of red flags, happened a century ago. submissions to / Veuillez envoyer toute correspondance à l’adresse suivante: Flag It has garnered less attention, but this year marks a significant anniversary in Mexico Research Quarterly, Post Office Box 55071 #58049, Boston, Mass. 02205-5071 USA; as well, for it was 100 years ago that the current Mexican Constitution was adopted. [email protected] After a period of civil war, the constitution enshrined the “Social Pact” that called EDITORS / RÉDACTEURS for workers’ rights, a separation of church and state, and limited terms for presi- Kenneth J. Hartvigsen, Ph.D. dents. In the years afterward, the Mexican people embraced their pre-Cortesian Steven A. Knowlton, M.L.I.S., M.A. heritage in fields including the arts and architecture—which, naturally, influenced EDITORIAL BOARD / COMITÉ DE RÉDACTION the design of the Mexican flag. Edward A. McNabb, LL.B. Chair / Directeur In this issue, we are pleased to present a paper by John Hartvigsen which addresses John A. Lowe, M.D., FF “The Aztec Heritage of the Mexican Flag.” In the tradition of vexillology as a social David B. Martucci science, the author examines the context in which the intriguing pattern of the John M. Hartvigsen (ex officio) Mexican National Arms came to include glyphs of Aztec origin at a time when PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE / Mexico was searching for means to express its unique culture and history on the COMITÉ DE PUBLICATION Edward A. McNabb, LL.B. world stage. It appears to be the first English-language piece to address this impor- Chair / Directeur tant aspect of the Mexican flag’s design. Luc V. Baronian, Ph.D. Kenneth J. Hartvigsen, Ph.D. We are also pleased to present Wim Schuurman’s paper on “The Flags of Courland,” Anne M. Platoff, M.S., M.A., FF bringing to our attention the vexillological tradition of a duchy little remembered John M. Hartvigsen (ex officio) outside of Eastern Europe. Finally, Catarina Florio presents a remarkable case study North American Vexillological Association- Association nord-américaine de vexillologie from her work at the Canadian Museum of History in “From Flying Flag to Museum Founded / Fondée en 1967 Flag.” The innovative preservation and mounting techniques she discusses may John M. Hartvigsen serve as instructive examples to others facing similar issues with older flags. President / Président Luc V. Baronian, Ph.D. This is the last issue of Flag Research Quarterly that will be published before the First Vice President / Premier vice-président Association meets again in Boston. For those of you who will be in attendance, I Edward A. McNabb, LL.B. Second Vice President / Second vice-président look forward to seeing you and hearing your thoughts about this publication. For Lee L. Herold those unable to join us, I welcome all comments, criticism, and especially contribu- Secretary / Secrétaire tions! Please contact me at [email protected]. John S. Adcock, J.D., CPA Treasurer / Trésorier Steven A. Knowlton © 2017 North American Vexillological Association- Association nord-américaine de vexillologie. All rights Co-editor, FRQ reserved / Tous droits réservés. All images used by permission / Toutes les images sont utilisées avec autorisation. The opinions expressed by individual articles in this publication belong to their authors and CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS ISSUE. John M. Hartvigsen is President of NAVA and twice a Driver do not necessarily represent those of the editor or the Award winner. Catarina Florio is Textile Conservator at the Canadian Museum of History. Wim Association / Les opinions exprimées dans la présente Schuurman is past secretary of the Nederlandse Vereniging voor Vlaggenkunde (Dutch Association publication n’engagent que leurs auteurs et ne sont pas for Vexillology) and former publisher of Vexilla Nostra. nécessairement celles de l’éditeur ou de l’Association. A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 3 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

Hartvigsen: The Aztec Heritage of the Mexican Flag continued from page 1 and instructed them to settle where they would see an eagle perched on a cactus growing from a rock. The eagle would be seen holding a snake in its beak and talon. The Aztecs wandered for two hundred years searching for the sign, and finally settled where they saw the foretold sign, founding a city they named Tenochtitlan, usually interpreted as the “place of the wild prickly pear cactus” (figure 2).4 The ruins of Tenochtitlan lie beneath modern Mexico City. Whitney Smith noted that the story is illustrated in many pictorial versions: Repeated endlessly in diverse forms, the eagle and snake and cactus motif of Mexico is a six-hundred-year-old symbol that continually provides fresh inspiration to new generations.5

Figure 1: Raising the Bandera monumental of Tijuana. Source: Wikipedia, The Aztec symbol of the eagle and the snake was initially https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banderas_monumentales_de_M%C3%A9xico suppressed by Spanish authorities in the first centuries of colonization, but by the seventeenth century it was in use not Despite the visibility of the Mexican flag within its country only by descendants of the Aztecs but also by criollo (Mexican- and to its neighbors, in the English-speaking world there are born descendants of Spanish colonists) and mestizo (descen- elements of the flag’s design that are not well-known, yet dants of Spanish colonists and native Americans) groups, to which are important parts of the flag’s meaning and impor- distinguish themselves from Spanish-born bureaucrats and tance to citizens of Mexico. The Aztec symbolism embedded landlords.6 Its use on flags began with the Mexican War of in the flag tells a story about not only the early history of the Independence (1810-1822). When the priest Miguel Hidalgo country, but also its modern search for a national identity. y Costilla first raised an armed group in 1810 to revolt against The Mexican flag violates several of the “principles” of flag the Spanish colonial government, his band marched under a design proposed by some authors—for example, it features banner showing the Virgin of Guadalupe painted on fabric of many colors, and its central emblem is quite complex. blue (St. Mary’s color). On the reverse was a depiction of the Nonetheless, it is revered and widely accepted in Mexico, at eagle and snake motif (figure 3). least in part because the elements of its complex design speak so powerfully about the nation’s history and culture. The basic story portrayed by the Mexican national arms, the flag’s central emblem, is well known, especially by vexillologists. It is repeated in numerous flag books. The Aztecs, or Mexica, as they called themselves, traveled from Aztlan (“The Place of the Herons”), a mythical island, to find a new place to settle. Their patron god, Huitzilopochtli, appeared

Figure 3: The flag of Hidalgo, 1810 Figure 4: A flag of Morelos, ca. 1812- (reverse). Source: Enrique Florescano, 13. Source: Enrique Florescano, Imágenes de Imágenes de la Patria: A Través de los Siglos la Patria: A Través de los Siglos (Mexico City: (Mexico City: Taurus, 2005): 105. Taurus, 2005): 108.

