September-October-November 2010 | Vol. 1 | No. 3

P LITICALLITICAL REFLECTIONEFLECTION P R Quarterly “Advancing Diversity”

History Today: the Specter of Deep State (Contra-Guerrillas) Still Haunts Turkey By Prof. Bülent Gökay

‘Nonoy’ and the Future of Peace in Mindanao, Philippines By Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem

The ‘War against Women’ in Muslim societies By Dr. Ayla Göl

Culture, epistemology and foreign policy: An alternative reading of U.S.- Turkish relations within the context of the Middle East By Dr. H. Akın Ünver Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti

888X - Ambassador of the Republic of Kosovo to the UK

ISSN 2042 Published by the Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN) A Multinational, Global Think-tank For

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Gabriel Siles BRUGGE Cemil CENGIZ Rahman DAG Enes ERBAY PUBLISHED BY Arshad ISAKJEE CENTRE FOR STRATEGIC RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS David JAROSZWESKI (CESRAN) Ali Onur OZCELIK Fusun OZERDEM (Assist. Prof.) ©2010 Kadri Kaan RENDA By the Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis. Paul RICHARDSON Dilek YIGIT (Dr.) All rights reserved. Political Reflection and its logo are trademarks of the Centre for Strategic Research and Web producer & Developer Analysis, which bears no responsibility for the editorial content; the views expressed in the articles are those of Serdar TOMBUL the authors. No part of this publication may be repro- duced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. September-October-November 2010 POLITICAL REFLECTION Contents 5 World Stories Turkey Review 8 The Specter of Deep State 8 (Contra-Guerrillas) Still Haunts Turkey By Prof. Bülent Gökay

Culture, epistemology and foreign policy: 12 An alternative reading of U.S.-Turkish rela- tions within the context of the Middle East By Dr. H. Akın Ünver

Commentary ‘Nonoy’ and the Future of Peace in 17 Mindanao, Philippines By Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem

Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti 21 Ambassador of the Republic of Kosovo to the UK

Caucasus Review Kosovo and Karabakh: Looking back at 28 the Future By Zaur Shiriyev Commentary 21 The ‘War against Women’ in Muslim 32 societies By Dr. Ayla Göl

Europe Review Iceland Towards EU Membership 38 By Dr. Dilek Yiğit

Overestimating the impact of Europe? The 43 case of Turkish foreign policy By Paula Sandrin

32 September-October-November 2010 POLITICAL REFLECTION Contents

Commentary Official Development Assistance and Terrorism 47 By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

Global City Analysis Bucharest By Fatih Eren 55 47 China Review Confucius Versus Avatar: Rethinking Confucian Advocacy in the 21st Century 61 61 By Antony Ou

Film Review Midnight Express: Hatred beats cinematography 67 By Alaaddin F. Paksoy

Keynote Lecture By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

Former Ambassador of Republic of Turkey 69 to the UK “Turkey's Security Perspective in its Region and the Relations with the E.U"

67 Leader Observer Turkish Business Cowboys in the U.S. By Simay Özlü Diniz 77

Africa Review President Goodluck Jonathan And Nigeria’s Frail Democracy 81 By Chris, M. A. Kwaja

Recent Books 83

WORLD STORIES | By Aksel Ersoy

PAKISTAN

Suicide Bomber kills 7 at Pakistan Minister's House

A suicide bomber killed seven people, blowing himself up at a gathering of senior Pakistani officials mourning the assassi- nation of a cabinet minister's son by sus- pected Taliban. Police said the bomber was stopped while trying to walk into the home of Mian Iftikhar Hussain, information minister in Pakistan's north- western province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, in the small town of UNITED KINGDOM Pabbi. (26 July 2010) BP chief Tony Hayward's fate hinges on board vote CHINA The board of oil giant BP faced a decision China Floods: Death Toll Hits More Than 700 Monday on whether to keep Tony Hay- ward as its chief executive, although de- Flood control efforts are at liberations appeared to have narrowed to a "crucial stage" in China setting the terms for his departure. After as the annual death toll a series of blunders, Hayward has be- jumps to more than 700 come the battered face of BP's efforts to with warnings that more contain the Gulf of Mexico oil spill and torrential rain is expected. clean up the damage. He was called back Water levels along the to London a month ago after a bruising upper parts of China's encounter with a Congressional commit- largest river, the Yangtze, tee and has since kept a low profile. are at their highest since (26 July 2010) 1987, state-run Xinhua News Agency reported. Chinese Premier ... On 27 July 2010, BP confirmed Hay- Wen Jiabao has ordered officials to prepare for "more serious floods ward would resign as CEO of the com- and disasters", Xinhua said. pany and be replaced by Bob Dudley on 1 (24 July 2010) October 2010.

MEXICO

51 Corpses Found In Mexico Drug War Dump

Police investigating drug gangs in Mexico have discovered 51 corpses in a field near a rubbish dump. Investigators said the bodies were found during two days of digging in land outside the northern city of Monterrey. The body dumping ground is one of the largest discovered in Mexico's bloody drug war and excavations are continuing. (20 July 2010)

5 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 WORLD STORIES | By Aksel Ersoy

IRAQ

Bomb kills 6 at Baghdad office of Arabic channel

A suicide bomber driving a minibus blew himself up in front of the Baghdad office of a popular Arabic news station early Monday, killing six people, and burying a lawmaker alive under the rubble of his col- lapsed home, police and hospital officials said.

The attack at the offices of the pan-Arab newschannel Al-Arabiya re- flects the still dangerous conditions under which many journalists, both Iraqi and foreign, are operating. (27 July 2010)

CAMBODIA THE GULF OF MEXICO

War crimes tribunal Oil Spill Site Evacuated As finds Duch guilty in Storm Rolls In Khmer Rouge genocide The teams working on the Gulf of A man who ran a notori- Mexico oil spill have been ordered ous Cambodian torture to evacuate the area as a tropical prison where more than storm sweeps in. The US govern- 14,000 people died during ment made the move after it be- the Khmer Rouge regime was found guilty of war crimes Monday and sen- came clear that the tropical storm tenced to 35 years in prison. Despite the sentence, Kaing Guek Eav, alias Bonnie was posing a threat to the Duch, will serve no more than 19 years. The judge took off five years for the oil spill workers. Drilling ships time Duch was illegally detained before the United Nations-backed tribunal and key vessels are also evacuat- was established, and another 11 years for the time he has already served ing meaning the site will be aban- behind bars. (26 July 2010) doned for 48 hours. (28 July 2010)

6 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection WORLD STORIES | By Aksel Ersoy

RUSSIA

Russia combats wildfires in Chernobyl radiation zone

Some 600 fires are burning in different parts of the country. Russia is mounting extra patrols to fight wildfires in a region hit by nuclear fallout from Chernobyl, amid fears that radiation could spread. Crews put out several fires in Bryansk, the emergen- cies ministry said, amid concern that wind or fire could whip up radioactive particles in the soil. (10 August 2010)

PAKISTAN

Pakistan issues fresh flood warning

Pakistan issued fresh flood warnings, putting parts of Punjab and Sindh on alert and calling on foreign donors to step up efforts to contain the country’s worst humanitarian disaster.

The United Nations was to launch an interna- tional appeal in New York, calling for hundreds of millions of dollars to provide urgent assis- tance to six million people it says now depend on aid for survival. Pakistan’s government has admitted being unable to cope with the scale of the crisis and an outpouring of rage from survivors and the political opposition is compounding pressure on President Asif Ali Zardari. (08 August 2010)

RWANDA

Rwanda's Kagame wins election by landslide

Incumbent Paul Kagame won 93 percent of the votes, according to the electoral commission, in a Rwandan presidential election that opponents said was marred by repression and violence.

Kagame, widely lauded for rebuilding Rwanda and establishing peace in the aftermath of the 1994 genocide, won the last election in 2003 by a similar margin. (11 August 2010)

7 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 TURKEY REVIEW | By Prof. Bülent Gökay

HISTORY TODAY: The Specter of Deep State (Contra-Guerrillas) Still Haunts Turkey

By Prof. Bülent Gökay* Since 33 members of Turkish ‘Deep State’ (Contra- Guerrilla), also known as Ergenekon, were seized in a police raid in late January 2008, the story of a Turkish contra-guerrilla organization has set Tur- key abuzz with rumour and speculation. What is organization, deep state, and how did it start in Turkey, and why? (1)

During the 1950s, US concerns were that the So- viet Union, through the activities of the local com- munist parties, would conquer the world. The CIA

The Specter of Deep State Still Haunts Turkey and the Pentagon came up with a plan to establish secret resistance groups within various countries that would fight back against the predicted com- munist take-over. These groups were called ‘stay- behind’ organizations, little cells of paramilitary units that would take on the communists behind enemy lines. To coordinate all these clandestine groups, a Super-NATO’ organization was set up under the control of the CIA in all the NATO coun- tries. The headquarters of this organization was in Brussels and was named as the Allied Coordina- tion Committee (ACC). Secret meetings were held Emblem of "Gladio", Italian branch of annually in which delegates from all the member the NATO "stay-behind" paramilitary countries took part. The official purpose of the organizations. The motto means "In organization was ‘to organize resistance using ir- silence I preserve freedom".

8 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection TURKEY REVIEW | By Prof. Bülent Gökay

regular warfare methods in case of a communist The goal of this organization, especially in the neo- occupation’. The organization had at its disposal colonial countries, was not limited to ‘combating special funds and weapons depots, and was not the external communist threat’. Under these stay- answerable for its activities under the laws of the behind programmes, anti-communist elements, individual member states. The organization’s often overtly fascist, were recruited, armed and branch in Italy was called ‘Gladio’, in Germany funded, supposedly as a bulwark against Soviet ‘Anti-Communist Assault Unit’, in Greece ‘Hide of aggression. Some have links to organized crime, the Red Buck’, and in Belgium ‘Glavia’. This ‘Super and many were involved in terrorist incidents -NATO also set up branch organisations in non- aimed at undermining the left opposition in gen- NATO countries, such as Austria and Switzerland. eral. There are also claims that the CIA employed The United States funded some wanted Nazis and these stay-behind groups fascists in setting up con- for decades, even though tra-guerrilla groups in an there was no communist effort to improve its tac- take-over in any of these tics. And in all NATO countries. However, some member countries, the of these groups eventually public and parliament did take up arms against were not informed about left-wing dissidents and the existence and activi- members of the local com- ties of these groups – only munist and socialist par- the few who took part in ties in their own countries. setting them up knew Probably one of the most about them. The 1959 powerful and deep-rooted military accord between of these covert action the Turkish and US gov- groups was set up in Tur- ernments envisage the key, immediately after Kenan Evren use of the contra- The 7th President of the Republic of Tur- Turkey’s membership of key and the leader of the 12 September guerrillas ‘also in the case NATO. 1980 military coup. of an internal rebellion against the regime’.

The Specter of Deep State Still Haunts Turkey Turkey became a member of NATO on 4 April 1952. A secret clause in the initial NATO agree- Although it was revealed through the ‘Gladio’ af- ment in 1949 required that before a state could fair in Italy in 1990 that such secret organisations join, it must have established a national security also existed in other member states of NATO, and authority to fight communism through clandestine that they maintained close contacts with these citizen cadres. This ‘stay-behind’ clause grew out countries secret intelligence services and had of a secret committee, set up at US insistence in been involved in a series of murders and bomb the Atlantic Pact, which was the forerunner of plots, the Turkish military, intelligence, and state NATO. As in all other NATO countries, a contra- authorities continued to deny the existence of any guerrilla centre was established in Turkey in Sep- such organization in Turkey. Only after ex-CIA tember 1952, to work against the threat of a chief William Colby revealed that ‘there is also ‘communist occupation’. It was called the such an organization in Turkey’ did the Turkish ‘Institute for War Research’, and was housed in authorities withdraw their claim that there was no the same building in Ankara that housed the US Turkish Gladio. On 3 December 1990, General aid organization JUSMAAT. Dogan Beyazit, President of the Hareket Dairesi –

9 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 TURKEY REVIEW | By Prof. Bülent Gökay

Operation Department of Turkey’s General Staff- and General Kemal Yilmaz, Commander of the Ozel Kuvvetler or Special Forces, issued a press statement. In it they revealed that the title of the special NATO organization in Turkey was Ozel Harp Dairesi – Special Warfare Department- and that its task was ‘to organize resistance in the case of communist occupation’.

