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The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`I

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The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`I OCS Study BOEM 2017-021 The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`i US Department of the Interior Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Pacific OCS Region Cover image: Bathymetric map of the Hawaiian Islands. (NOAA) OCS Study BOEM 2017-021 The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`i Authors Maritime Heritage Program Office of National Marine Sanctuaries National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration Department of Commerce Prepared under BOEM Interagency Agreement M13PG00018 By the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of National Marine Sanctuaries 1315 East West Highway Silver Spring, MD 92131 US Department of the Interior Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Pacific OCS Region August 18, 2017 DISCLAIMER This study was funded, in part, by the US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Environmental Studies Program, Washington, DC, through Interagency Agreement Number M13PG00018 with the US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. This report has been technically reviewed by BOEM and has been approved for publication. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the opinions or policies of the US Government, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. REPORT AVAILABILITY To download a PDF file of this Environmental Studies Program report, go to the US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Environmental Studies Program Information System website and search on OCS Study BOEM 2017-021. CITATION NOAA Maritime Heritage Program. 2017. The Unseen Landscape: Inventory and Assessment of Submerged Cultural Resources in Hawai`i. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA. OCS Study BOEM 2017-021. 240 pages, with appendices. i CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS Hans Van Tilburg—NOAA Maritime Heritage Program, Honolulu, HI Jim Delgado— NOAA Maritime Heritage Program, Silver Spring MD INVENTORY TEAM MEMBERS Hans Van Tilburg—NOAA Maritime Heritage Program, Honolulu, HI David Ball—BOEM Pacific Regional Office, Camarillo CA Jim Delgado— NOAA Maritime Heritage Program, Silver Spring MD Tony Reyer—ONMS Conservation Science Division, Silver Spring MD Val Grussing— NOAA Maritime Heritage Program, Silver Spring MD Robert Schwemmer— NOAA Maritime Heritage Program, Ventura CA Kehaulani Watson— Honua Consulting Inc., Honolulu HI Steven Price—University of Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab, Honolulu HI Emily Menzies—Intern, University of Hawai`i Marine Option Program, Honolulu HI Aleksandra Helminiak—Intern, University of Hawai`i Anthropology Dept., Hilo HI George Huss—Intern, University of Hawai`i Marine Option Program, Honolulu HI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is the result of work by numerous individuals including employees of NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Marine Protected Areas Center, BOEM’s Pacific OCS Regional Office, University of Hawaii’s Undersea Research Lab, NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations Diving Program, and Honua Consulting Inc., as well as other outside contributors who provided valuable expertise. Thanks go to everyone listed below for their valuable contributions: Blade Shepherd-Jones—USCG Reserve, Honolulu, HI Chris Kelley—University of Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab, Honolulu, HI Brandi M. Carrier—BOEM Office of Environmental Programs, Sterling, VA James D. Moore—BOEM Office of Environmental Programs, Sterling, VA Craig Fuller—Aviation Archaeology Investigation and Research AAIR Max Cremer—University of Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab, Honolulu, HI Raymond Boland—NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu, HI Richard Rogers—Sandwich Islands Shipwreck Museum, Haleiwa, HI Steven Price—University of Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab, Honolulu, HI Terry Kerby—University of Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab, Honolulu, HI Brian Jordan—BOEM Office of Environmental Programs, Sterling, VA Alicia Caporaso—BOEM Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office, New Orleans, LA ii Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ xi Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xiii 1. Executive Summary .......................................................................................................................... 1 2. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2 2.1. Purpose of This Document ............................................................................................................ 2 2.2. Identifying Native Hawaiian Cultural Properties .......................................................................... 2 2.3. Identifying Historic Submerged Cultural Resources ..................................................................... 3 2.4. The Maritime Cultural Landscape ................................................................................................. 4 2.4.1. Defining Known, Reported and Potential Resources ......................................................... 5 2.5. Authorizations ............................................................................................................................... 5 2.6. Team Participants ......................................................................................................................... 6 2.7. Report Organization ...................................................................................................................... 7 2.8. Sources for the Inventory ............................................................................................................. 9 2.8.1. Accuracy of Information ................................................................................................... 10 2.9. The Database .............................................................................................................................. 11 2.9.1. Arrangement of Data ........................................................................................................ 11 2.9.2. Graphic Representation of Positions ................................................................................ 12 3. Description of the Marine Environment ........................................................................................ 14 3.1. The Pacific Ocean ........................................................................................................................ 14 3.2. The Hawaiian Archipelago .......................................................................................................... 15 3.3. Geologic Background .................................................................................................................. 15 3.3.1. Ocean Plate Tectonics and Isostacy ................................................................................. 16 3.3.2. Tsunami Frequency .......................................................................................................... 16 3.4. Geographic Background .............................................................................................................. 17 3.4.1. Mid-Pacific Island Formation............................................................................................ 17 3.4.2. Coral Reef Ecosystem and Reef Zones ............................................................................. 18 3.5. Hydrographic Background........................................................................................................... 19 3.5.1. General Climate ................................................................................................................ 19 3.5.2. Ocean Conditions ............................................................................................................. 20 iii 3.5.3. Hurricane Frequency ........................................................................................................ 23 3.5.4. Sea Level Changes ............................................................................................................ 24 3.5.5. Implications for Early Hawaiian Sites ............................................................................... 25 3.6. Site Formation Processes and Hawaii’s Environment ................................................................. 26 3.6.1. Wrecking Processes .......................................................................................................... 27 3.6.2. Chemical Deterioration .................................................................................................... 28 3.6.3. Biological Impacts ............................................................................................................. 29 3.6.4. Hybrid Process: Rusticles .................................................................................................. 30 3.6.5. Currents, Seabed Movement and Deposition .................................................................
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