After Hidalgo was captured and executed, his fellow priest José María Teclo Morelos Pérez y Pavón continued to lead the rebels, fighting under a white flag, bordered with blue and Figure 2: The founding of Tenochtitlan. Source: Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España e islas de la tierra firme (manuscript, 1579), http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer. white squares, also displaying the eagle and snake (figure 4). vm?id=0000169486&page=1, page image 28. Morelos met the same fate as Hidalgo, and the war dragged SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 4 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie on through 1821. In that year, a royalist officer, Agustin de Iturbide, turned against the Spanish government and led a successful campaign that resulted in the independence of Mexico. His army fought for the principles that Mexico should be a Roman Catholic country, independent from Spain, and offer social equality for all classes and ethnic groups. To symbolize the “Three Guarantees” of their plan, Iturbide’s Trigarante army flew a diag- onal tricolor of white, green, and red (figure 5). The colors symbolized religion, independence, and unity, as the Three Guarantees were Figure 7: Mexican flag, as designed by Constitutional Congress in 1823. Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico summarized.7 A few weeks after Iturbide’s Figure 5: The Flag of the Army of the triumphal procession into Three Guarantees, 1821. Color has Mexico City, on November faded with time. Source: Guadalupe Jiménez 2, 1821, the provisional Codinach, México: Su Tiempo de Nacer, 1750–1821 (Mexico City: Fomento Cultural Banex, 1997): 232. government of Mexico established the national flag in the pattern still used: a vertical tricolor of red, white, and green, with the national arms of the eagle and cactus in the white stripe. (Later, Iturbide was crowned emperor, and the eagle temporarily acquired a crown) (figure 6).8 Iturbide’s army was inspired in its use of symbolism, uniforms, and flags by the Napoleonic armies of revolutionary France, whose vertical tricolor influenced the re-arrangement of the colors the Trigarante flag into their positions on the new national flag.9 Figure 8: Mexican flag, as designed by Thomas de la Peña in 1893. As changes in regime have Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico brought new cultural and artistic influences to bear devoted four pages to the history of the Mexican flag as part of on the life of the country, the “Flags Through the Ages” section of his book Flags Through Mexico’s arms have been the Ages and Across the World in addition to the expected refined in eight officialMexican flag column in the “Flags Across the World” section, versions since 1821 (the most he made no comment about added symbols depicted in the notable changes are shown 1968 version of the flag . That revision occurred a mere seven in figures 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11). years before the copyright date of his book; one would have The Mexican government thought that these added emblems would have been obvious is extremely particular that and timely subjects for him to discuss. correct models of both the At the base of the cactus is a symbol, unrecognizable to Figure 6: The Flag of the First Mexican coat of arms and the flag are many, that appears in the place of the rocks shown on earlier Empire, 1822 (reverse). Color has faded with time. Source: Guadalupe Jiménez Codinach, preserved in the Mexican flags. It is an unfamiliar little pillow-like symbol, and below México: Su Tiempo de Nacer, 1750–1821 (Mexico General Archives and the that is an unusually-shaped representation of water that City: Fomento Cultural Banex, 1997): 247. National Museum of History. appears to have little tassels around its outer edge. The cactus Official examples of the national arms are maintained at these displays what seemed to be flowers or fruit. A wreath cradles two locations and at the National Mint.10 the image with acorns and oak leaves on the left, and what The most striking changes to the arms have been in the may be olive leaves on the right. The two branches making designs of 1934 and 1968, when the naturalistic depictions up the wreath are joined by a ribbon of the Mexican tricolor of the lake, stone, and wreath were augmented or replaced (figure 12). with seemingly abstract symbols. Although Whitney Smith What do these symbols mean? I expected that a quick check A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 5 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

ribbon; however, the other puzzling symbols receive no notice. To be fair, the current flag with the usual symbols was adopted in 1968. Earlier Mexican flag designs depicted more recognizable representations of rocks and water in the arms. Flag books published before 1968, therefore, were correct in their Mexican flag descriptions. However, later published works had apparently only repeated the earlier descriptions without noticing the additions of 1968.

Figure 9: Mexican flag, as designed Antonio Gómez in 1916. Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico

Figure 12: Symbols displayed on the Mexican flag. Source: http://sgg.edomex.gob.mx/ escudo_nacional, modified by the author.

The symbols on the Mexican flag, are not European emblems, but rather hearken back to the pre-Cortesian cultures of Mexico. These symbols appear in pictorial form in Figure 10: Mexican flag, as designed Jorgé Enciso in 1934. surviving Aztec artifacts. Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico Aztec glyphs are carved or inscribed symbols, which may be described as pictograms, ideograms or phonograms, which can be defined as follows: 1. Pictograms picture the thing they represent. 2. Ideograms express an idea or tell a story. 3. Phonograms, like alphabetic letters, represent sounds. Part of Aztec writing, these glyphs can be used singly or combined to express syllables or form logograms. Logograms are signs which represent a word or phrase. Glyphs were displayed on stone carvings and in Aztec codices, which are illustrated Aztec books painted on long strips of paper made from tree bark that is folded accordion-style (figure 13). The codices display colored images that give an amazing Figure 11: Current Mexican flag, designed by Francisco Eppens Helguera in 1968. Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico insight into Aztec iconography. Many codices were destroyed after the Spanish Conquest of Mesoamerica. Aztec priests of Flags Through the Ages and Across the World would bring the destroyed some to keep them from falling into Spanish hands answers, but Whitney Smith does not mention any of these and Catholic priests, trying to replace Aztec traditions with symbols. I checked Barraclough & Crampton, Znamerowski, Catholicism, destroyed others. Whitney Smith noted, “it and more than a dozen other flag books.11 They all relate the is impossible to calculate how many representations of this story of the founding of Tenochtitlan with the eagle, snake iconography are unknown to us because they were destroyed and cactus; a couple mention the wreath and tricolored by the Spanish.”12 SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 6 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

Figure 13: An Aztec codex, the Codex Borbonicus. Source: http://www.wikiwand.com/nl/ Azteekse_codices

The glyphs on the 1968 flag are related to a carving on the back of the Teocalli Stone, which served as the throne for Moctezuma II (often known as Montezuma), Aztec emperor from 1502-1520 (figure 14). The carving shows an eagle

Figure 15: Detail from the Teocalli Stone, showing an eagle perched upon a cactus, re-drawn for clarity. Sources: Charles Phillips, The Lost History of Aztec & Maya (London: Hermes House, 2004).