The leader of the 12 September 1980 military coup, Kenan Evren, wrote in his memoirs that Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel had written to him in the 1970s about of his wish to engage the Special Warfare Department to deal with civil un- rest. Demirel denied this, but Bulent Ecevit, Prime Minister during the 1970s, revealed that ‘as Bulent Ecevit Four-time Prime Minister of Turkey Prime Minister I first became aware of its exis- tence in 1974 through requests from Semih San- ple were killed and 30 injured. The attacks were car, chief of the General Staff, for money for secret conducted in an extremely organized and well- payments to the Special Warfare Department. I prepared manner. was shocked’. Investigative journalist Ugur Mumcu, who lost his life as a result of a bomb In 1955, the Cyprus problem was the most impor- placed under his car on 24 January 1993, well tant ‘national issue’ in Turkey. At the end of Au- documented the activities of Turkey’s contra- gust 1955, a conference was arranged in London guerrillas, and it was later claimed that Mumcu between Turkey, Greece and the United Kingdom was murdered by those elements active in Turkish –the other parties involved- to determine the contra-guerrillas. status of Cyprus. Turkey’s security and intelli- gence leaders planned an activity to demonstrate The first significant action carried out by the the sensitivity of this issue within the Turkish Turkish contra-guerrilla after its foundation was community. The newspaper Istanbul Express on 6

The Specter of Deep State Still Haunts Turkey the bombing in 1955, in Thessalonica, Greece, of September 1955 published the news of the bomb- the building where Ataturk was born. Claiming ing of Ataturk’s birthplace in Thessaloniki. Stu- that the house had been bombed by Greeks, the dent protests started the same day and the pro- government, with the assistance of its supporting tests spread: the Turkish police not only tolerated press and the contra-guerrilla, tried to incite the the destruction, but also discriminated in how Turkish public against Greek and other non- they protected various Western embassies. In Muslim minorities living in Turkey. Between 6 some cases, guards were stationed around some and 7 September, hundreds of houses, shops, European legations even before the violence be- schools and churches, mostly belonging to Greeks, gan. However, only a single policeman appeared were burned and looted in Istanbul. Similar at the British residence, and he shortly drifted off. though rather less uncontrolled disturbances oc- Army troops meanwhile remained on the side curred elsewhere in Turkey wherever there was a streets, and when they entered the main avenues, Greek presence, especially in Izmir where the did nothing to restrain the looters. The brunt of families of Greek officers serving at NATO Re- the damage was sustained by Greek business gional Headquarters were evacuated. Three peo- premises and residential areas in old Istanbul, but

10 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection TURKEY REVIEW | By Prof. Bülent Gökay

the damage also extended to Greek centres along later admitted that even in office he was in the the Bosphorus, and Greek churches, with the dark about what some of them were. In 1987, for- Panayia, one of the oldest Byzantine structures, mer Deputy Prime Minister Sadi Kocas answered being gutted. questions put to him by journalists regarding the May Day 1977, where snipers fired at the crowd The government immediately declared that com- and altogether 36 people were killed: ‘It was not munists were responsible for the violence, and a one incident which occurred on May 1, 1977. witch-hunt against them began. Many people Ever since 1968-69 and the 1970s, there were a known to be close to the Turkish Communist series of at least seven to eight incidents a year ... Party were arrested or placed under police super- There were those contra-guerrillas who ar- vision. Years later, however, it was discovered ranged/ organized these. ...The contra-guerrillas that the events had been planned by elements are an organization made up of a number of peo- controlled by the Turkish con- ple who say “We are contra- tra-guerrilla, and that the guerrillas against guerrillas”.’ bomb had been planted by 21- “Susurluk revealed weird year old Oktay Engin, an agent connections between state In 1996, many suspicions of a who was later the Governor of "deep state" were confirmed officials and those who Nevsehir in 1992. The contra- when a car crashed in the town guerrillas played an important operate outside the limits of of Susurluk, near Ankara. Inside role during the 1971 coup. the law. It happened at a were a senior police chief, a Ziverbey House in Erenkoy- time when we had a lot of prominent politician and a Istanbul was rumoured to be a extra-judicial killings in wanted assassin. ‘Susurluk re- contra-guerrilla interrogation vealed weird connections be- Turkey,” centre, and generals working tween state officials and those with the contra-guerrillas who who operate outside the limits took people to this centre told of the law. It happened at a time their victims for the first time that they were pris- when we had a lot of extra-judicial killings in Tur- oners of the Turkey’s contra-guerrilla. Interroga- key,’ Cengiz Candar, a prominent newspaper col- tions were carried out by contra-guerrilla special- umnist, claimed. ists, most of whom had been trained by the CIA,

The Specter of Deep State Still Haunts Turkey who murdered or permanently injured hundreds ‘But the investigation stopped just as there was of people. Journalist Ugur Mumcu, who was ar- speculation it was reaching very sensitive spots, rested shortly after the coup, wrote later that his even the military establishment. That only con- torturers told him, ‘we are the contra-guerrilla. firmed the existence of these networks in the pub- Even the President of the Republic cannot touch lic consciousness.’ us’. General Kenan Evren, the leader of the 1980 military coup, acknowledged that the contra- Notes: guerrilla were involved in clandestine activities in that period, including the murder of Mahir Cayan * Bülent Gökay is Professor of International and other left-wing militants in Kizildere in 1972. Relations at Keele University.

Bulent Ecevit, Prime Minister in the 1970s, broke 1) Most of the data for this topic has already the silence on the deep state in the 1970s, ac- been analysed in my book, Soviet Eastern Policy knowledging that there were secret paramilitary and Turkey, 1920-1991 (Routledge, 2006), chap- operations working "within the government". He ters 5, 6 and 7.

11 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 TURKEY REVIEW | By Dr. H. Akın Ünver

Culture, Epistemology and Foreign Policy:

An Alternative Reading of U.S.-Turkish Relations Within the Context of the Middle East

Dr. H. Akın Ünver*

urkish-American relations have al- which defines a case in which two companies in- ways been defined as a ‘strategic part- tegrate and/or co-ordinate one or more compo- nership’. Almost without exception, nents of their enterprises in order to maximize decision-makers and diplomats at the profit in a short- or medium-term investment. Fal- Thighest levels point to a particular ‘importance of ling short of a full merger or acquisition, the de-

Culture, Epistemology and Foreign Policy the strategic partnership’ or ‘relationship’ when- fining element of a strategic partnership is this ever they try to define bilateral relations between particular investment goal and undertaking with- Turkey and the United States. Surprisingly at the out which such partnership wouldn’t take place. public level, we take this definition for far too granted, without really ask- ing what exactly a strategic partner- ship is, and how it is translated into policy practice.

‘Strategic partner- ship’ is in fact a business term,

12 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection TURKEY REVIEW | By Dr. H. Akın Ünver

In other words, strategic partnerships form in the took place due to a clumsily initiated, protracted face of a perceived profit or in order to pass a par- Iraq war and the wider regional instability it ticular, anticipated threshold, and fall apart when brought (1) the expected profit is received. In many ways, the common goal that had initiated the U.S.-Turkish We will not deal with this debate here, as it has strategic partnership was the Cold War and coun- been (and already is being) discussed widely by tering a common, perceived Soviet threat. This the American, European and Turkish scholarship. later evolved into cooperation during successive Rather, there is a subtle, yet very critical dimen- Gulf, Kosovo and Afghanistan wars, but came to a sion to this seeming stagnation in Turkish- halt during the earlier phases of the war in Iraq. American relations that elides almost all analyses When the third component (i.e. common goal) of a and observers: the dimension of culture and epis- strategic partnership is no longer there, the part- temology. This dimension became more explicit to nership falls apart like a tripod losing one of its me as I participated in a roundtable conference legs, and like many other strategic partnerships, recently that had brought a group of American without the ‘third leg’, we are witnessing an epi- and Turkish Middle East experts to discuss re- sodic downgrade in Turkish-American relations. gional issues and prospects of harmonizing the two countries’ foreign policies in the region. Sur- With some exceptions, the most recently preva- prisingly, following three full days of intense de- lent argument within the American scholarship bate that covered almost every aspect and argu- on U.S.-Turkish relations is that these relations ment regarding the U.S.-Turkish relations within are undergoing a period of structural stagnation. the context of the Middle East, the debate did not Some arguments even propose that Turkey is produce a conclusion of severe and existential leaving ‘the West’ and ‘turning towards the disagreement or incompatibility between the U.S. East’ (rarely offering a proper operational defini- and Turkey. Be it the convergence of the primary tion of what these cardinal directions culturally objectives in the region (Arab-Israeli peace, a nu- imply) and that Turkish-American relations are clear Iran, promotion of democracy and economic no longer a relationship of cooperation, but one of interaction among the countries of the region), rivalry. Such analyses, with varying degrees of importance of issue linkages in foreign policy and validity, propose that Turkish foreign pol-

icy is becoming increasingly Islamized in a Culture, Epistemology and Foreign Policy radical fashion, as Turkey seeks to de- velop closer and more advertized rela- tions with Iran, Syria and Hamas, rather than with more moderate Muslim coun- tries such as Egypt, Jordan or Lebanon. Interestingly, ‘the West’ (again, whatever concrete and operational policy definition this may entail) is also divided in provid- ing explanations as to why Turkey is ‘lost’; while the United States frequently blames the European Union for refusing member- ship to Turkey because of ‘short-sighted, Recep electoral concerns’, the European Union Tayyip (most recently Manuel Barosso) had iden- Barack Obama Erdogan tified that Turkey’s so-called ‘axial shift’

13 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 TURKEY REVIEW | By Dr. H. Akın Ünver

the importance of ‘soft-power’ in policy formula- tional influence, as determined by an Ottoman tion, Obama and Erdoğan governments appeared imperial legacy’ that also includes the Middle almost identical in aim and priorities. Yet when East, to which Turkey, according to Davutoğlu, these ultimate goals were addressed in detail and has ‘responsibilities that are dictated by historical in a micro-managing – operational fashion, there and organic ties’. Also containing Haas-ian neo- were serious disagreements and acute epistemo- functionalist elements, Turkey’s foreign policy (at logical differences. In other words, there was little least in principle) seeks to create economic inter- incompatibility between Turkish-American pri- dependencies that would ideally ‘spill-over’ to mary objectives in the Middle East regarding stronger, peaceful and stabilizing political coop- ‘what’ to do, but when it came to ‘how’ to do it, it eration. Therefore, Turkey’s foreign policy is a was as if both sides were speaking a different lan- conscious break from Turkey’s realist / hard- guage. politics priorities and pre- scribes a new approach Those who are familiar with based on culture, eco- the post-2003 Turkish for- nomic relations and iden- eign policy are aware of the tity. Of course, whether concept of identity within this theoretical approach the ‘strategic depth doctrine’ has been successful or not and how it relates to Tur- in policy practice can be key’s approach towards its subject to further debate. immediate neighborhood. In many ways, Turkey’s current As opposed to a more foreign policy doctrine em- elaborate Turkish foreign phasizes the importance of policy, which has deeper culture on external relations academic and intellectual and for this reason it is (or at roots (though this doesn’t least appears to be) closer to mean that it is always the English constructivist right), the U.S. foreign pol- school; more specifically to Prof. icy seems to be currently

Culture, Epistemology and Foreign Policy Barry Buzan’s regional secu- Barry Buzan ‘up in the air’, making a rity complex theory. Empha- profound transition from sizing regionalism along cultural lines in a post- the previous administration’s confrontational ap- Cold War unipolar global system within which the proach into a subtler and perhaps more appeas- ‘uni-pole’ is finding it increasingly difficult to ing line. Therefore, the United States is currently maintain its undisputed hegemony, the regional shifting from a tried, tested and failed foreign pol- security complex theory (as materialized in the icy into a doctrine that is evaluated by some as a AKP’s foreign policy) looks at the world through reformulation of Wilsonianism with a dose of the lens of ‘regional security complexes’ whose Clintonian approach that emphasizes inter- processes of constructing what a friend/foe is personal relations and less advertised belliger- chiefly determined by culture – which in turn can ence. An April 2010 expert panel discussion on be defined in religious, geographical and histori- ForeignPolicy.com website (2) had evaluated cal narrative lines. Foreign Minister Ahmet Da- Obama’s Chief of Staff Rahm Emmanuel’s state- vutoğlu, in his ‘Strategic Depth’ book that serves ment that Obama’s foreign policy resembled more as the magnum opus of Turkish foreign policy, to George H. W. Bush’s cautious/defensive realism explicitly proposes a ‘Turkish zone of civiliza- rather than his son’s discursively aggressive con-

14 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection TURKEY REVIEW | By Dr. H. Akın Ünver

frontational offensive realist policies. While the American perspective and why the U.S. Middle ForeignPolicy.com panel had different views on East policy is seen as ‘mechanic’ and ‘elementary’ Obama’s Emmanuel-imposed credentials as a for- from a Turkish perspective. Surprisingly when it eign policy ‘realist or idealist’ or ‘realpolitician or comes to the Middle East, both the United States Wilsonian’, they did not, could not move beyond and Turkey arrive at the same conclusions, de- the simple dichotomy of ‘cold-blooded versus spite having completely different approaches. friendly’, ‘hard versus soft’ or ‘realistic versus am- Therefore, the most important observation with bitious’ in defining U.S. foreign policy. It was very regard to American and Turkish approaches to- surprising to see perhaps some of the most senior wards the Middle East is that, when it comes to and highest-end experts of U.S. foreign policy be- end results and primary objectives, there is little ing unable to add a new dimension to policy disagreement between the United States and Tur- analysis beyond the simplest realism-liberalism key. However, come methodologies and opera- debate that was both academically and intellectu- tional approaches, Turkey and the United States ally outgrown decades ago. More worrisome per- become two cooks in the same kitchen. Turkey’s haps, was that not even a single senior expert had policies come from a normative/culturalist per- introduced any argu- spective that is deeply ment that analyzed the intellectual and his- role of perception, cul- torical and also has a ture, social norms, de- clear awareness of the “...Turkey and the United States pendency, meaning or role of culture in re- discursive construc- become two cooks that want to gional politics (i.e. tion in U.S. foreign pol- cook the same thing with how to do or say icy. Labels such as different ingredients and cooking things), whereas the ‘irrational’, techniques.” United States ap- ‘calculating’ and proaches from a ‘predictable’ were fly- strictly realist and Car- ing around in a rigidly tesian rational-choice and almost unanimously rational choice based point of view. Therefore, when both sides lay debate, which did not even briefly witness a dis- down their arguments, the American side per-

cussion evaluating the influence of culture on ceives Turkey’s positions as ‘wishful thinking’, Culture, Epistemology and Foreign Policy what a particular country may define ‘rational’. ‘ideological’, ‘touchy-feely’ and uncertain, Even more worrisome was that instead of defin- whereas the Turkish side perceives American po- ing ‘rationality’ as a social and cultural construc- sitions as ‘unnecessarily harsh’, ‘cold’, ‘too hasty’ tion, these experts were taking a strictly Cartesian and sometimes ‘culturally ignorant’. understanding of binary rationality as granted, exposing a serious intellectual narrowness in the Both Turks and Americans that think this meth- U.S. foreign policy debate. It was as if constructiv- odological difference will cause rivalry or incom- ist, normative and post-structuralist strands patibility are needlessly throwing a mutually never made it to the right side of the Atlantic. beneficial and promising long-term relationship away – because methodologies aside, Turkish- When one compares the terminology and depth American relations are not ultimately conflictual. that is used to discuss U.S. foreign policy with that There is a lot of dot connecting to do for sure, but of Turkish foreign policy, it becomes somewhat this requires more engagement; not less. Both clear why Turkey’s Middle East policy becomes Turkish culturalism and American pragmatism ‘incomprehensible’ and ‘unrealistic’ from an are valuable approaches towards Middle Eastern