The pillow-shaped symbol at the base of the cactus on the Mexican flag is also shown in numerous illustrations depicted on surviving codices. In the first page of the Codex Mendoza, the eagle-and-cactus theme appears in the center (figure 17). At the base of the cactus is the same symbol found beneath Figure 14: (left) The Teocalli Stone, the cactus on the Mexican arms and flag.14 This unusually- shown in full. (top) Detail of the shaped object is the Aztec glyph for stone. Teocalli Stone. Sources: http://www.hermetics. org/yurtlar.html; https://www.flickr.com/photos/ Both the water and stone glyphs are shown on an illustra- ilhuicamina/2070118394 tion of the Aztec founding of Tenochtitlan found in the Codex Durán.15 However, these glyphs are more than pictograms or perched on a cactus. Interestingly, a war glyph is shown below ideograms, they are also phonograms. the eagle’s beak, and it combines the symbols of water and fire. Aztec writing did not spell out the syllables of words, but repre- The fire symbol depicts flames at the bottom of the emblem sented words using the first and last sounds of the word, almost while the water symbol issues forth from the left side with like a rebus. This can be seen in the pictogram of the Aztec four streams, each capped by either a round or a shell-shaped Triple Alliance, the Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, which was the polit- symbol (figure 15). Another stone carving, on the lid of a ical alliance between the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, box, depicts an animal caught in flood waters, and the symbol and Tlacopan (figure 18). The pictogram shows in the center for water shows the streams capped with the same round and the logogram for Tenochtitlan made up of the “stone” glyph shell-shaped symbols (figure 16).13 This water glyph appears and the glyph for the flowering nopal cactus. The sound for the in numerous Aztec pictorial representations and is shown as “stone” glyph is “tetl” and the flowing nopal cactus glyph reads the symbol for water on the Mexican arms and flag. “nochtili,” which reads tetl+nochtli, equaling Tenochtitlan. A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 7 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

Figure 18: Pictogram of the Triple Alliance, showing glyphs for Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, and Tlacopan. Source: http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAmericas/CentralAztecTetzcoco.htm

The flowering nopal cactus on the Mexican arms and flag has always been an Aztec glyph. The 1968 version of the arms Figure 16: Carving from an Aztec stone box, depicting an animal surrounded by and flag added two more Aztec glyphs, one representing stone floodwaters. Source: Charles Phillips, The Lost History of Aztec & Maya (London: Hermes House, 2004). and one representing water. The glyphs of the cactus and stone spell out Tenochtitlan, the ancient Aztec capital. Interestingly, when considering the ancient glyphs of eagle, cactus and stone—the eagle is usually shown facing to the right, which in western heraldry is to the sinister. Early versions of the Mexican flag often showed the eagle facing to the fly end rather than the hoist, which is more “acceptable” in European tradition.16 Also, the rock and water were shown in more recognizable images in place of the Aztec glyphs. The 1968 version of the flag turned to earlier Aztec symbolism for the water and the rock. While some elements of the flag have become more “Europeanized,” others have expressed more Aztec styling. To complete the description of the Mexican arms: • The wreath is made up of oak leaves on the left and laurel leaves on the right. The traditional European meaning of an oak branch would be strength, and that of the laurel would be victory.17 • The ribbon joining the two branches is a national cravat that is sometimes displayed with Mexican national colors (figure 19). When considering the prominence of Aztec symbols on the Mexican flag, it is worth noting that the earliest flags of the Mexican independence movement feature, more promi- nently than the eagle and snake of Aztec legend, the Roman Catholic symbol of St. Mary of Guadelupe. Eduardo Matos Moctezuma raises the following question: Why was the Virgin Figure 17: Front page of the Codex Mendoza, showing the glyph for rock. Source: of Guadalupe, emblem of the insurgent army, not placed on https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-americas/colonial- americas/a/frontispiece-of-the-codex-mendoza the white band, which signified the purity of the Catholic religion? He then answers his own question: “During the The logogram of the flowering nopal cactus growing from the war of independence it was deemed necessary to appeal to rock glyph was repeated regularly in both stone carvings and the precedent of pre-Hispanic Mexico, which was a strong, codices as a sign for Tenochtitlan. Using this type of “spelling” united nation until the Spanish conquest brought tragedy to we might picture an otter, with an electrical switch set to on, to the peoples of ancient Mesoamerica.”18 This is another aspect “spell out” OTT+ON to stand for Ottawa, Ontario. We would of the Mexican flag’s design that had not been mentioned by have enough of the sound and could fill in the rest. any published flag books or any online sources in English. SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 8 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

his use of the Aztec glyph is an indication of the extent to which the government of Mexico embraced the movement to recover ancient symbolism.22 However, cultural critics noted what Octavio Paz called a continuing “inferiority complex” among Mexicans regarding their culture—a feeling among certain influential artists and authors that Mexicans had internalized the dismissive opinions of some Europeans and Americans toward Mexicans as lacking a distinctive national character that would be reflected in its art and symbolism.23 This problem was exacer- bated by a political climate in which an increasingly repres- sive ruling party—whose forces would massacre student protesters in Mexico City shortly before the 1968 Olympics began—continued to express an ideology of reform. Figure 19: Mexican flags with cravats at top of poles (at inauguration of President Enrique Peña Nieto in 2012). Source: Los Angeles Times, http://articles.latimes.com/2012/dec/01/ Another opportunity for reflection on the Mexican national world/la-fg-wn-pena-nieto-sworn-mexico-20121201 character arose when Mexico City was offered the opportunity to host the 1968 Olympic Games. In designing the athletic Matos Moctezuma goes further to explain in succinct terms a venues and iconography for the Olympiad, the planners aimed central meaning of the symbolism shown on the Mexican flag to present to the world a view of Mexico as a nation that was and arms: “a modern progressive country that was comfortable with its But the most significant thing in all this is the presence of the past.”24 One aspect of that presentation was the organization national symbols on the coat of arms and flag, to which refer- of a Cultural Olympics alongside the athletic contests. The ence has been made repeatedly. They have brought an entire people to identify itself under the symbol of Huitzilopochtli Cultural Olympics exposed the art, music, dance, and litera- [the Aztec patron deity of Tenochtitlan]. The Aztecs would ture of many nations to the international audience flocking be proud to know the symbol of their city and patron god to Mexico City, and were hosted in facilities that drew upon would live on centuries later, as the symbol of a nation.19 motifs from the art of Aztecs and other pre-Cortesian peoples Throughout the nineteenth century, the eagle and snake of Mexico, which coincidentally were reminiscent of many endured as a symbol of Mexican independence. However, of the “op-art” designs then current in the European and as we have seen, the stylization of the national arms became American art world.25 The same spirit of combining ancient progressively more Europeanized. But in the revision of 1934, Mexican culture and modern art influenced the logo and designed by Jorge Enciso, an Aztec glyph for “stone” was first signage used for the athletic competition (figure 20). introduced. And in Francisco Eppens Helguera’s 1968 revi- The current design of the seal and flag were made official on sion, the complex set of glyphs that still appear made their September 16, 1968—just weeks before the opening ceremony debut. The progressive introduction of Aztec elements into of the Olympics on October 12—but Eppens had obviously been the national arms and flag was not merely a designer’s whim, at work on them for some time. Eppens was known for his paint- but rather reflected important movements in Mexican culture. ings and sculptures that used traditional Mexican themes to In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, support the Mexican government, especially on postage stamps, Mexican independence was threatened by a series of inter- which the regime used “to mask the growing gulf between the ventions from the French and American governments, which ruling regime and the social ideas it claimed to hold.”26 in turn generated civil unrest and revolution. Following the With the eyes of the world upon Mexico, the government restoration of order by the 1930s, cultural critics assessed a observed that the time was ripe to present the nation as having feeling of confusion in the arts, as Mexicans were neither emerged through “a longer-standing process of postrevolu- recognized by Europeans as part of the liberal international tionary modernization” to be able to host the Olympics in an order, nor were the Aztec traditions embraced in the arts of environment where the “national patrimony, pre-Columbian, Mexico.20 In response, the Mexican government encour- colonial, and modern,” had given rise to a nation where, despite aged a revival of Aztec design and symbolism in architecture, Paz’s lament, pride in its bi-cultural history could be expressed graphic arts, and official symbolism. The 1934 flag redesign through modern design.27 Eppens’s design for the new flag “recovered the pre-Cortesian ancestry” of the Mexican state.21 provided an artistic dimension to the ideas the government Its designer, Jorge Enciso, was associated with the fine arts wished to promote. Its expanded repertoire of Aztec glyphs, and movement that favored traditional European design styles; use of them in the phonogrammatical context of their origin, A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 9 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

news/2011/may/10/mexican-flag-casts-giant-shadow-on-obama-at-border. 3 President of Mexico, “Decreto por el que se establece que la Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional será responsable del programa de construcción, estableci- miento, operación, mantenimiento y custodia de las astas banderas y banderas monumentales que se encuentran en el Territorio Nacional,” July 1, 1999, http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=4950865&fecha=01/07/1999 (translation by the author, via Google Translate). 4 José Luis de Rojas, Michael Ernest Smith, Marilyn A Masson, and John Wayne Janusek, Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2012), 24. 5 Whitney Smith, Flags Through the Ages and Across the World (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 158. 6 Enrique Florescano, La bandera Mexicana: Breve historia de su formación y simbolismo, 3a. ed. (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2014), 151. 7 Figure 20: (left) Ancient Huichol design, which influenced (right) the official logo of J. Ignacio Rubio Mañé, “Creación de la Bandera Nacional Mexicano, 1821- 1971,” Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacion Ser. 2, 12, no. 1-2 (1971): 5-26. the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City. Sources: Keith Brewster, ed., Reflections on Mexico ’68 (Wiley, 8 2010), 35; http://imjustcreative.com/1968-mexico-olympics-logo-lance-wyman/2013/12/03 Ibid. 9 Enrique Florescano, Imágenes de la patria: A través de los siglos (Mexico City: reflected growing national pride in the pre-Cortesian history Taurus, 2005), ch. 5. 10 Cámara de Diputados del H. Congreso de la Unión, “Ley sobre el Escudo, of Mexico. Eppens described the significance of his artwork: la Bandera y el Himno Nacionales,” February 8, 1984, http://www.wipo.int/ “I tried to design [the seal] in the most pre-Hispanic manner edocs/lexdocs/laws/es/mx/mx142es.pdf. possible, inspired by the style of Aztec seals.”28 11 E. M. C. Barraclough, Flags of the World (New York: Frederick Warne, 1971); That the glyphs have a resemblance to the stylized or abstract Alfred Znamierowski, The World Encyclopedia of Flags (London: Lorenz, 2004). 12 Smith, Flags Through the Ages and Across the World, 158. shapes used in contemporary art gives an air of modernity to 13 Charles Phillips, The Lost History of Aztec & Maya (London: Hermes House, the seal. And the unveiling of a new design at the same time as 2004), 168. Mexico was enjoying the world’s attention, for the first time by 14 Elizabeth Hill Boone, “Aztec Writing and History,” in The Aztec World, ed. many millions of viewers, was a metaphorical “rite of passage” for Elizabeth Brumfiel and Gary M. Feinman (New York: Abrams, 2008), 187. 15 Elizabeth Brumfiel, “The Aztec World in Historical Context,” foreword to the nation to take its place among the powers of the world. (Such The Aztec World, ed. Brumfiel and Feinman (New York: Abrams, 2008), 13. newfound status was reinforced by Mexico’s controversial but 16 The bald eagle displayed on United States presidential flags has also seen influential decision to bar the racially exclusive teams of South changes in its direction. See Robert M. Williamson, “Exploring the Genealogy of the President’s Flag of the United States of America, 1915-1959,” Raven 22 Africa and Rhodesia from the Olympic Games, thus averting a (2015): 79-100. boycott by many newly independent African nations.)29 17 Ernst Lehner and Johanna Lehner, Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants The design of Eppens has lasted for nearly half a century— and Trees (New York: Tudor Publishing Co, 1960), 77, 122. 18 Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, “The Aztec World’s Presence in Colonial and longer than any previous rendition of the national arms. Modern Mexico,” in The Aztec World, ed. Brumfiel and Feinman (New York: While the gap between the ideals espoused by the Mexican Abrams, 2008), 218-19. government and its actions no doubt persists—as in all coun- 19 Ibid., 223. 20 tries—the flag of Mexico is not only a poll-winner in the eyes Florescano, Imágenes de la Patria. 21 Amparo Gómez Tepexicuapan and Francisco González-Hermosillo, La of the Spanish-speaking world, it is also widely embraced by evolución del Escudo Nacional (Mexico City: Museo Nacional de Historia, the Mexican public. While that is true of many flags, the 1997), 42 (translation by the author, via Google Translate.) symbols of Mexico embody a long history of struggle for inde- 22 Guillermo Tovar de Teresa, Gabriel Breña Valle, Fernando García Correa, and Xavier Guzmán, Repertory of Artists in Mexico: Plastic and Decorative Arts pendence, self-reliance, and national identity. That the flag (Mexico City: Grupo Financiero Bancomer, 1995), 366. does so by cleverly combining Aztec glyphs and modern art 23 Octavio Paz, El laberinto de la soledad [The Labyrinth of Solitude] (Mexico to make a statement about the aspirations of Mexico to be City: Cuadernos Americanos, 1950; reprint, New York: Grove Press, 1994), 10. Citations refer to the Grove edition. a modern nation with pride in its heritage makes the close 24 Claire Brewster, “Changing Impressions of Mexico for the 1968 Games,” in inspection of its elements a vital exercise for vexillologists Reflections on Mexico ’68, ed. Keith Brewster (London: John Wiley, 2010), 36. seeking to understand how and why flags speak so powerfully 25 Kevin B. Witherspooon, Before the Eyes of the World: Mexico and the 1968 Olympic Games (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2008), 71-78; for and about the citizens they represent. Claire and Keith Brewster, “Mexico City 1968: Sombreros and Skyscrapers,” in This paper was originally presented as part of a longer talk at the 49th National Identity and Global Sports Events, ed. Alan Tomlinson and Christopher Young, 99-116 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006). Annual Meeting of NAVA in Ottawa, Ontario, on October 18, 2015 26 Tovar de Teresa et al, Repertory of Artists in Mexico, 370. 1 “Most Beautiful National Flag in the World! Bandera Más Bonita del 27 Luis M. Castañeda, Spectacular Mexico: Design, Propaganda, and the 1968 Mundo! Bandeira Mais Bonita do Mundo!” 20 Minutos, May 20, 2008, http:// Olympics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014), 105. listas.20minutos.es/lista/most-beautiful-national-flag-in-the-world-bandera- 28 Francisco Eppens, quoted in Ramón Valdiosera Berman, Francisco Eppens: El mas-bonita-del-mundo-bandeira-mais-bonita-do-mundo-17491 hombre, su arte y su tiempo (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de 2 Stephan Dinan, “Mexican Flag Casts Giant Shadow on Obama at Border,” México, 1988), 69 (translation by the author, via Google Translate). Washington Times, May 10, 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/ 29 Witherspooon, Before the Eyes of the World, 65-71. SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 10 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