15 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 TURKEY REVIEW | By Dr. H. Akın Ünver

politics and work ing from a rigid ‘strategic partnership’ into a more best when utilized complex, multi-layered interaction in which cul- together. The best ture and perception will play a far more impor- way to utilize this tant role than ever. It would be wrong to demote convergence in this relationship for the sake of both sides; in- “Perhaps the rela- primary aims and stead and to the contrary, there must be a re- tionship can be given difference in newed effort in engagement and more willingness a new and positive methodologies to listen. More crucially than ever, U.S.-Turkish push by proposing comes through relations require culturally transliterate bureau- an exchange pro- giving Turkey crats, analysts and leaders, as well as programs gram for the junior more space to ma- and organizations that will put effort into facilitat- neuver regionally ing this transliteration. and mid-career dip- and ‘do its own lomats between the thing’ in the Mid- Perhaps the relationship can be given a new and US Department of dle East, during positive push by proposing an exchange program State and Turkish which the United for the junior and mid-career diplomats between Ministry of Foreign States could re- the US Department of State and Turkish Ministry Affairs.” main watchful and of Foreign Affairs. This will ensure that important ‘receive’, rather things will not get lost in translation in this im- than ‘transmit’ portant partnership and will sow the seeds of constantly, without acting too dramatically and longer-term cooperation between Turkey and the allow Turkey to pursue all subtle and cultural op- United States. tions that feel foreign to the United States. This is specifically valid at a time when the US Depart- Notes: ment of the State is critically lacking personnel with necessary language and cultural training in * Dr. Ünver is the Ertegün Lecturer of Turk- its endeavors in the Middle East; most critically ish Studies at Princeton University. He with regard to Iran (3). Turkey on the other hand would like to thank the University of Michi- must remain in close consultation and interaction gan’s Center for European Studies and Culture, Epistemology and Foreign Policy with the United States, putting effort into making Center for the Middle East and North Afri- sure that it is understood well in Washington. If can Studies, where he drafted this article as Turkey ends up exhausting all ‘soft-power’ alter- a part of his post-doctoral research. natives and still remains unable to decrease the tension in the region, and if – for example – Iran 1) http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/ comes to a point that both Turkey and the United news-214060-102-eu-us-engage-in-blame- States find unacceptable, then the United States game-over-who-lost-turkey.html can act as a ‘safety net’. But unlike Iraq war build- up, this time Turkey will know that it has tried all 2) http://www.foreignpolicy.com/ other alternatives and will be more supportive of articles/2010/04/14/george_hw_obama increasing US involvement in the region at the 3) See for example; http:// governmental, executive-branch and public levels. blog.foreignpolicy.com/ posts/2007/06/21/ The Middle East at large will soon become the the_state_departments_arabic_problem_is_ missing ‘third leg’ of U.S.-Turkish strategic part- worse_than_you_think nership. However, this relationship is also evolv-

16 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem

‘Nonoy’ and the Future of Peace in Mindanao, Philippines

By Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem* The 2009 cessation of governmental offensive to elimi- the population in the islands of Mindanao, Sulu, nate key figures of the separatist Moro Islamic and Palawan, but by 1990, due to the central gov- Liberation Front (MILF) has imparted fresh impe- ernment’s resettlement policy of Christians, this tus to the peace process in Mindanao, Philippines. had gone down to 19 per cent (2). These demo- Moreover, with the election of Benigno Simeon graphic changes were accompanied by other shifts Cojuangco Aquino III (also known as ‘Nonoy’), son under the colonial policies of Spain and the United of the former President Corazon Aquino, as the States, having a detrimental impact on free and 15th President of the country in May 2010, the equal communal access to water, forests, land and peace process in Mindanao is likely to enter a new other natural resources. Furthermore, the sultan- phase. However, a closer look to the complexity of ates were undermined and rights of Moros and its root causes and dynamics of other indigenous peoples in its historical development terms of traditional land hold- shows that the protracted con- ings, occupancy were invali- flict in Mindanao which killed dated (3). over 160,000 people will re- quire a high level of political Islam traces a long lineage in ‘Nonoy’ and the Future of Peace in Mindanao determination, well seasoned the region. Introduced by diplomatic skills and a full com- Muslim traders in the late 14th mitment from all parties in- Century, it imparted structure volved. and unity amongst the diverse ethno-linguistic groups of In Mindanao, there are 13 western Mindanao, and en- Islamized ethno-linguistic abled the establishment of groups who are known as the control over non-Muslim in- ‘Bangsamoro people’ (1) and habitants. Islam also created a the non-Muslim indigenous dialectical opposition to West- tribes are collectively called the ern influences with the advent ‘Lumads’ and comprise of more of Spanish and American influ- Benigno Simeon Cojuangco than 20 ethno-linguistic groups. Aquino III, also known as Nonoy ence in the archipelago. Fur- In 1903, Muslims comprised Aquino, 15th President of the thermore, the post independ- approximately 76 per cent of Philippines ence Philippine state is best

17 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem

described as premature and weak, devoid of a co- timated strength of 8,000 to 11,000 combatants. hesive national consciousness and relative auton- The only groups that could be classified as ji- omy from the parochial interests of dominant Fili- hadist, Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) and the Raja So- pino social classes and powerful elites. Hence the laiman Movement (RSM), were offshoots of these state failings in the arena of democratic, egalitar- separatist groups. Many Muslims view the Philip- ian social service delivery and governance seem pine conflict as a legitimate jihad, but inside the intrinsically related to the political economy of country jihad largely serves to create a common conflict in Mindanao. According to the 2006 offi- Moro-Muslim identity. Finally, inter-group conflict cial poverty statistics more than half Muslim is reinforced by intra tribal rido (blood feud) households are classified as poor and poverty in which draw on such traditional concepts as mara- the region reached 55.3 percent in 2006, a 9.9 per- bat (honour), which also define relations between cent increase from 2003’s 45.4 percent (4). the various Islamic and non-Islamic tribes. These clan feuds tend to perpetu- The revivalist responses ate a cycle of vengeance amongst the Muslim tribes and retaliation with fre- for which socio-economic quent civilian killings, po- inequalities faced by Min- litical rivalry, land dis- danao have played a sig- “It was clear that the conflict has putes and crimes like theft, nificant role, were trans- created a strong a ‘warlordism’ non-payments of debts, formed first from the Mus- culture in many parts of the island. elopement. This source of lim Independence Move- Every small settlement seems to conflict perpetuation and ment (MIM) to the Moro have become a fiefdom of a escalation is disruptive for National Liberation Front particular clan or powerful family, civilians since with the ini- (MNLF). Over time, Muslim and the use of violence and tiation of a rido conflict, resistance has splintered corruption for political power is a the members of the kin with some groups demand- common practice.” group or the community ing autonomy and others are often immobilized, on calling for independence. account of them being po- For example, peace nego- tential targets for retalia- tiations and a policy of accommodation on part of tion.

‘Nonoy’ and the Future of Peace in Mindanao the central government over the years resulted in a progressive dilution of the MNLF’s stand and For a British Academy funded field research on culminated in the 1976 Tripoli Agreement which the role of family and community in the recruit- created the Autonomous Region of Muslim Min- ment of youth in conflict I was in Mindanao be- danao (ARMM) composed of 13 provinces as a de- tween 9 and 27 June 2010 (5). Working with Su- mocratic palliative for Muslim aspirations. Later kanya Podder, one of my doctoral students and a the Jakarta Peace Agreement of 1996 launched a team of local researchers, we conducted a ques- Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration tionnaire survey with over 400 households in four (DDR) process for the integration of the MNLF different provinces of Mindanao (North Cotabato, cadre into the mainstream of Philippine polity and Maguindanao and Lanao del Sur and Lanao del civilian life was expected to bring about a marked Norte) in order to carry out a spatial disaggrega- de-escalation in tensions. This agreement how- tion and look at the youth participation in the ever gave impetus to a renewal of separatist aims MILF from different clans and tribes. It was during of the Muslims under the banner of a rival this field research that we observed once again, Maguindanao based group – the MILF with an es- the difficulties surrounding the possibility of a

18 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem

be able to return their homes and livelihoods, but “As a first-100-day-in-office commitment more significantly, whether or not there will be a by the President Aquino, it is hoped that peaceful political solution to the conflict is yet to over 25,000 internally displaced persons be seen! will be able to return their homes and livelihoods, but more significantly, Notes: whether or not there will be a peaceful * Alpaslan Özerdem is Professor of Peace- political solution to the conflict is building at Coventry University. yet to be seen!” 1) Jamial A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and peaceful conflict resolution in Mindanao. It was Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and clear that the conflict has created a strong a Development in Southern Philippines (Iligan ‘warlordism’ culture in many parts of the island. City: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Every small settlement seems to have become a Research, MSU-IIT Press 1999) pp.7-9; Sam- fiefdom of a particular clan or powerful family, uel K. Tan, Internationalization of the Bang- and the use of violence and corruption for political samoro Struggle (Quezon City: The Univer- power is a common practice. Once such a political sity of Philippines Centre for Integrative and power has been achieved, then the exploitation of Development Struggle, Philippines 1995); office for personal benefits and cronyism is exer- The Bangsamoro people include the Badjao, cised by many local politicians, which perpetuates Sangil, Palawani, Iranun, Kalagan, Tausug, the complex political problems of the island fur- Jama-Mapun, Samal, Kaligbugan, Yakan, ther. There is a high level suspicion among ordi- Molbog and the more well known Maguin- nary people towards not only the politicians at the danao and Maranao. national level but also their very own local repre- 2) Jubair, 1999 cited in Eddie L. Quitoriano and sentatives. In other words, bringing peace to Min- Francisco M. Theofelize, Their War, Our danao through a political settlement would need Struggle: Stories of Children in Central Min- to address a set of widespread and entrenched danao (Quezon City: Save The Children, UK problems with bad governance and socio-political 2004) p.12. insecurities. 3) Astrid S. Tuminez, Ancestral Domain in Com- parative Perspective USIP Special Report.

‘Nonoy’ and the Future of Peace in Mindanao The current peace talks which are hosted by Ma- 151/September (Washington D.C.: USIP laysia have a history of 10 years and since 2004 it 2005); Dennis S. Erasga, ‘Ancestral Domain has been assisted by an international monitoring Claim: The Case of the Indigenous People in team. Recently, both the European Union and Nor- Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)’ Asia-Pacific So- way have also joined the monitoring team, bring- cial Science Review 8/1 (2008) pp: 33-44. ing further impetus and hopes for a peace deal in 4) See the latest poverty statistics of the Philip- the near future. A new chief negotiator for the pines at their official website: government has just been appointed and as a law www.nscbp.ph/poverty professor it is expected that his expertise will en- 5) The field research benefited from the coop- able a constructive engagement on a number of eration of a number of local NGOs such as contentious issues such as indigenous people’s Mindanao Tulong Bakwet, Birthdev, KI Vol- rights, ancestral homeland and access to environ- unteers, MTB Incorporated and RiskAsia mental resources. As a first-100-day-in-office without which undertaking field research in commitment by the President Aquino, it is hoped an environment like Mindanao would have that over 25,000 internally displaced persons will been impossible.

19 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 Advertisement

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Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti

Ambassador of the Republic of Kosovo to the UK

n this exclusive interview with Dr. Muhamet CESRAN’s K. Kaan Renda and Ozgur Hamiti Tufekci, Dr. Muhamet Hamiti, the first Ambassador of the Republic Iof Kosovo to the UK, discusses Kosovo’s independence process, its role in the Balkans and international system, its past and future, and the relationships with Serbia, European countries, and Turkey.

CESRAN: Let me start with the first question. Actually, it is a very cliché question you have probably been asked many times. It is about the international recogni-

Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti tion of Kosovo.

Seemingly, the main international political priority of Kosovo is to be recognised by other states. In fact, Kosovo virtually reached a certain level of success on this issue. Nonetheless, there are still a number of states resisting the recognition. What do you think the main biases and hesitations of some states not to recognize Kosovo as a sovereign and independent state in the Balkans?

Dr. Hamiti: Well. The process of recognition started immediately after we de- clared our independence. 70 countries that have recognized Kosovo to this day [14 September 2010; the latest one being Honduras which recognized Kosovo earlier in September] amount to more or less two thirds or perhaps 70 percent of the GDP of the world. 22 out of 27 EU countries have recognized us. 7 out of the G8 countries have recognized us. We have obtained recognitions from all conti- nents. The internal dynamics of each and every nation, of course, has an impact in the process of recognitions. The initial stage of recognitions was, of course, more

21 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 INTERVIEW | By K. Kaan Renda - Özgür Tüfekçi

intensive because it was about the countries that saw in Kosovo the birth of a nation in its own right as a sui generis case, which indeed Kosovo is. And the 70 recognitions that we have received have been made on the basis of this. Now some countries have got their own reasons for either taking longer to review the request and take a decision, which I believe is the case with most of the coun- tries, or simply have their own concerns, apprehensions for a few. Russia’s ear- lier opposition to Kosovo’s independence is easing. Kosovo has embraced the world and the world is almost universally reciprocating by welcoming Kosovo in its fold.

Let me conclude this answer by saying that an important UN body, the Interna- tional Court of Justice (ICJ) has legitimised Kosovo’s independence. In an opinion the ICJ rendered on 22 July 2010, it said Kosovo’s declaration of independence did not violate international law or indeed any UN related document. The ICJ ruled at the request of Serbia and indeed the UN General Assembly, which had referred the matter of Kosovo’s declaration of independence to the top judicial body of the UN.