subjugated the area entirely by 1269.2 A manuscript depic- The Flags of tion of the banner of the Teutonic Knights survives (figure 4). After three centuries of rule over Courland, the Teutonic Knights suffered military setbacks and in 1561 the order was Courland disbanded. Its Grand Master, Gotthard Kettler, was named By Wim Schuurman Duke of Courland and Semigallia, holding the duchy as a A little-known flag appears on the chart “Tableau des fief of the Polish-Lithuanian crown. Semigallia is the terri- Pavillons que la Plupart des Nations à la Mer arborent à la tory to the east of Courland. Mer. Fait au dépôt des Cartes de la Marine pour le service des The duchy bore arms, as did vaisseaux du Roy par Ordre de M. de Machault, Garde des the dukes. (See figures 5–8.) Sceaux de France, par le Sr. Bellin Ingénieur de la Marine The Kettler family arms are 1756” (“Table of Flags, which most of the Seagoing Nations canting arms of a sort. The display at sea. Made at the Map Bureau of the Navy for the device shown is a pot-hook— use of royal ships, by order of Mr. de Machaut, Guardian of a tool used to suspend kettles the Seals of France, by Seigneur Bellin, Engineer of the Navy, over a fire. In some cases, the 1756”).1 The fifth row shows a flag of two equal horizontal arms were painted onto military colors (figure 9). Figure 2: Location of Courland. Source: stripes, red over white, captioned “Pavil. de Curlande” (Flag https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courland of Courland) (figure 1). The image appears among flags of Courland’s Naval Flags cities on the Baltic Sea. The name “Courland,” unknown to In the seventeenth century, Courland developed maritime me among other place names, intrigued me and inspired me commerce, so there was need for flags at sea. The Courland state to perform the research presented in this paper. flag comprised two equal horizontal stripes, red over white. In About Courland fact, Courland established colonies at the mouth of the Gambia On maps of Europe from the nineteenth and twentieth century, River and on the island of Tobago, although those colonies were 4 one will look in vain for the names Courland, Courlande, or later lost. Kurland. One must venture further back in time, to different The colors were drawn from the arms of Courland: a red political conditions. The area of Courland is now the western lion reaching to the left, on a silver shield (see figure 5). The part of the Republic of Latvia. The coastal region of Courland colors were also those of its feudal overlord Poland-Lithuania was on the Baltic Sea and its flag saw and were used by many cities on the maritime use, which is why it is shown on Baltic Sea. the flag chart (figure 2). The commercial or merchant flag for The area is named after its original the duchy had the same colors, but the inhabitants, the Baltic people called second quarters from the hoist were Curonians, who gradually blended into swapped (figure 10). However, no flag the Latvians. The Curonians, with their charts showing this design are known. nature-based religion, were threatened in The state flag is documented inFlags the early thirteenth century by crusaders of all Nations, published in 1862 by K. 5 from the Christian military order called Z. Steenbergen. Illustration number the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. 170 shows the state flag. Illustration 135 To prevent an invasion, in 1230 the shows the ducal flag (figure 11), with an Curonian king Lammekinus was baptized alternative design for the ducal maritime and acknowledged the pope as feudal lord. flag in illustration 457 (figure 12). The arms of the Brothers of the Sword are But there was also a different design. recorded, but it is not known whether Illustration number 97 in Steenbergen they flew a flag over Courland (figure 3). shows a merchant flag. This was a In 1237, the Brothers of the Sword crimson flag with a black crab on it were merged into the Teutonic Knights. (Figure 13). The same flag was also In 1245, Frederick II, Holy Roman Figure 1. (top and above) Detail from “Tableau shown in Gerrit Hesman’s Flaggeboek, Emperor, granted Courland as a fief to des Pavillons que la Plupart des Nations à la Mer published in Friesland about 1708, as 6 the Teutonic Order. The Teutonic order arborent à la Mer,” 1756. illustration number 101. It shows a flag A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 11 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

with crab, with the caption: festivals. The meaning of “rood mei in swart krab”; that the colors is unknown.11 The is, “red with a black crab.” Livonians, neighbors of the Illustration number 102 in Courlanders, used a flag with Hesman shows the state flag the same three colors but in a (figure 14). different order. In the book Bandiere di The layout of the provin- Tvtte le Potenze e Nazioni cial arms was like that of other Naviganti in Tvtto il Mondo a governorates of the Russian Bologna 1772 (Flags of All the Empire: the shield showed Powers and Sailing Nations of the familiar coat of arms of the World), from 1772, there is the former double- Duchy Figure 3: Arms of the Brothers of the a crimson flag with a crab in of Courland and Semigallia, Figure 6: Arms of the Duchy of Courland Sword. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ natural colors.7 It is captioned, surmounted by the red-lined Livonian_Brothers_of_the_Sword and Semigallia. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ “The sea crab on the raspberry wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia gold Russian Czar’s Crown. red background—the flag of The shield was wreathed with military ships of Duke Jacob” two gold oak branches with a (figure 15).8 Note that this is blue ribbon wrapped around assigned to naval ships! The them (figure 17). status of the flags on various In the First World War, charts differs. Whether there Courland was largely occu- were written regulations in pied by the German army Courland is probably no longer from the spring of 1915. The possible to determine, because leadership of the German of the wartime destruction of army supported plans to Figure 7: Kettler family arms. Source: http:// archives and other sources. akromer.republika.pl/poczet_kurlandia.html create a political entity for The flags of the Duchy of Courland were in use until 1795. In that year, the Third Partition of Poland rendered the kingdom extinct, eliminating the vassal states Figure 4: Flag of the Teutonic Order, under it, including the Duchy from the medieval manuscript Banderia Prutenorum. Source: http://www.tarnautojai.lt/ of Courland. Until 1918, memorandum/ru/modules/banderia/primus.htm Courland was administered as a governorate of the Russian Empire.9 On a flag chart published by R. H. Laurie in 1832, flags for Courland were still shown, as illustrations 79, 80, and 81.10 These were copied from Steenbergen’s illustrations 457, 27, and 170. On land, the population in the governorate used a flag of three equal horizontal stripes Figure 8: Arms of the Dukes of Courland under the Kettler dynasty, from a 1596 Figure 5: Traditional arms of Courland.3 of green, blue, and white manuscript: the arms of the dual duchy with an inescutcheon of the family arms—gold Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courland (figure 16). This was not with a red pot-hook, impaled with a gold shield bearing the cipher of the Polish monarch (in this case, Sigismund Augustus). Source: http://www.hubert-herald.nl/LatvijaCourland.htm official, but was used at song SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 12 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

the Baltic Germans in the territory of today’s Latvia and Estonia: das Vereinigte Baltische Herzogtum (the United Baltic Duchy), whose flag would have revived the design used by the Teutonic Knights (figure 18). When these plans then failed, Courland-Semigallia fell in 1918 and became part of the independent Republic of Latvia. 1 Klaes Sierksma, Vlaggen: Symbool, Traditie, Protocol (Bussum, Netherlands: C. A. J. van Dishoeck, 1963). 2 Readers interested in this history may consult Peter Z. Olins, The Teutonic Knights in Latvia (Riga: Lamey, 1928). 3 This is familiar as the “ordinary” legal lion of Courland. 4 Readers interested in this history may consult Alexander V. Berkis, The History of the Duchy of Courland (1561–1795) (Towson, Maryland: Paul M. Harrod Company, 1969). 5 K. Z. Steenbergen, ed. Vlaggen van alle Natiën, opgedragen aan zijne Koninklijke Hoogheid Prins Hendrik der Nederlanden = Pavillons de toutes les Nations, dédiés à son Altesse Royale le Prince Henri des Pays-Bas = Flags of all Nations, dedicated to his Royal Highness Prince Henry of the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Weytingh & Brave, 1862). 6 Gerrit Hesman, Klaes Sierksma, and J. C. Terluin, Flaggeboek: neffens in hânskrift fan om 1700 hinne (Ljouwert: Fryske Akademy, 1975). 7 Ludwig August, Graf von Mellin, Bandiere di Tvtte le Potenze e Nazioni Naviganti in Tvtto il Mondo a Bologna 1772, manuscript, held at Rokrakstu un Figure 9: Company color of a Courland cavalry regiment, 1672–1674. Reto Grāmatu Kolekcija, Latvijas Universitate (Manuscripts and Rare Books Source: http://www.hubert-herald.nl/LatvijaCourland.htm Collection, University of Latvia). 8 According Filip Kubiaczyk, this would be the flag that was flown in the colony of Tobago. Unfortunately the author has not specified the source. Filip Kubiaczyk, “Jeszcze Polska Nie Zgineła—part 2,” Flagmaster 137 (December 2010): 4–5. 9 Readers interested in the history of Courland under Russian rule may consult Andreas Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995) and Mara Kalnins, Latvia: A Short History (London: Figure 10: Courland Hurst and Co., 2015). merchant marine flag. 10 Source: https://flagspot.net/flags/ The Maritime Flags of All Nations (London: Richard H. Laurie, 1832). lv-cour.html#hist Figure 11: Ducal flag of Figure 12: Maritime 11 Email from Victor Lomantsov to the author, January 13, 2016. For more Courland, as shown in ducal flag of Courland, as information see P. Falck, “Unsere alten Landesfarben,” Düna-Zeitung no. 165, Steenbergen. shown in Steenbergen. July 25, 1900; and H. G. Ströhl-Mödling, “Landesfarben,” Deutscher Buch-und Steindrucker 15, no. 8 (Mai 1909): 722-26+.

Figure 14: Flags of Courland, as shown Figure 13: An alternative in Hesman. flag of Courland, as shown in Steenbergen.

Figure 17: Arms of the Russian Courland governorate. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Courland_Governorate

Figure 16: Flag used in the Governorate of Courland under the Russian Empire. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courland_ Governorate