The General Assembly of the UN, through a resolution adopted unanimously on 9 September 2010, welcomed the ICJ opinion and therefore, by default, implicitly legitimized Kosovo’s declaration of independence. Russia and Serbia also voted for this resolution. The ICJ ruling of 22 July as well as the UNGA resolution of 9 September have cleared the way for other countries, which have so far withheld recognition of our country, to actually move ahead and join the club of Kosovo’s recognizers.

CESRAN: Apart from international recognition, what are the key political prob- lems and obstacles for Kosovo on the road to integrate successfully into the in-

Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti ternational society? Do you see any problems?

Dr. Hamiti: The process of Kosovo’s integration into the international system is well underway. We are, besides being recognized by 70 countries, members of the IMF and the World Bank. We hope and believe to become soon a member of EBRD, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, based here in “Kosovo has London. We, of course, intend to integrate with the EU and NATO. We have had a huge international presence in Kosovo in the past decade; this has been greatly embraced the world downsized compared to what we had back in 1999, namely after the war. We and the world is have a significant NATO presence in Kosovo now , but our goal is to become a member of NATO. We have an EU-led civilian mission in Kosovo – called EULEX - almost universally - which is there to monitor the implementation of Kosovo’s independence pack- reciprocating by age. As five EU countries still do not recognize Kosovo, our integration into the welcoming Kosovo EU will take a bit longer perhaps. Technically, it can only be finalised once we have been recognised by each and every member, and have fulfilled other rele- in its fold.” vant membership criteria. We are, however, already involved in a low-profile integration process with the EU.

22 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection INTERVIEW | By K. Kaan Renda - Özgür Tüfekçi

CESRAN: You just mentioned the EU process and EU mission in Kosovo. What are the pros and cons of having an EU mission in Kosovo for the development of your country and for the stabilization and democratization of Kosovo?

Dr. Hamiti: Kosovo declared its independence on the 17th of February 2008 on the basis of President Ahtisaari Settlement package, which called for independ- ence, but also a period of supervised independence initially, for which an interim civilian mission, focussing mainly on the rule of law and security areas, would be needed. As I said earlier, this mission, under the stewardship of the International Civilian Office (ICO), currently headed by Peter Feith, would also oversee the implementation of this package during the period of supervised independence. We have benefited a lot from the international presence in Kosovo so far. Of course, independence of Kosovo has brought peace of mind to the majority of the people of Kosovo. Independence has brought peace and stability, but also security, within and without Kosovo, in the wider Southeastern Europe. So, I be- lieve we will be very soon running Kosovo as an independent state on our own without the need for even this kind of mission, which is welcomed and, as I said, beneficial. The process of integration into the EU which has been always a long one for each and every nation aspiring to it -- especially from the former com- munist and socialist countries -- will take a while. There is a strong will on the part of the people of Kosovo to see Kosovo firmly integrated politically and eco- nomically within the EU. Kosovo is already in Europe in terms of values and cul- ture.

CESRAN: Do you think the EU shares the same vision with Kosovo about the membership of Kosovo and the future of the Balkans?

Dr. Hamiti: If you think the EU, of course it is a unique political and economic

union. The Union maintains, sometimes with difficulties, a common policy vis-a- Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti vis the Balkan countries, which says that they should one day become members of the EU on the basis of merit, that is individually. Now whether they have the same vision, I can’t speak for them. I know for a fact that the major partners of Kosovo within the EU are strong supporters of Kosovo’s independence in the first place, and eventually of Kosovo’s integration into the EU and indeed within the international system as a whole. “The process of integration into the EU CESRAN: How do you think Kosovo at the present or in the future can contribute which has been always to the endeavors of international society to secure the region? a long one for each and every nation Dr. Hamiti: Kosovo is a peaceful nation which has struggled a lot for its freedom, aspiring to it -- democracy and independence. This nation-building process has been a long one, especially from the a painful one, a tragic one in some respects, but a proud one and a successful former communist and one. Kosovo has already contributed to bringing peace and stability to that part socialist countries -- of Europe, Southeastern Europe, by being one of the entities of former Yugosla- will take a while.” via which resisted longest these calls for war which came from Belgrade. Serbia

23 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 INTERVIEW | By K. Kaan Renda - Özgür Tüfekçi

actually waged four wars of aggression in the region. Some people would dub them local wars. Be it as it may, they were vicious wars, which resulted in more than 200.000 killed in the region, more than 12.000 in Kosovo alone. Serbia, using the former Yugoslav army cadre and equipment, attacked Slovenia, Croa- tia, Bosnia, and Kosovo, all fellow Federal entities. We in Kosovo waged a peace- ful and political struggle during the 1990s in a bid to build up and independent. But frankly we were rebuffed by Serbia, our occupier, which wanted to dominate the lives of non-Serbs in the former Yugoslavia, which was at the root of the destruction of Yugoslavia actually. So, Kosovo again as a peaceful nation has certainly contributed to the international freedom and democracy in its own right.

CESRAN: Dr. Hamiti, as you may be aware of, nowadays, Turkey has launched an initiative on peace building in the Balkans and has hosted a Trilateral Summit of Turkey--Bosnia-Herzegovina--Serbia began in Istanbul on 24th of April, and Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has visited Serbia very recently.

How would this political climate affect the position of Kosovo in the Balkans, es- pecially the relations between Kosovo and Turkey?

Dr. Hamiti: The relations between Kosovo and Turkey are exceptionally good. Turkey was among the first countries to recognize Kosovo’s independence. Tur- key has been a great lobbyist for Kosovo’s recognition especially within the Or- ganization of Islamic Countries (OIC) and the Arab League. Now the level of rec- ognition that we have received from these organizations is not one that would have made us very happy actually, because a considerable number of countries from these two blocs have yet to recognize Kosovo’s independence. Turkey has nevertheless played its own role. As far as Turkey’s role in the Balkans, the For-

Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti eign Minister of Turkey has made this a sort of priority for his own agenda I be- lieve. Every effort on the part of Turkey to convince Serbia to come to terms with the reality of it being a state within the current borders of Serbia and dis- owning its culture of dominance over the rest is more than welcome. The prob- lem we have with Serbia is that they continue to be in denial of what they did in the former Yugoslavia, namely of having caused four wars which resulted in the killing of more than 200.000 people. So Turkey is in a good position to actually “The relations help them to get over this. between Kosovo and Turkey are CESRAN: Needles to say, Serbia’s boycotts and isolationist politics towards Kos- exceptionally good. ovo are very well known by everyone who are interested in the Balkans. For in- Turkey was among stance, recently Serbia has refused to attend the inauguration of the new Croa- the first countries to tian president Ivo Josipovic because of the presence of Kosovo President Fatmir Sejdiu. Another example is the pan-Balkan summit held in Brdo, Slovenia. Serbia recognise Kosovo’s did not take part in this summit because of the attendance of Kosovo as an inde- independence. “ pendent state.

24 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection INTERVIEW | By K. Kaan Renda - Özgür Tüfekçi

What does Serbia or the existence of Serbia as a state in the Balkans mean to Kosovo or to you?

Dr. Hamiti: Nothing beyond its status as a neighbourly country; formerly a fel- low entity in the former Yugoslavia and an occupier of Kosovo, now a neighbourly country.

CESRAN: Do you think it is a partner, a friend, an enemy?

Dr. Hamiti: We do not have enemies. They may see us as an enemy, but we do not have enemies.

Serbia is one of the Balkan states, one of us. It is and cannot be a regional leader. Regrettably, Serbia continues to be in a state of denial about its recent genocidal legacy. The leadership in Belgrade has for too long being pampered by some governments on its alleged democratic credentials. Serbia boycotted the inaugu- ration of the Croatian president, but the Croatian President visited Serbia in the summer. It is actually a matter for Serbia to redress its relationships with every- body in the former Yugoslavia. My strict and very blunt answer was that they cannot be a leader in the region. They can be one of us, independent nations working on a par with each other. Nothing more.

CESRAN: Do you see any ground for optimism in the future relationships be- tween Kosovo and Serbia?

Dr. Hamiti: Kosovo is a democratic and sovereign state. Kosovo is standing on its feet economically and politically. Kosovo is doing better economically without Serbia on its back. And, if Serbia one day comes to terms with the reality of inde-

pendent Kosovo, that is better for them and for us. So, the ball is on their side Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti and Kosovo and Serbia should look towards the future where they can live on a par with each other and can be together within the EU, with Brussels as their capital.

CESRAN: I would like to move on to Kosovo and Albania relationships and what is the importance of Albania for the identity of Kosovo? “It is actually a matter for Serbia to redress Dr. Hamiti: Kosovo has got its unique identity which has a crucial ethnic Alba- its relationships with nian element to it, but not an exclusive one. As a state in its own right Kosovo everybody in the for- aspires towards these European integrations and these values just like Albania mer Yugoslavia. My is. So, Kosovo and Albania have a lot in common, ad both countries gravitate to- strict and very blunt wards the same values and aims as it were. Albania has made crucial contribu- tions to Kosovo’s freedom and independence. Tirana has made crucial progress answer was that they in terms of their economic development. They are members of NATO and are can not be a leader in involved in this process of integration into the EU. There is a special relationship the region. They can between Kosovo and Albania. be one of us,...”

25 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 INTERVIEW | By K. Kaan Renda - Özgür Tüfekçi

CESRAN: With the declaration of independence; we suppose one of the privi- leges of your Embassy is to establish some close ties between the Diaspora in the UK and the Nation in Kosovo.

How do you support Kosovars in Diaspora to keep their sense of belonging to Kosovo especially in a foreign country such as the UK?

Dr. Hamiti: Our diaspora everywhere has been an integral part of the independ- ence drive from day one. Therefore the independence of Kosovo -- in terms of the establishment of Embassies abroad including this one in London -- is also part of their contribution. The Parliament of Kosovo has this year passed a law on diaspora which provides for, I would say, basic structures to assist the dias- pora maintain its attachment towards its nation. Of course that is what the Gov- ernment of the Republic of Kosovo will pursue.

CESRAN: My next question is regarding the Diaspora and the national ties.

Do you think is this policy compatible with the mission of Kosovo to enhance national bounds among the domestic identities that are living in Kosovo?

Dr. Hamiti: Kosovo, as I said earlier, has a strong Albanian element to its iden- tity, but Kosovo has people of other ethnic backgrounds living there and each and every community within Kosovo is well respected and well represented and of course Kosovo as a state and a multi-ethnic society will support the existence of each and every community as part of the very fabric of this new nation in the political sense of the word ‘nation’.

CESRAN: HE, my question will be about low politics and Eurovision song con-

Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti test.

What is the importance of Eurovision Song Contest from Kosovo’s perspective?

Dr. Hamiti: For me, frankly, a much more important one is the World Cup. ...Kosovo as a state and a multi-ethnic We have emerged as an independent nation. Now we are gradually becoming a society will support full member of the international system, not only in the political component of it the existence of each but also in other aspects. We will soon I believe be part of the international sys- and every community tem and be allowed to play football and compete in other sports internationally, as part of the very but also to have our own musicians participate in the Eurovision song contest. fabric of this new nation in the political CESRAN: This last question is about any unification opportunity with Albania. sense of the word ‘nation’. From one perspective, the position of Kosovo and Albania is similar to the posi- tion of Azerbaijan and Turkey, concerning the identity.

26 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection INTERVIEW | By K. Kaan Renda - Özgür Tüfekçi

This similarity is an issue as 92 per cent of the population of Kosovo consists of Albanian. Do you think that in the future there will be lots of motives towards “If Azerbaijan and unification of Albania and Kosovo because of Kosovo’s Albanian elements? Turkey had lots of things in common, Dr. Hamiti: Kosovo is a democratic and independent country, on the basis of the will of its own people, but also as a result of an internationally-sanctioned proc- Azerbaijan would ess that led to the final status of Kosovo being an independent nation. I have recognise Kosovo, fought myself for this. Kosovo will be in the EU, just like other countries, includ- just like Turkey did it ing Albania, on a par with each other there. In the 21st century peoples and na- on day one.” tions strive towards a modern unification in shared values and interest within a larger Europe and wider.

One final observation. If Azerbaijan and Turkey had lots of things in common, Azerbaijan would recognise Kosovo, just like Turkey did it on day one.

CESRAN: Thank you very much for your time and the interview.

Notes: * K. Kaan Renda is Doctoral Researcher in Department of European Studies at King’s College London.

* Özgür Tüfekçi is Doctoral Researcher in Department of War Studies at King’s College London.

Dr Muhamet Hamiti was born in Dumnice village, of the Podujevo municipality in Kosovo, in 1964. He earned his BA in English language and literature at the University of Pristina in 1987, his MA in English literature at Zagreb University (Croatia) in 1990 and his PhD in English literature (with a thesis on the prose

fiction of James Joyce and Joseph Conrad) at the University of Pristina in 2006. Interview with HE Dr. Muhamet Hamiti In the 1990s, Hamiti was an independent scholar at the University of East Anglia and at Birkbeck College, University of London. Hamiti taught English literature and theory of literature at the University of Pristina from 1989 to 2008. He is the author of a monograph book on English literature, a range of literary essays, as well as literary translations from and into English. From 1991 to 1999, Dr Hamiti worked at the Kosovo Information Centre (KIC) – Qendra per Informim e Kosoves (QIK) – as editor-in-chief for the English service. He edited and trans- lated into English a number of publications that the KIC published during those years relating to the Kosovars’ struggle for freedom and independence. Hamiti was affiliated with Ibrahim Rugova’s Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), the first non-communist party in that part of the world, and was a media advisor and spokesman to the President of Kosovo, Dr Ibrahim Rugova, from mid 2002 until his death in January 2006. From 2006 to 2008, Dr Hamiti served as a sen- ior political advisor to Rugova’s successor to the presidency of Kosovo, Dr Fat- mir Sejdiu. Dr Hamiti has been Charge´ d’Affaires a.i. of the Republic of Kosovo to London since October 2008

27 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 CAUCASUS REVIEW | By Zaur Shiriyev

Kosovo and Karabakh: Looking back at the Future

By Zaur Shiriyev*

International Court of Justice non-binding opinion was deliberately limited to (ICJ) ruled on 22 July that the specific facts of the Kosovo case, and con- The Kosovo's declaration of se- ferred no right on separatists to declare their cession from Serbia did not break international own independence. Also, the court's advisory law. In fact, the International Court of Justice's opinions have no compulsory power, although

Kosovo and Karabakh: Looking back theat Future

The International Court of Justice is based in the Peace Palace in the Hague, Netherlands.

28 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection CAUCASUS REVIEW | By Zaur Shiriyev

they may have political “Is the declaration of inde- consequences. But as the pendence in accordance instant reaction of many The states that with international law.” At governments to the July recognized Kos- this time, to give a fair de- 22 decision makes clear, “ cision over the “Kosovo the court's ruling is being ovo’s independence Case” and its links to other regarded - more political have, on the other ethnic conflicts recent his- decision. tory is more explanative hand, argued that and we need to reference International Court of Kosovo is unique and on it. Justice's non-binding opinion had the catalytic that its recognition, Lessons from History effect starting discussion therefore, does not on Nagorno-Karabakh Kosovo’s unilateral decla- set a dangerous conflict. Indeed, both ration of independence on Azerbaijan and Armenian precedent which February 2008 was brief, politicians responded the might encourage it did not change the decision of ICJ on Kosovo. world, as some feared, but N a go r no - Ka r a ba kh ' s other secessionist it has ushered in a new separatist leadership has movements.” phase in the post-imperial welcomed a United Na- – “international law”. Ar- tions court ruling uphold- guably, when Kosovo uni- ing the legitimacy of Kosovo's secession from laterally declared its independence from Serbia, Serbia and affirmed its applicability to the Ar- it was considered a failure of the international menian-Azerbaijani conflict. In reality, Article 81 community’s fair mediation and international of the ICJ ruling - unilateral declaration of inde- law as well. Kosovo’s independence has been pendence accompanied by the use of force and followed with great interest in other quasi states violation of jus cogens considered to be illegal- whose leaderships hope that this case will set a supports Azerbaijan’s position. The Security precedent and hence increase their chance of Council resolutions condemning use of force international recognition. The states that recog-

Kosovo and Karabakh: Looking back theat Future against Azerbaijan, and also abhorrent crimes nized Kosovo’s independence have, on the other against humanity and war crimes committed in hand, argued that Kosovo is unique and that its the course of Nagorno-Karabakh conflict in or- recognition does not set a dangerous precedent der to relate to the wisdom of this approach. Ac- which might encourage other secessionist cording to Dilbadi Gasimov, Ph.D. in Strasbourg movements. If it does not set a legal precedent it University and specialist on international law will have consequences of a more political na- issues at the Center for Strategic Studies, ture; it would affect the calculations made in “Decision of the ICJ does not count precedent for other entities that have achieved de facto inde- Nagorno-Karabakh conflict (1). The conflict pendence. sides over the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict ex- plained their positions with two principles of Clearly, in the last two decade the international international law -territorial integrity and self law has turned from “precedential” into determination-which the court doesn’t touch on. “situational.” Precedents are interpreted exclu- ICJ’s rule on Kosovo, only answers the question: sively depending on who benefits from the spe-

29 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 CAUCASUS REVIEW | By Zaur Shiriyev

cific situation in the specific conflicting region. Armenian majority living there has the right to The recognition of the independence of Kosovo self-determination and independence. Azerbai- by a number of States and the recognition of janis argue that the right to self-determination Abkhazia and South Ossetia by Russia were de- does not extend to secession and must be exer- scribed by recognizing States as being so unique, cised in the context of respect for territorial in- so sui generis that they could not serve as prece- tegrity. International legal expert James Craw- dents. Indeed, even Kosovo’s own declaration of ford, states regarding on this issue that "in inter- independence explicitly addresses it. The pream- national practice there is no recognition of the ble “observes” that “Kosovo is a special case aris- unilateral right to secede based on a majority ing from Yugoslavia’s non-consensual breakup vote of the population of a sub-division or terri- and is not a precedent for any other situation.” tory. Even when there is a strong and sustained That statement surely call for independence it is a makes the declaration a matter for the government historic rarity: a docu- of the state concerned” (3). ment in which the basis In principle, the Armenian for independence is in international practice people have already exer- claimed to be unique " there is no recognition cised their right for self- and circumstantial (2). determination. In the con- of the unilateral right to se- trary of Armenians, Azerbai- cede based on a majority Yerevan’s Dichotomy jan believe that there are vote of the population of a not direct parallels that are In the particular cases, sub-division or territory. admissible between Kosovo the situation is clear, and Even when there is a strong and Nagorno-Karabakh con- there is not uncertainty and sustained call for inde- flict: about the “frozen con- pendence it is a matter for flicts” in the post-Soviet the government of the state First, Kosovo’s status in for- area. Indeed, Kosovo’s concerned” mer Yugoslavia is slightly independence has made different from that of Na- Azerbaijan more open to gorno-Karabakh (NK). NK considering a military was part of Azerbaijan con-

Kosovo and Karabakh: Looking back theat Future solution to their internal stitutionally and not consti- conflict, fearing that in- tutional part of USSR, ternational support for whereas Kosovo was consti- their territorial integrity could be a matter of tutional part of Yugoslavia. political decision. Because, in Kosovo case, also in Bosnia and Herzegovina, NATO and the West- Secondly, in Kosovo’s case the international ern countries punished the occupying country. community was engaged in every aspect since But in Azerbaijan-Armenia case, the West seems the NATO intervention to halt a humanitarian to be punishing Azerbaijan. catastrophe until now and continues to be en- gaged in Kosovo’s matters. Azerbaijan supported Armenia, in its turn is caught in dichotomy. On peacekeeping operation in Kosovo and Azerbai- the one hand, Yerevan doesn’t recognize inde- jani troops have participated in the North Atlan- pendence of Kosovo, in the solidarity with Rus- tic Treaty Organization's peacekeeping opera- sia. On the other hand Armenia argues that the tion since 1999 till 2008. Whereas, the case of

30 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection CAUCASUS REVIEW | By Zaur Shiriyev

NK is an issue pertaining to Azerbaijan and Ar- menia without the involvement of the interna- tional community. Until then some aspects of it could be similar to Kosovo but what makes Kos- ovo a sui generis case is its entire process.

Thirdly, the international community inter- vened when ethnic Albanians were being cleansed from Kosovo, they remained impassive and apathetic when Azerbaijanis were the vic- tims in Nagorno-Karabakh, undergoing ethnic cleansing by the Armenian armed forces. This has resulted in nearly one million Azerbaijani IDPs fleeing the region, and they remain unable to return home.

Meanwhile, trying to use Kosovo case as a model David Bosco in the solution of Nagorno-Karabakh conflict by Contributing writer at Foreign Policy magazine and assistant professor at American Univer- Armenia is not acceptable. It shows that Arme- sity’s School of International Service. nian politicians want continuation of “not war- no peace” situation and solution of conflict by peaceful means is not on the agenda of the for- force and crimes against humanity will not be eign policy of Armenia. justified just because they are 'successful'.

Finally, for now and the near future, the pros- Notes: pects for a settlement on Nagorno-Karabakh are not particularly bright, all the mediation activi- * Zaur Shiriyev is foreign policy analyst at ties of the third parties notwithstanding. Any the Center for Strategic Studies in Baku, movement on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict Azerbaijan. settlement will require Armenian material con-

Kosovo and Karabakh: Looking back theat Future cessions, such as troop withdrawals. Yerevan - Ideas expressed here reflect the personal must understand that Armenian withdrawal of views of the author and do not represent armed forces from the regions around Karabakh the views of any institution. will make peaceful step, and there is no room 1) Interview, 25 July,2010, Center for Strate- for “precedent” games. gic Studies,Baku,Azerbaijan.

Last Remarks 2) Assembly of Kosovo, “Kosovo Declaration of Independence,” February 17, 2008, David Bosco, contributing editor at Foreign Pol- available at www.assembly-kosova.org. icy Journal just fairly notes, rebels without simi- 3) International Crisis Group's Europe Re- larly strong friends (US) will have less luck, port, Nagorno-Karabakh:A Plan for whatever the judges in The Hague say. In the Peace,11 October 2005 best case ICJ Opinion is a message to ongoing peace negotiations which mentions that use of

31 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Dr. Ayla Göl

The ‘War against Women’ in Muslim societies

By Dr. Ayla Göl*

Islam has become a more visible and dynamic force in ing, stock exchange and insurance companies dur- the 21st century since the 9/11 terrorist attacks ing the last three decades. Meanwhile, some key and the subsequent US-led ‘War on Terror’. In developments in the oil-rich Gulf emirates and contrast to these negative images, Muslim coun- Saudi Arabia prove that Muslims can adapt to tries have also experienced an increasing rise in changes under the forces of global capitalism and new economic institutions such as Islamic bank- modernisation. While this growing trend might COMMENTARY | By Dr. Ayla Göl

have contributed towards creating a positive im- that women can be the subject of marginalization age of Muslim ‘business men’, Muslim women do and discrimination when they are forced to veil not seem to be benefiting equally from this proc- and are not permitted to travel without a guard- ess. ian, or work in public places. The stories of women in Iran, Afghanistan and Syria have occu- Women and Islam pied the headlines of international media most recently. In contemporary politics, the resurgence of Is- lamic fundamentalism has been associated with During the summer of 2010, the story of Sakineh its perseverance in reviving religious doctrines on Mohammadi Ashtiani highlighted the severity of women’s status in a society. It was the forefathers the crime against women in Iran. Ashtiani is a of fundamentalism such as Hasan al -Bana, -the founder of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt- who ex- pressed the fear of women’s libera- tion and equality by saying that women’s place is the home, and their primary roles are mother, wife, and housekeeper. The founder of Jamiat-I Islami in Pakistan, Abul A’la al-Mawdudi, was another Is- lamic fundamentalist who believed that “one of the basic human rights is respect for women’s chastity. To

preserve chastity women must be Picture 1 kept household and in purdah.” (1) An Iranian woman, symbolically dressed as a victim of death by stoning, takes part in a National Council of Resistance of Iran pro- In fact, these fundamentalists – test outside a European Union foreign ministers meeting in Brus- sels in 2005. Photograph: Thierry Roge/Reuters (3). including the Saudi version of Wa- The ‘War against Women’ Muslimin societies habism– ‘strictly interpret two Surahs in the Quran that require all women cover mother of two who faced the punishment of ston- themselves except for the eyes and hands’ (2). ing to death on charges of adultery in 2006 (see Consequently, Islamic fundamentalists declare Picture 1). what I conceive to be ‘the war against women’ that aims to prevent women’s liberation and As a consequence of international pressure and equality. criticism from human rights groups, the Iranian government did not implement the sentence (4). The status of women in Islam is the most contro- In July 2010, Ashtiani was offered asylum by the versial and challenging issue. The use of shari’a Brazilian President, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, but (Islamic law) as the legal source of civic and pub- Tehran rejected it, stating that Mr. da Silva was lic relations in Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia, unaware of the facts of Ashtiani’s case. Since then, Iran, Afghanistan and other Gulf states indicate it seems that the Iranian government has found

33 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Dr. Ayla Göl

another way of charging Ashtiani, this time with women) have suffered from severe depression the ‘invented’ crime of murder. On 11 August annually since 2000 (6). The status of women has 2010, Iranian state television broadcasted a neither improved under the Taliban rule nor in videotaped statement that was portrayed as a the US-liberated Afghanistan. As these stories in murder confession by her (5). It seems that the Iran and Afghanistan indicate, women in Muslim new ‘serious’ crime of murder might lead to her societies face life-threatening issues of death, in- being put to death by hanging instead of stoning justice and poverty, which are undoubtedly more and her case remains uncertain. important than the ‘invented tradition’ of veiling according to religious rules and norms. Neverthe- In Afghanistan, a recent report on the state of Af- less, it is the veiling of women that attracts the ghan women by the former Deputy Health Minis- international media attention. ter, Faizullah Kakar, claimed that the numbers of women who are committing suicide increased within the last three decades. According to this report, an estimated 2,300 Afghan women be- tween the ages of 15 and 40 attempt suicide, while 28 percent of the population (1.8 million

The ‘War against Women’ Muslimin societies Picture 2: An example of niqab

Picture 4: An example of Hijab

Picture 3: An example of burqa The invented tradition of veiling: niqab or hi- jab?

When Syria joined the group of Muslim countries –Turkey, Tunisia, Egypt– that banned the face veil (niqab; burqa – see picture 2 & 3) and/or head- scarf (hijab – picture 4) in public buildings and schools, attention was given once again to the (in) visibility of women in Islam.