Figure 15: Courland’s “naval” flag, as shown in Bandiere Figure 18: (right) Proposal for a flag for di Tvtte le Potenze e Nazioni Naviganti in Tvtto il Mondo the United Baltic Duchy. Source: https:// a Bologna 1772. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Baltic_Duchy A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 13 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie From Flying Flags to Museum Flags: A Case Study in Using Minimally Invasive Preservation Techniques to Allow Maximum Flexibility in Display and Interpretation By Catarina Florio power is relayed through the movement and the sounds that Introduction it produces. Because of that, the effect of motion on a flag’s viewer is crucial; it augments the impact and the intensity of The study of flags is a complex and specialized discipline. the message that the flag carries and expands its communica- Accordingly, any conservation strategy challenges the conser- tion power. When conserving the banner under discussion vators to first educate themselves in the history, customs and in this article, I bore in mind this definition by W.G. Perrin: relevance of flags. As a textile conservator at the Canadian Museum of History (CMH), I had the duty to develop the Flag may be defined as a piece of pliable material, attached at one end so as to move freely in the wind, serving as a sign or conservation treatment of an election banner for the campaign a decoration. This word…does not appear to have come into of Dunn and Buchanan in 1841. There were many technical use in this particular meaning until the sixteenth century, and and physical challenges related to conservation of the flag as a the etymology of it is obscure. Perhaps the most satisfactory physical object. However, the appropriate presentation of the of the derivations hitherto put forward is that of Professor flag for public viewing was also an important consideration. Skeat, who derives it from the Middle English “flakken” to My research in the field led to a question about the semantic fly, one of a number of similar onomatopoeic words sugges- tive of the sound of something flapping in the wind. Its first implications of presenting a “flag” in a static form on display at appearance with a meaning coming within the above defini- CMH. This paper will focus on the significance and relevance tion is as a specific term denoting a rectangular piece of mate- of museum artifacts and how they retain, diminish or change rial attached by one vertical edge, flown at the masthead of a their meaning through time and context. ship, as a symbol of nationality or leadership.1 Context and association of flags Conservation and ethical context Historically, flags have had many uses and meanings. They rally The validation in Perrin’s definition of the importance of groups, identify affiliations, provoke commitment, and are often the material and physical qualities of a flag made for a good instilled with meaning. They have helped shape communities starting point when deciding how to approach the treatment with their call to allegiance and still today have a central part of an 1841 election banner. As conservators, we are constantly to play in everything from football club support to the celebra- faced with the challenge of preserving the dual nature of tion of national days. There is always a tension expressed in the objects, their tangible substance and their immaterial content. movement of a flag, an intention of affirmation and recognition, Conservation, by its nature, is an interdisciplinary field, often pride and great emotion. A flag conveys a meaning not only by crossing the boundaries of art and science, the intellectual and its pattern and colors but also by where and how it is positioned the practical. As a general statement, our professional respon- or carried. On the moon there is an American flag—a flag that sibility as conservators is not only to record and preserve infor- symbolizes a victory in the space race, for the United States. mation in the least invasive way, but also to be part of the As early as the sixteenth century, the colours and designs process that determines the presentation and interpretation of flags acquired symbolic meaning and were associated with of objects. Conservation has been described as a process of ideological and political messages of the power of churches investigation, preservation and interpretation. It is a field that and states. By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, other evolves constantly, so that the current approach of minimal groups had appropriated the flag and charged it with their physical/material intervention allows conservators to focus as specific message. Among these groups were labour unions, well on presentation and other aspects of the interpretation political agencies and government officials, sports clubs, process. For example, in the case of the banner held by CMH, schools and universities, charitable organizations and cultural the treatment coincided for the main part with the display associations, and business corporations. method and the display method was an essential part of the Traditionally, in addition to its image and iconography, a treatment, thus leading us to develop a two-way approach. flag’s essential quality was its ability to move in the wind. Its Specifics of this treatment will be described in detail further SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 14 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie on, to illustrate how developing the best possible passive The banner was selected for display in the temporary exhi- mounts for display has become a major part of many conser- bition called “1867: Rebellion and Confederation,” produced vators’ preservation protocols. Trying to balance the often by the Canadian Museum of History for display in 2015. The competing needs of conservation and preservation with the desires and visions of curators and other stakeholders to feature objects in a particular interpretative context has become more and more challenging and a multifaceted task.2 The ever- changing political context of flag displays over the decades, and the fact that choices about flag display vary from curator to curator, have shaped the role of conservators and influenced our way of approaching treatment of flags. In current muse- ology, the concept of the distinct phases of the objects’ “life” and the range of meanings attributed to each of them, is part of a long-standing debate and it provides a great example for exploring how understanding the context greatly influences conservation.3 In addition, acknowledging that conservation offers significant support in producing meaning and enriching Figure 1: Election banner promoting candidates John Henry Dunn and Isaac Buchanan for the Parliament of the Province of Canada (CMH 2003.45.1) Photograph by Steven Darby, museum interpretation justifies the efforts made in presenting used with permission. objects in a particular way in museums. Much of what it is currently done in conservation starts from banner is thought to have been used in a political rally to the museological idea of preserving as many values, or combi- celebrate the electoral victory of Buchanan and Dunn. The nation of values associated with the objects as possible. Objects banner, painted on both sides, has the image of a crown in can be preserved for their symbolic, historic, emotional, mone- the center surrounded by the inscription, “British rule and tary or social value, and even their educational value within British institutions”. Below the inscription are the names of the context of a heritage institution. In general, museum the two candidates, Dunn and Buchanan. At the top of the artifacts are different things at different times, with shifting banner, between the words “British Rule”, there is a date, relevance and importance in a constantly changing context. 1842, which may have been added later. Historical records This way of thinking demands that the changing physical and speak of a banner displayed by supporters of John Henry social environments be taken into account when formulating Dunn and Isaac Buchanan in the political election campaign conservation treatments.4 It is, however, a delicate balancing of that following year. The banner measures 270 cm x 173 cm act to tackle the range of meanings attributed to the objects, (8 feet 10 inches x 5 feet 8 inches) and on the left-hand side considering that anything we do or don’t do in our preserva- it displays the typical hoist made of jute cord. It is composed tion efforts reflects current knowledge and thinking. of fine tabby silk of ivory color. Both the gold leaf and the oil Having said all this, we are still faced with the question of paint are applied over a layer of yellow mordant (dye fixa- whether a flag is still a flag when it enters a museum collec- tive), not meant to be visible. When it first arrived in the lab tion. Further questions arise: What set of values is the museum it was in very bad condition, very fragile and dry, and rolled as preserving in collecting a flag? And what values are we a preventive measure around a large tube. favoring if the flag is not going to be flown anymore? What’s Documentation of the stratigraphy and analysis of the the minimum “requirement” to recognize a flag as such? various paints used on the banner were requested to inform Through a review of the treatment I carried out, I hope to treatment decisions and to determine the mechanical shed some light on this complex issue, though I doubt there is stability of the painted surface. Four samples were taken a definitive answer to any of the questions posed above. from the inscription: two samples of gilding in the lettering, Case study at the Canadian Museum of History green paint from the shadow around the lettering, and green paint from the 1842 date. The numbers in the date were not CMH has in its collection a banner promoting the candi- gilded as the letters were and the green paint appears to be a dacies of Isaac Buchanan and John Henry Dunn (figure 1). different shade from that used in the shadows of the letters. Both won narrow victories in the 1841 election that chose These differences and the fact that the first election was held the first parliament to represent the newly united Province of in 1841 and not 1842 may indicate that the date was added Canada. Each represented a riding in Toronto, and supported to the banner at a different time. In addition, samples of blue the union of Upper Canada and Lower Canada.5 paint and gilding with red highlighting were taken from the A research publication of the FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 North American Vexillological Association / REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE Page 15 Une publication de recherche de EN VEXILLOLOGIE l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie crown for analysis. Pigments and fillers in the paints were leaning device was fashioned to allow access to the critical identified using a combination of the following techniques: central areas of the banner. See figures 4 and 5. scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM/EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Raman spectroscopy. The composition of the lettering layer in the inscription is consistent with the material referred to in conservation standards as ”gold size1” or “gilders oil size2” (size is an adhesive used to attach gold leaf to fabric).6 The general condition of the banner was fair. It could have been considerably worse, given the many inherent problems Figures 4 and 5: Details of the flattening treatment with ultrasonic humidifier. Photos by of working with a stiffened painted surface, both inelastic and CMH, used with permission. fragile. The painted areas were brittle and the substrate fabric had come apart in many sections. There was also a substantial After the initial stabilization work was done, the condition loss of pigment in many areas, but the pigments that remained of the fabric was less precarious and the immediate source of adhered well to the substrate and there was no flaking. Very damage was reduced, facilitating handling and a more accu- sharp folds, due to improper storage over time, encouraged rate evaluation of the steps to follow. At this point, together the splitting and loss of the painted surface and pigments with the curator, we had to decide how to proceed with the throughout. However, the silk ground (base layer) fabric was interpretation of the piece and how we wanted to present in relatively good structural condition overall, although quite the flag to the public. The curator was less interested in the delicate. Except for the top and bottom corners, the silk was overall flag than in the content, namely the names of the not torn by the stitching where the rope attached to the hoist candidates and the slogan. edge, indicating perhaps that it was not subject to signifi- Therefore, after a thorough review of the literature, a cant stress. For example it may not have flown outdoors for special pressure mount was designed, in collaboration with prolonged periods. The silk was stained in numerous areas, one of the CMH preparators, in order to consolidate the but the discoloration was not obtrusive to the general appear- physical components without sacrificing any relevant histor- ance of the textile. See figures 2 and 3. ical or contextual elements. This specific mount was chosen as the most appropriate method to serve all these purposes. A pressure mount has a padded base and a plexiglas cover; the object is placed between the base and the cover. In addition to the technical challenges of treating fabric in fair condition, the banner size was again an issue. The question was how to maintain an even pressure throughout the surface and avoid the sliding of the flag to the bottom, once it was mounted in a vertical position. We resolved this problem by Figures 2 and 3: Details of the condition of the banner before treatment. Photos by CMH, used applying concentric circular layers of batting (cotton fabric with permission. typically used to fill quilts) which gradually compensated for The treatment plan had three original goals: to fulfill the the diminished pressure in the centre of the frame. In addi- narrative vision of the curator, to safely display the banner tion, the frame was made up of many different layers of non- vertically and finally, to provide a secure and efficient long- reactive materials, which provided a safe substrate for the flag. term storage solution. See figures 6 and 7. The first step was to physically address the material of the banner, to preserve as much as possible of the physical appearance. This initial phase consisted primarily in the flattening of the folds, since they jeopardized the stability of the fabric in the painted areas and ultimately the piece itself. A series of tests was performed to evaluate the response of the painted surface to the effects of an ultrasonic mister, which is how we intended to eliminate the sharp creases. The successful testing allowed us to begin the delicate process of reducing the creases. Figures 6 and 7: Details of pressure mount padding compensation layer. Photos by CMH, used with permission. A complicating factor was the size of the banner. A special SEPTEMBER / SEPTEMBRE 2017 | No. 14 FLAG RESEARCH QUARTERLY / A research publication of the Page 16 REVUE TRIMESTRIELLE DE RECHERCHE North American Vexillological Association / EN VEXILLOLOGIE Une publication de recherche de l’Association nord-américaine de vexillologie