34 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Dr. Ayla Göl

dan and Lebanon have inclined towards wearing the ‘niqab’ or ‘burqa’ to express their Islamic iden- tities. However, it is important to note that the “As a Muslim woman who was ban in Syria does not include the hijab - brought up in a Muslim tradition in headscarves- that are far more commonly worn Turkey, I personally support the ban by Syrian women. of the niqab in Syria. The niqab As some media reports suggest, the niqab is an gives the image of Muslim women as ‘imported’ fundamentalist form of religion that ‘uncivilised’ and not compatible with has no place in a secular society (7). For Syria, like ‘modern’ lifestyles and it represents Turkey, ‘imported’ fundamentalism represents ‘political Islam’.” the Salafi version of fundamentalist Islam, as im- plemented in Saudi Arabia. Similarly, the ‘niqab’ and/or ‘burka’ are used by the fundamentalist Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Hence, the funda- mentalist version of Islam is imported from either The Syrian government’s decision to ban the Saudi Arabia or Afghanistan. The rising numbers ‘niqab’ in public and private universities in July of women wearing the ‘niqab’ since the US-led 2010 was based on political and cultural reasons. invasion and the imposed democratisation of Iraq In current Middle Eastern politics, Syria under the and Afghanistan also support the possibility of leadership of President Bashar al-Assad wants to ‘importing’ fundamentalism in secular and mod- establish closer diplomatic and economic ties erate Muslim countries. with secular Turkey and Lebanon, and play a more active role in the region. Politically, the More importantly, the majority in Syria –except a ‘niqab’ is regarded as the most visible symbol of few reactionary women’s civil society groups– is Islamic fundamentalism. This decision strength- not concerned by the consequences of this deci- ens the government’s image of Syria as one of the sion because ‘the niqab’ is not an integral part of

most secular Arab countries. Culturally, ‘the Syrian culture. Like Turkey, women in Syria wear The ‘War against Women’ Muslimin societies niqab’ –a full Islamic veil that reveals just a more modern and urban styles of headscarves. As woman's eyes, otherwise known as the billowing a Muslim woman who was brought up in a Muslim black robe– has not been very common in Syrian tradition in Turkey, I personally support the ban society until recently. Since the 9/11 terrorist at- of the niqab in Syria. The niqab gives the image of tacks, Muslims not only in Syria but also in the Muslim women as ‘uncivilised’ and not compati- Middle East (including Turkey) have become very ble with ‘modern’ lifestyles and it represents defensive about their faith and put emphasis on ‘political Islam’. Even in Saudi Arabia one can see Islamic identity. To a certain extent, this new pictures of women without the full veil. So, why trend partly reflects opposition to the US-led wars should women in Syria put themselves even be- in Iraq and Afghanistan and increasing reaction to hind traditional Saudi women? the dehumanization and demonization of Mus- lims. Consequently, women in Syria and across It would be a mistake to regard the Syrian deci- other secular-oriented Arab countries such as Jor- sion as part of a current trend to embrace a West-

35 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Dr. Ayla Göl

as those of the international society. On the one hand, ‘Islamist westernisation’ and ‘Syrian mod- ernization’ feed each other. On the other hand, there are internal and external pressures (the US and the EU) from to change domestic and foreign policies. Under the influence of the internet and globalization in 21st century, there is an apparent paradigm shift among Muslim women to resist traditional, cultural and religious oppression. Any government in Muslim societies -including Saudi Picture 5: Catholic nuns Arabia and Iran- needs to adjust to the demands of domestic society and pressures from interna- tional society. Nevertheless, it is not possible to ernised version of Islamic dressing and secular- ism. On the contrary, this decision reflects histori- cal and cultural roots –not necessarily religious– of Syrian traditions in secularism and modernisa- tion. Indeed, there are similar debates in France, Spain, Belgium and the Netherlands to ban the niqab and burqa on the grounds that it is ‘degrading to women’. But, the case of the Syrian ban is more complicated than European contexts. The idea of ‘curbing Islamic fundamentalism’ by ‘legislating what women wear’ is rather a naïve one – fighting any kind of religious fundamental- ism is more complex than Western decision mak- Picture 6: ers and media present. It seems that the Syrian Christian and Muslim Women in solidarity

The ‘War against Women’ Muslimin societies President Bashar al-Assad wants to find a balance between his father’s authoritarian implementa- tion of secularism and the moderate interpreta- predict a clear trend among different generations tions of Islam. Moreover, Damascus is aware of and places. For instance, while many young Saudi the difficulties of playing both ‘religious’ and women are less inclined than older generations to ‘secular’ cards given the fact that Syria’s leader- wear the ‘niqab’, some, especially young Muslims ship has been dominated by the minority Alawite in European capitals, might regard Islamic dress- sect, a branch of Shi’a Islam, since ing as a symbol of resistance to the imposition of 1970. Therefore, the ban on the ‘niqab’ is consis- Western culture in general. tent with Syria’s tradition of moderation and secularism. Religion or patriarchy?

Suffice it to say that Syria is responding to the de- The ‘war against women’ through the acts of dis- mands of a modernizing domestic society as well crimination and violence against women in the

36 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Dr. Ayla Göl

name of religion can be documented in many Islam and Human Rights Fellow Lecture, countries worldwide. The status of women is a October 14, 2003, organized by the Islam political issue as well as a cultural and religious and Human Rights Project, School of Law, one. Emory University, Atlanta, GA, p.5 2) Syria Says ‘No’ to Traditional Muslim Face Historically, the question of women’s rights has Veil in the Classroom, All Headline News, 3 presented a challenge to Muslim and non- August 2010, h t t p : / / Muslim societies alike. Sociologically, patriar- www.allheadlinenews.com/ chal structure continues reproducing itself articles/7019477403?Syria%20Says% across monotheistic religions -i.e., Catholicism , 20%91No%92%20to%20Traditional% Judaism and Islam- and cultures over centuries 20Muslim%20Face%20Veil%20in% 20the%20Classroom#ixzz0wVhU2oBg (See picture 5: Catholic nuns whose religious dressing is similar to traditional niqab and See 3) Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani will not be picture 6: a Catholic nun who is in solidarity stoned to death - for the time being, The with the Muslim women). Guardian, 12 July 2010. http:// www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/ All religious fundamentalists tend to share a jul/12/iran-sakineh-mohammadi-ashtiani -stoned-death/print common view of women’s liberation and equal- ity as a threat to (male) domination and au- 4) Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani will not be thority. They can (mis)use and abuse the au- stoned to death - for the time being, The thority of God or the state in order to perpetu- Guardian, 12 July 2010. http:// ate the interests of the ruling (male) class and www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/ jul/12/iran-sakineh-mohammadi-ashtiani maintain the existing patriarchal structure. In -stoned-death/print the name of religion and/or culture women are usually controlled, subjugated and excluded 5) Iran Shows What It Says Is Murder Con- from the public sphere. All religions must be fession, New York Times, 12 August 2010, aware of changing times and the challenges of http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/13/ the contemporary world and also develop de- world/middleeast/13iran.html The ‘War against Women’ Muslimin societies mocratic forms of engagement with women’s 6) Update: Suicide By Afghan Women Still on issues. Islam per se is not unique in this sense the Rise, http://www.care2.com/causes/ but modernizing Muslim societies strongly de- womens-rights/blog/update-suicide-by- pends on improving the status of women and a f g h a n - w o m e n - s t i l l - o n - t h e - r i s e / giving them equal rights. [Accessed 11 August 2010]. 7) Syria Says ‘No’ to Traditional Muslim Face Notes: Veil in the Classroom, All Headline News, 3 * Dr. Ayla Göl is Lecturer in International Poli- August 2010, h t t p : / / tics, Aberystwyth University www.allheadlinenews.com/ Email: [email protected] articles/7019477403?Syria%20Says% 20%91No%92%20to%20Traditional% 1) Lily Zakiyah Munir, Islam, Modernity and 20Muslim%20Face%20Veil%20in% Justice for Women, Paper presented at the 20the%20Classroom#ixzz0wVhU2oBg

37 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 EUROPE REVIEW | By Dr. Dilek Yiğit

Iceland Towards EU Membership

By Dr. Dilek Yiğit* On 17 June 2010, the European Council approved the that Iceland meets the political criteria set by the start of accession talks with Iceland by stating Copenhagen European Council in 1993 and decides that “The European Council welcomes the that accession negotiations should be opened”(1) Commission opinion on Iceland’s application for in the Presidency Conclusions. membership of the EU and the recommendation that accession negotiations should be opened. As known, Iceland has been coping with Having considered the application on the basis of the economic crisis and its consequences for the opinion and its December 2006 conclusions on domestic and international politics in recent the renewed consensus for enlargement, it notes years.

Iceland Towards EU Membership

38 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection EUROPE REVIEW | By Dr. Dilek Yiğit

Due to the economic crisis, Iceland’s government resigned and early parliamentary elections were called. General elections took place in April 2009, and centre-left government won a victory. On a proposal by the new government, the Parliament of Iceland voted in favour of applying to join the European Union. With regard to the Parliament’s decision, Prime Minister Johanna Sigurdardottir said “This is probably the most historic vote in the history of our parliament”(2). After the Parliament’s vote in favour of applying for membership, Iceland officially applied to join the European Union on 16 July 2009.

Iceland’s application for membership may be regarded as a result of the economic downturn on the grounds that Iceland needs the European Union for help. Nonetheless, the foreign minister of Iceland, Össur Skarphedinsson rejected that the economic crisis is the main reason for application for membership, and put that “ The financial crisis may have re-triggered the debate, but Iceland’s Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir application for EU membership is driven by a Prime Minister of Iceland deeper, longer-term logic”(3). institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of Iceland’s application was welcomed by the Union, law, human rights and respect for and protection and the commissioner Olli Rehn said after of minorities(6). Regarding the Copenhagen receiving the news, “I am pleased that EU’s political criteria, the Commission decided that

Iceland Towards EU Membership enlargement agenda may soon extend to Europe’s Iceland satisfies the criteria, and stated in its north-western corner as well, with Iceland, a Opinion that “ Iceland is a functioning democracy country with deep democratic traditions, in with strong institutions. It is a parliamentary addition to our continued commitment to South republic with deeply rooted traditions of East Europe”(4). representative democracy and division of powers. Its constitutional and legal order and governing On receiving the application by Iceland, the institutions are stable...Iceland has a comprehensive Council of the European Union requested the system for safeguarding rights and there is a high Commission to prepare its Opinion on Iceland’s level of cooperation with international mechanisms application for membership(5). Subsequently, the for the protection of human rights”(7). Commission assessed Iceland’s application for EU membership on the basis of the criteria set by the The Copenhagen economic criteria requires the Copenhagen European Council in 1993 and existence of a functioning market economy, as submitted its Opinion on 24 February 2010. well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union(8). The Copenhagen political criteria requires the Regarding the Copenhagen economic criteria, the candidate country to achieve stability of Commission stressed that although Iceland is

39 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 EUROPE REVIEW | By Dr. Dilek Yiğit

integrated into the European Union economy and When can Iceland join the EU? With regard to a can be considered a functioning market economy, timetable for the accession process, the global financial crisis caused deep recession, Commissioner Stefan Füle said that “From the the implementation of the IMF programme was current members that recently joined that were delayed due to economic crisis and subsequent already part of the European Economic Area, you political situation, and macroeconomic could make your own conclusions about the stabilisation is not complete in Iceland(9). challenges and the sort of framework, such as Finland and Austria. The process for them lasted European Union membership also requires the plus or minus 14 months, if I remember ability to take on the obligations of membership correctly” (14). Commissioner Olli Rehn has put including adherence to the aims of political, that Iceland can be a member of the Union in economic and monetary union(10). In this regard, parallel with Croatia if the accession negotiations the Commission stated that “ Iceland is on the are rapid and he also underlined that the EU whole well prepared to assume the obligations of prefers two countries becoming the members of membership in most areas, in particular fields the EU at the same time (15). At this point, a covered by the EEA. In the following areas, Iceland central question is this: Why can Iceland which will need to make serious efforts to align its applied for membership in 2009 be expected to legislation with the acquis and / or to implement join the Union in parallel with Croatia, of which and enforce it effectively in the medium term in accession talks with the EU are nearing the final order to meet in due course the accession criteria: phase? The reason lies in the fact that Iceland has fisheries, agriculture and rural developmennt; the already a well-developed relationship with the environment; free movement of capital; financial European Union through the European Free Trade services; as well as customs union; taxation; Association (EFTA), the European Economic Area statistics; food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary (EEA), and Schengen area. Moreover Iceland policy; regional policy and coordination of participates in a number of EU agencies and structural instruments; financial control”(11). programmes(16).

The Commission also assessed Iceland’s

Iceland Towards EU Membership application for membership in the light of the Union’s capacity to absorb new members, and stated “Iceland’s accession would have a limited overall impact on the European Union and would not affect the Union’s capacity to maintain and deepen its own development”(12).

Consequently, in its Opinion, the Commission recommended the launch of EU membership negotiations with Iceland. The Commission’s opinion was welcomed by the President of the European Parliament Jerzy Buzek, he said that “Iceland’s application for membership shows that the European ideals are reaching the farthest corner of Europe and inspires hope, prospect, solidarity. It is my belief that Iceland has a place in Prof. Jerzy Buzek 24th President of the European Parliament the European Union family”(13).

40 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection EUROPE REVIEW | By Dr. Dilek Yiğit

Iceland has a bilateral free trade agreement with communautaire into Icelandic law” (18). In a the European Economic Community (EEC) since similar vein, Commisioner Olli Rehn put it “It is 1972. Iceland joined the European Free Trade already implementing major parts of the acquis Area (EFTA) in 1970. After several changes in communautaire. Thus, the remaining distance to EFTA membership, the EFTA members currently be covered will be shorter than for other countries are Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and that do not have such strong ties with the EU” But Switzerland. After the United Kingdom and he also added that “the remaining distance may Denmark left the EFTA to join the EEC in 1973, not necessarily be any easier”(19). the relationship between the EEC and EFTA was enhanced, duties on trade in industrial products What will influence the remaining distance? The between the EEC and EFTA were eliminated. In first issue that came to mind is the EU’s fisheries order to enhance economic cooperation further policy which is not covered by the EEA and form a homogeneous economic space Agreement. If Iceland wants to be a member of between the EEC and EFTA, the negotiations on the Union, it has to bring its fisheries policy into the European Economic Area (EEA) began in line with the European acquis, but does Iceland 1990 and was concluded with the EEA want to give up the right to control its fisheries? Agreement, which entered into force on 1 January As Gudjonsdottir puts it “...the Icelandic 1994. The Agreement brought together the EU government feels that only Icelanders themselves members and the EFTA countries except should have legal custody over the fish stocks, as Switzerland, which has a bilateral agreement well as over agreements with other nations with the EU. With the aim of extending the regarding fisheries from fishing stocks around European Internal Market to the three EFTA Iceland”(20). A former foreign minister of Iceland, countries, the EEA Agreement covers the four Jon Baldvin said that “Iceland will never join if we freedoms- the free movement of goods, services, have to allow access to our fishing sto ck”(21). persons and capital, and also necessiates the Fisheries will probably be a controversial issue, incorporation of the EU Internal Market acquis which affect the pace of the accession talks into the EEA. By way of a bilateral free trade between the EU and Iceland. agreement between the EU and

Iceland Towards EU Membership Iceland, and the EEA Össur Skarphéðinsson The second issue is caused by Agreement, the EU has become Foreign Minister of Iceland the banking crisis in Iceland, Iceland’s main trading partner. which has affected its relations According to the figures in with the UK and the 2008, the EU’s share in Iceland’s Netherlands. The Icelandic total import was 54,3%, and in Icesave internet bank Iceland’s total export was 75,9 collapsed in October 2008, and %. (17). Due to the fact that the British and Dutch savers who EEA Agreement covers the four lost money were compensated freedoms, Iceland have already by their governments. Thus, an access to the single market the UK and the Netherlands and adopted a significant part of demand that Iceland should European acquis. In this respect, pay savers’ money back(22). the foreign minister of Iceland Moreover, this dispute is not Össur Skarphedinsson said that regarded as a bilateral issue by “we have adopted 22 out of 35 the UK and the Netherlands, so chapters of acquis it may be turned into a EU

41 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 EUROPE REVIEW | By Dr. Dilek Yiğit

issue. The Dutch Prime Minister said “it will be europa.eu/pol/enlarg, accessed on 20.04.2010. hard for the country to join if it does not pay for 7)Commission Opinion on Iceland’s application losses incurred in the Icelandic banking for membership of the European Union, Brussels, collapse”(23). In a similar vein, a UK diplomat 24 February 2010, COM (2010) 62. told “We are happy with the opening of 8)Enlargement:Uniting a continent, http:// negotiations. It doesn’t explicitly mean they have to europa.eu/pol/enlarg, accessed on 20.04.2010. pay up before they join, but realistically it will be 9)Commission Opinion on Iceland’s application very difficult for them to join if they don’t pay”(24). for membership of the European Union, Brussels, Thus, the dispute regarding the repayment of 24 February 2010, COM (2010) 62. British and Dutch depositors’ money may arise as 10)Enlargement:Uniting a continent, http:// a problem in the accession talks. europa.eu/pol/enlarg, accessed on 20.04.2010. 11)Commission Opinion on Iceland’s application In sum, Iceland moves towards joining the EU, for membership of the European Union, Brussels, and its deeply integrated relations with the EU 24 February 2010, COM (2010) 62. enable us to come to conclusion that the accession 12)Ibid. talks between the EU and Iceland should be a 13)Press Releases, Buzak on accession smooth and short process. Nonetheless there are negotiations with Iceland, Brussels-Wednesday, two issues, which probably will affect the pace of February, 24, 2010. the accession talks. The first issue is the EU’s 14)Leigh Philips, EU-Iceland talks should fisheries policy. In this regard the question of conclude in early 2011, commission says, how the EU and Iceland can reach an agreement euobserver.com, 24.02.2010 on fisheries should be answered. The second is 15)Leo Cendrowicz, Iceland’s Urgent Bid to Join the dispute caused by the banking crisis in the EU, July 17, 2009, www.time.com Iceland, and whether Iceland can be a member of 16)Iceland-EU relations, http://ec.europa.eu/ the Union before paying British and Dutch savers’ enlargement/potential-candidates/iceland/ money back needs an answer. relation/index_en.htm, accessed on 14.05.2010. 17)Iceland-EU Bilateral Trade and Trade with the Notes: World, DG Trade Statistics, 22 September 2009.

Iceland Towards EU Membership 18)Össur Skarphedinsson, “Accession is a logical * Dilek Yiğit is Chief of Division at step”, EuropeanVoice, 23 July 2009. Undersecretariat of Treasury, Turkey. 19)EU-Iceland relations, www.euractiv.com, 04 December 2009. 1)European Council 17 June 2010 Conclusions, 20)Vilborg Asa Gudjonsdottir, Iceland in Brussels. the European Union:Will it ever happen?, 2)Leo Cendrowicz, Iceland’s Urgent Bid to Join EUMA Papers, Vol. 4, No. 19, September 2007, p. the EU, July 17, 2009, www.time.com 11. 3)Össur Skarphedinsson, “Accession is a logical 21)Leigh Philips, EU-Iceland talks should step”, EuropeanVoice, 23 July 2009. conclude in early 2011, commission says, 4)Statement by the Commission on the decision of euobserver.com, 24.02.2010. the Icelandic Parliament to apply for EU 22)Leigh Philips, Iceland gets EU green light, but Membership, Brussels, 16 July 2009. Dutch PM warns of “hard demands” ahead, 5)Council conclusions on Enlargement, 2957th euobserver.com, 17.06.2010. General Affairs Council Meeting, Brussels, 27 July 23)Ibid. 2009. 24)Ibid. 6)Enlargement:Uniting a continent, http://

42 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection EUROPE REVIEW | By Paula Sandrin

Overestimating the Impact of Europe?

The Case of Turkish Foreign Policy

By Paula Sandrin*

It might seem strange to discuss the impact of Euro- (2009) states that Turkey’s alignment with EU pean Union on Turkish foreign policy at a time CFSP policy has continued and that Turkey when Turkey is accused of moving away from the aligned itself with 99 CFSP declarations out of a West. The flotilla crisis with Israel and “no” vote total of 128 declarations. on tougher sanctions against Iran at the UN Security Council are the

Overestimating the Impact of Europe? most recent events which seem to confirm Turkey’s abandonment of its traditional allies. However, until recently, prominent scholars such as Aydin and Acikmese (2007), Ozcan (2008), Altunisik (2009) and Muftuler-Baç and Gursoy (2009) were writing about the europeani- zation of Turkish foreign policy. In fact, Turkey’s broad alignment with the EU’s Common Foreign and Secu- rity Policy (CFSP) was continuously lauded in yearly Progress Reports. The latest Turkey Progress Report

43 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 EUROPE REVIEW | By Paula Sandrin

and security policy at the domestic level, of over- The concept of europeaniza- estimating the EU impact and ignoring other en- “tion refers to the domestic dogenous and exogenous influences. Similarly, adaptation to European regional Grabbe (2003) argues that, when analyzing proc- ess of europeanization of domestic policies and integration.” processes of candidate countries, it is important to be careful to discern whether the outcomes are results of EU-driven change or whether other non On the other hand, Turkey began to be accused of -EU processes are at work, either domestic or in- shifting axis from West to East (Cagaptay 2009). ternational. In other words, one must be very According to this alternative line of argument, cautious when applying the concept of europeani- Turkish foreign policy did not become european- zation to intergovernmental policy areas and to ized. Au Contraire, Turkey’s improvement of rela- candidate countries. Accordingly, one must be tions with countries which just a decade ago it twice as careful when trying to assess the EU im- nearly went to war with had little to do with pact on the foreign policy of a candidate country. Europe, and more to do with the Islamic pedigree and intentions of the Justice and Development The compatibility of Turkey’s foreign and security Party (AKP), in power since 2003. policy with that of the EU, attested in previous Progress Reports, did not necessarily mean that it So what is actually going on? Are the above men- was due to a process of europeanization. The exis- tioned analyses which consider the impact of tence of similar policies does not mean that there Europe on Turkish foreign policy simply wrong? I is a causal relationship between the impact of the would argue that they are not wrong, but that the EU and transformations in Turkish foreign policy. EU impact has been somewhat overestimated, in The causal factors of change might be located particular when the internalization of EU foreign elsewhere. Similarly, the harmonization of poli- policy norms by Turkish policy-makers is con- cerned.

Overestimating the Impact of Europe? ...when analyzing process of The concept of europeanization refers to the do- mestic adaptation to European regional integra- “europeanization of domestic tion (Vink and Graziano 2008). It was initially de- policies and processes of candi- veloped for communitized policy areas of the first pillar and for domestic changes in member states, date countries, it is important to but gradually began to be applied to foreign policy be careful to discern whether (Smith 2000, Major 2005 and Wong 2008) which the outcomes are results of EU- is located in the intergovernmental second pillar, and to candidate countries (Grabbe 2003 and driven change or whether other Schimmelfennig and Sedelmeir 2008). non-EU processes are at work,

As pointed out by Major (2005), there is a risk, either domestic or international.” when assessing the europeanization of foreign

44 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection EUROPE REVIEW | By Paula Sandrin

cies does not mean that EU norms have been in- exploiting an external tie (in this case, the EU) by ternalized by Turkish policy-makers. Increased some domestic actors in order to improve their convergence can be a result of similar norms op- positions in domestic political conflicts. It is con- erating at the EU and at the Turkish domestic ceived as an opportunity to acquire additional level, but not necessarily these norms have origi- resources to exert influence, while severely con- nated in the EU and then were transferred and straining other actors’ freedom of manoeuvre. As internalized by Turkey. They can be similar to EU a result of EU reforms, the power of the military norms, but might have been developed domesti- was curtailed, and political and societal actors cally. were empowered. These political and socie- tal actors are thus more able to express their That is pre- policy preferences and put them into prac- cisely my ar- tice, including in foreign policy. Turkey’s transformed gument. The “ foreign policy is a norms and result of a different Turkish newly empowered political elites p r i n c i p l e s security culture being have a very strong foreign policy vision of guiding the espoused by political their own, which becomes clearer in issues and societal actors, transformed such as the AKP, of disagreement, such as the appropriate Turkish for- businesses and civil method to deal with Iran’s nuclear program. eign policy society organizations.” They were were origi- able to put nated inter- this foreign nally, and it is Turkish newly policy vision too premature to say that Turkey has inter- “ empowered political into practice elites have a very strong nalized EU CFSP norms. Turkey’s transformed foreign policy vision of because they foreign policy is a result of a different security their own, which were em- culture being espoused by political and socie- becomes clearer in powered by issues of disagreement, tal actors, such as the AKP, businesses and EU reforms, such as the appropriate Overestimating the Impact of Europe? civil society organizations. However, the EU method to deal with and in some role should not be underestimated either, Iran’s nuclear program.” of their for- since it was due to the membership process eign policy that such actors were empowered and their moves, they policy choices legitimized. received EU legitimacy, which helped to justify their decisions domestically. Hence, the EU impact The EU has been used by Turkish political actors should be understood in terms of it being used as as a vincolo esterno (an external tie) which em- a vincolo esterno rather than a diffuser of norms powers certain domestic actors at the expense of that were internalized by Turkish actors. The EU others, and provides justification and legitimacy is a necessary condition to the change in Turkish to certain policy courses which otherwise would foreign policy, but is not sufficient to explain it. It be considered unacceptable. The term vincolo was rather fortunate that most of the foreign poli- esterno was introduced by Dyson and Feather- cies of the AKP pursued under the framework of stone (1996, 1999) and refers to the strategy of “zero-problem” policies are in line with EU CFSP

45 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 EUROPE REVIEW | By Paula Sandrin

norms. It is possible that in the future, as the so- Goes East: Power and Uncertainty in the EU cialization process increases, EU norms become Accession Process”. In: Featherstone, Kevin fully internalized, as some accounts have sug- and Radaelli, Claudio M. (eds). The Politics gested that it is beginning to happen. However, of Europeanization. Oxford University Press. since Turkey as a candidate country does not so- 7) Major, Claudia (2005). “Europeanization cialize as much as a member state, and the policy and foreign and Security Policy – Undermin- area discussed here is intergovernmental, it might ing or Rescuing the Nation State?”. In: Poli- take some time. tics 25 (3). 8) Muftuler-Baç, Meltem and Gursoy, Yaprak Notes: (2009). “Is there a Europeanization of Turk- ish Foreign Policy? An addendum to the lit- * Paula Sandrin is Doctoral Researcher at erature on EU candidates”. RECON Online the University of Westminster. Working paper 2009/15.