This type of mount provides uniform support for the flag while in a vertical position through an even distribution of pressure; it eliminates the need to sew together tears or cuts in the fabric (a process called needle consolidation); it permits complete access to both sides with minimum handling. It offers many benefits for future interpretation since it limits the direct intervention of conservators on the banner itself. What was most appealing about this mount strategy was that it allows for future curators to interpret and present the banner according to a different narrative. The process secured the materials and the iconographic meaning in accordance with the curator’s vision, but obvi- Figure 8: (Top center of photo) Parade banner mounted on two sticks, in a 1913 rally for women’s suffrage in the United States. Source: https://twitter.com/archivesfdn/status/7337274327427 ously the physical potential of the flag as a moving message 11302?lang=en was sacrificed. However, the pressure mount, coupled with museumgoers’ preconceived notions of flags as moving things, While we didn’t account for the movement of the flag, compensated for the missing meaning/value associated with which is surely part of its essence, we provided a framework movement. As mentioned previously, flags are a great part of that when displayed in a museum allowed for the imagination the lives of citizens and the general public, and so it was consid- and ingenuity of the viewer to compensate for this omission. ered sufficient to present the two-dimensional visual aspect of Acknowledgements a flag, and to rely on the common knowledge of the visitor to I would like to thank Leslie Tepper and Ian Martin for their fully experience the banner in the exhibition context. help in facilitating the thinking process; Paul Vardy for being To a certain extent, in museums, objects are validated even an indispensable presence in this project; and Jennifer Poulin, 7 if they are decontextualized, but when integrated into an Elizabeth Moffatt, Edith Gendron for their technical exper- exhibition narrative the public’s knowledge is encouraged to tise. I would also like to acknowledge Wanda McWilliams fill the gaps and offer them a full experience. It is the public and Rebecca Renner for their support. that recontextualizes the object through their participation This paper was originally presented at the 49th Annual Meeting of and experience. As Laura Mina states, by acknowledging the NAVA in Ottawa, Ontario, on October 17, 2015. effects of observation, we can better evaluate the methods 1 W.G. Perrin, British Flags: Their Early History, and Their Development at Sea; With used by conservators and seek ethical treatment choices for an Account of the Origin of the Flag as a National Device (Cambridge, England: an object’s current needs.8 Cambridge University Press, 1922), 1. As a final note, these findings were presented at the annual 2 Caterina Florio, “Textile Conservation and the Museum Public”, in The Public Face of Conservation, ed. Emily Williams (London: Archetype, 2013) meeting of the North American Vexillological Association 37-44. in 2015, in Ottawa, Ontario. One astute audience member 3 Dinah Eastop and Charlotte Dew, “Context and Meaning Generation: The suggested that the presence of holes on both the hoist and Conservation of Garments Deliberately Concealed within Buildings,” in The Object in Context: Crossing Conservation Boundaries: Contributions to the Munich fly edges indicated that the cloth was not a traditional flag Congress, 28 August-1 September 2006, ed. David Saunders, Joyce Townsend, in which the fly end waves free, but was rather likely to have and Sally Woodcock, (London : International Institute for Conservation of been carried as a banner in a parade, mounted on two poles, Historic and Artistic Works, 2006), 17. 4 Frances Lennard and Patricia Ewer, Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice similarly to the banner shown in figure 8. (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2010), 55. 5 Kenneth McNaught, The History of Canada (Toronto: Bellhaven House, Conclusions 1970), 90-95; Douglas McCalla, “Isaac Buchanan,” in Dictionary of Canadian The values associated with an artifact, in this case a flag Biography, ed. Francess G. Halpenny (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, displayed in a museum, change from one context to another. 1982), 11: 125-31; Ken Cruikshank, “John Henry Dunn,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. Francess G. Halpenny (Toronto: University of It is the conservator’s responsibility to ensure that the signifi- Toronto Press, 1985), 8: 251-57. cance and values that shift in time and context remain acces- 6 Elizabeth Moffatt and Jennifer Poulin, “Analysis of the Paint on a Silk sible for future interpretations. Specifically, our decision to Election Banner,” Canadian Museum of History Report No. CSD 5157, CCI 127129, July 31, 2014, 5. pressure mount and secure the banner allows for future cura- 7 Miriam Clavir, Preserving What Is Valued: Museums, Conservation, and First tors to display it in the same fashion or to decide on a more Nations (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2002), 134. dramatic dynamic approach. We decided to focus on main- 8 Laura Mina, “The Observer Effect in Conservation: Changes in Perception and Treatment of a Man’s Silk Suit c.1745,” in The Textile Specialty Group taining and containing the material that made up the banner, Postprints 21 (2011): 17, http://www.conservation-us.org/docs/default-source/ and to provide access to the limited but important text. periodicals/textile-specialty-group-postprints-volume-21-(2011).pdf