9) Ozcan, Mesut (2008). Harmonizing Foreign 1) Altunisik, Meliha Benli (2009). “Turkey-EU Policy - Turkey, the EU and the Middle East. Relations: Creating New Synergies in the Aldershot: Ashgate. Middle East”. In: Comelli, Michele, Eralp, Atila and Ustun, Çigdem (eds). The Euro- 10) Schimmelfennig, Frank and Sedelmeier, Ul- pean Neighborhood Policy and the Southern rich (2008). “Candidate Countries and Con- Mediterranean. Ankara: Middle East Techni- ditionality. In: Vink, Maarten P. and cal University Press. Graziano, Paolo (2008). Europeanization – New Research Agendas. Basingstoke: Pal- 2) Aydin, Mustafa and Acikmese, Sinem A. grave Macmillan. (2007). “Europeanization through EU con- ditionality: understanding the new era in 11) Smith, Michael E. (2000). “Conforming to Turkish foreign policy”. In: Balkan and Near Europe: the domestic impact of EU foreign Eastern Studies 9 (3). policy co-operation”. In: Journal of European Public Policy 7 (4). 3) Cagaptay, Soner (2009). “Turkey’s Turn

Overestimating the Impact of Europe? from the West”. The Washington Post, 2nd of 12) Turkey Progress Report (2009). Commis- February 2009. h t t p : / / sion Staff Working Document. Brussels, 14 www.cagaptay.com/3408/turkeys-turn- October 2009.http://www.abgs.gov.tr/ from-the-west files/AB_Iliskileri/Tur_En_Realitons/ Progress/turkey_progress_report_2009.pdf 4) Dyson, K. and Featherstone, K. (1996). ‘Italy and EMU as a “Vincolo Esterno”: Empower- 13) Vink, Maarten P. and Graziano, Paolo ing the Technocrats, Transforming the (2008). “Challenges of a New Research State’, South European Society and Politics 1 Agenda”. In: Vink, Maarten P. and Graziano, (2), pp. 272-299. Paolo (2008). Europeanization – New Re- search Agendas. Basingstoke: Palgrave Mac- 5) Dyson, K. and Featherstone K. (1999). The millan. Road to Maastricht: Negotiating Economic and Monetary Union. Oxford University 14) Wong, Reuben (2008). “Foreign Policy”. In: Press. Vink, Maarten P. and Graziano, Paolo (2008). Europeanization – New Research 6) Grabbe, Heather (2003). “Europeanization Agendas. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

46 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

Official Development Assistance and Terrorism

By Assoc. Prof. Bayram GÜNGÖR*

health, nutrition and education. They are also liv- ing on environmentally degraded urban areas and using makeshift houses in poor conditions. Those ntroduction poor people living in less developed countries I have also extremely limited choices. Therefore, More than 1,2 billion people try to survive their they may tend to participate in any illegal activity life below $1, while nearly 2.8 billion population including terrorist acts. Especially, it has seen that live on less than $ 2 at purchasing power parity. this tendency to participating in terrorist acts is These people are poor and plagued by inadequate growing and growing after the early years of new millennium. In fact even if there is no direct cau-

sality between poverty Official Development Assistance and Terrorism and the participation to the terrorist acts in the academic studies, indi- rect effects are evident. Starting from these im- plications, especially af- ter September 9/11 at- tacks, the security notion was redefined by the USA taking the existence of indirect effects of pov- erty on terrorism into account. Essentially, even if the new security COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

policy is not new in theoretical level, the content reason of this support is to provide a develop- of it is regarded as new, which is called as preven- ment strategy in the determined fields in the long- tive intervention. The policy will be made in order run. This type of assistance makes the recipient to terminate the anticipated source of the terror- countries more efficient especially in stimulating ist acts. Mechanism used here does not only con- foreign trade and local resource using (Clark, sist of military methods, but also economic devel- 1992, p.190). Development assistance is different opment assistance. The assistance will be given to from humanitarian assistance. It may have bilat- the countries known as the center of the terrorist eral and multilateral levels. While a country's bi- acts and subjected to minimizing terrorism in lateral development assistance is given directly by their own territories. The aim of this strategy is to another country, multilateral development assis- prevent the participation in the terrorist organi- tance is provided to countries indirectly in the zations. This policy is based on the sense of indi- framework of an international organization. vidual security. The better the living conditions for people, the less participation the terrorist ac- While approximately 80 percent of world devel- tivities will involve and thus the lower the logistic opment assistance is given by developed coun- supplied to terrorist tries with respect to activities there will be. the Official Develop- For this reason, secu- ...security is no longer defined un- ment Assistance rity is no longer de- “der the protection of national bor- (ODA), remaining 20 fined under the pro- percent of assistance ders. Instead, dignity becomes a tection of national belongs to non- borders. Instead, dig- main instrument of the frame of secu- governmental organi- nity becomes a main rity policy.” zations such as World instrument of the Bank Group and UN. frame of security pol- That labor force still icy. working in foreign countries provides a contribu- tion to the development of their native countries Therefore, the assumption of providing develop- by sending their excess resources as remittance. ment assistance to poor countries would reduce terrorist actions. Especially after September 9/11, The changes of the ODA in post-cold war period

Official Development Assistance and Terrorism a new type of development assistance has been are widely accepted in developed countries. Fol- implemented. However, this current form of de- lowing the Second World War the assistance from velopment assistance has not met the expected rich North to poor South contains the political fea- contributions. Therefore, it is clear that some new ture rather than the needs of countries. While de- complementary mechanisms such as the applica- velopment assistance aimed to increase the mili- tions of global governance and good governance tary capacity of countries that were exposed to should be introduced to solve the efficiency prob- communist threats before, today, nearly it is lem of current official development assistance. aimed to encourage economic growth and to strengthen democracy. In this context, the ODA Official Development Assistance has been redefined in 1969 (Beall and others, 2006, p.54-55). In recent times, this approach has Development assistance is a tool that is supplied been applied even stronger. by developed countries or international organiza- tions to less developed countries with respect to The global security agenda is also changed after economic, social and political affairs. The main the September 9/11 attacks. “War on Terror” was

48 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

declared. Most of the political debates about ter- enced on the followed assistance method (Woods, rorism have concentrated on preventive policies 2005, p.393). (Abadie, 2006, s.50). Leading multilateral organi- zations and donor countries have also changed While creating this new agenda, the OECD's De- their development assistance priorities, and em- velopment Assistance Committee-DAC has made phasized the struggle against international terror- significant development assistance to Afghani- ism in the light of last approach. Together with stan, Iraq and Pakistan. On the other hand, such the changing global security agenda, three chal- assistance method preference brings some disad- lenging areas were identified. Although none of vantages for low and middle income countries these areas are new, risks of the new approach such as the assistance cuts. In this context, more are quite different because the risks are ex- assistance has gone to the countries that fight tremely high compared to the old ones. The first against terrorism at the forefront (Beall, 2006, of the challenging areas is concerned with the p.57). Assistance is increasing day by day. How- goal of the assistance. Accordingly, the aims of ever, it is not thought that the development of a development assistance from donor countries to country can not be accomplished only by the as- poor countries don’t reduce the poverty rather sistance. Besides, something must be done. It is than guaranteeing their own security. Second is extremely important to create strong civil society about the Money. Because of the fact that combat- organizations and to ensure good governance ing against terrorism is very expensive, the donor (Beall and others, 2006, p.62). countries have preferred gradually to reduce the budget for the assistance. The third one is about The ODA committee is an assistance unit that is the method of the assistance. The donor countries formed by the OECD. Here, the 23 member coun- have failed to organize the coordination with in- tries make development assistance to less devel- ternational institutions. Instead, every donor oped and developing countries. The amount of country has carried out their own mechanism and assistance of the ODA in 2009 was 119 billion 573 followed their own priorities. Therefore, in most million dollars. Table 1 shows the country assis- recipient countries, some chaos has been experi- tance in 2009.

Table 1: Net Official Development Assistance (2009-Billion Dollar, Current Price)

Country ODA ODA/GNI Country ODA ODA/GNI Official Development Assistance and Terrorism

Australia 2,761 0,29 Luxembourg 403 1,01 Austria 1,146 0,30 Holland 6,425 0,82 Belgium 2,601 0,55 New Zealand 313 0,29 Canada 4,013 0,30 Norway 4,086 1,06 Denmark 2,810 0,88 Portugal 507 0,23 Finland 1,286 0,54 Spain 6,571 0,46 France 12,431 0,46 Sweden 4,546 1,12 Germany 11,982 0,35 Switzerland 2,305 0,47 Greece 607 0,19 England 11,505 0,52 Ireland 1,000 0,54 USA 28,665 0,20 Italy 3,314 0,16 Japan 9,480 0,18 Korea 816 0,10 DAC Total 119,573 0,31 Source: compiled from www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/9/44981892.pdf.

49 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

Table 2: Other Development Assistances (2009-billion dollars, Current Price)

Donor ODA ODA/GNI Donor ODA ODA/GNI EU Institutions 15,022 -- Hungary 116 0,09 DAC-EU countries 67,135 0,44 Iceland 34 0,33 G7 countries 81,390 0,26 Poland 343 0,08 Non-G7 countries 38,183 0,50 Slovak Republic 74 0,08 Czech Republic 224 0,12 Turkey 718 0,12

Source: compiled from www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/9/44981892.pdf.

In 2009, the countries that gave more develop- Maleckova, terrorism is a politically motivated ment assistance are USA, France, Germany, Brit- violence that generally aims to affect people. It is ain and Japan. The USA is the donor country that designed by sub-national and secret agents taking provided the highest amount of assistance, ap- an action against some determined targets proximately 24 percent of total. Table 2 shows the (Krueger; Maleckova, 2003, p.120). assistance provided by other countries and insti- tutions. According to Clapham, terrorism is a multilateral politic action figure that obtains under limited Unlike the ODA Committee, the most important and special conditions. The analysis of this cir- donor unit in the framework is the formation of cumstance that is stimulated by conditions is re- G7 countries. The donor unit following the G7 is quired an unbiased assessment. However, consid- the European Union countries and its own agen- ering the nature and effects of terrorism, it should cies. Turkey is also among the donor countries be known that making such an unbiased assess- with 718 million dollars assistance in 2009. Table ment is too difficult (Clapham, 2003, p.13). 3 shows the recipient countries in the period of 2006-2008. Table 3: The Recipient Countries Using Official As of 2008, it is commonly seen that the re- Development Assistance from ODA Committee

Official Development Assistance and Terrorism cipient countries that have received the offi- (million dollars) cial development assistance from the ODA Committee are the countries whose territo- Country 2006 2007 2008 ries are mostly exposed to the terrorist activi- Afghanistan 2,956 3,965 4,865 ties at the same time. This distribution of the Iraq 8,870 9,176 9,870 official development assistance also gives in- Sri Lanka 786 613 730 formation about the nature of the new assis- Indonesia 1,311 894 1,225 tance approach. Turkey 566 792 2,024 Terrorism Tanzania 1,814 2,820 2,331 Sudan 2,044 2,112 2,384 Terrorism is not a new fact. Even more it is as Pakistan 2,140 2,244 1,539 old as wars. It is also called as an asymmetric

war. There are so many definitions that are Source: compiled from “Development Aid At a Glance 2010: Statistics used on terrorism. According to Krueger and by Region 2010”, www.oecd.org

50 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

There are some special reasons for the emergence These countries are more prone to be host of terrorism: (Lancester, 2000, s.2.). Firstly, there of terrorist groups. is the existence of a problem which is protested by the terrorists or that perhaps they are trying to  There is a strong linkage between economic solve. Secondly, what should be done to solve the downturn and the religious life. problems concerning ideology or belief systems? It is clear that armed conflicts with terrorist or- Finally, there is a belief that terrorists will provide ganizations affect the economic development of a a contribution to the solution of problems. These country negatively. This negativity can also be problems may be concerning with the soil, ethnic expressed as follows (Gupta and others, 2004, presence and religious context. Terrorism has p.405); also some purposes of tactics (Krieger, 2008, p.2). They can be summarized as holding public and media attention, making an unstable form of ad-  Undermining confidence in the domestic ministration and damaging economy. c u r r e n c y due to the fear of inflation and devaluation Terrorism and Poverty affects the financial depth of a country negatively. Although it has been observed that there is a rela- tion between poverty and terrorism in the aca-  Shifting funds from efficient areas such as demic literature, it is not very explicit capital markets or banking to ineffective (Wolfensohn, p.1). Furthermore, terrorism ap- areas such as gold or other precious materi- pears to be related to the economic business cycle als. period since economic weaknesses increase the likelihood of terrorist activities (Bloomberg at all,  Undermining order and control of the finan- 2004, p.477). Terrorist who put terrorist action cial system. into practice throughout the world have seen quite rich individual and country contexts. How-  Increasing the transaction costs of domestic ever, it should be known that weak economic and foreign trade. growth, low per capita income levels, income dis- tribution inequality, poor education and the other  Rising additional security measures creates characteristics of poverty make people angry. Official Development Assistance and Terrorism negative impacts on goods and services. This causal relationship is multifaceted. Poverty has got various channels that can affect the ter- rorist activities (Briefing Paper, 2009, p.1-2). It is obvious that the armed conflict and terrorism affect the financial accounts by constricting the tax base due to disrupting economic activities,  Poverty provides the development of the reducing the effectiveness of tax administration, idea of relative poverty and increases the disrupting the composition of public expenditure. discontent of people. The bottlenecks that occurred due to insecurity and violence lead to reduced tax revenue. It can  Poor people are less educated. Indeed, pov- even destroy the tax base. erty and inadequate education are seen in common. Military spending rises due to the conflict and ter- rorism, and should remain high even after the ces-  Poor countries are often weak countries. sation of the violence. High-security spending

51 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

may change the composition of public expendi- expenditures, which can likely to contribute the ture by reducing expenditures in education, economic growth positively and also reduce the health, and other productive fields. In addition to resources which can be allocated to the private this, that violence destructs the physical infra- sector. Second negative effect occurs when posi- structure and human capital directly and it has tive supply-side diffusion effects of defense various impacts on trade and tourism. Job secu- spending in the economy will affect the non- rity indirectly weakens financial position and af- defense spending. Finally, defense spending has fects the economic growth negatively. also a resource mobilization impact on savings and investments. The positive effects of defense Terrorist activities become also effective on the expenditures involve the consequences of consumption and savings rates. Political violence strengthening internal and external security. De- increases risks related to savings. In this case, in- fense spending provides some contributions to dividuals in such uneven environments do not the economy by pulling foreign investments into want to excess resources because of the security the country. As a result, economic growth is accel- threat. Resources are moved to safer areas. This erated (Gupta and others, 2004, p.406). However, also leads to a decrease in the level of investment in general, it is accepted that the size of positive in the country. Therefore, economic growth rate and negative effects of defense spending on eco- occurs at a lower level in accordance with the na- nomic growth is controversial. tional sources. Terrorist activities also make a negative impact on profitability by increasing the To understand the relationship between poverty risk premium, reducing the expected profits and and terrorism, the Human Development Index- decreasing the stock market investments (Frey HDI values is required to be examined in the and others, 2007, p.9). countries in which majority of the terrorist activ- ity centers are located. It is obvious that terrorist activities have positive and negative effects over the long term sustain- As it can be seen from the table 4, it is observed able growth. The first negative effect is called that per capita income, health conditions, life ex- crowding-out effect. Increases in the defense pectancy indicators are well below the world av- spending of governments will reduce the public erage in the countries where terrorist activities

Official Development Assistance and Terrorism Table 4: Human Development Index-2009

Country Education Index Life Expectancy at GDP (US Dollar) HDI

Afghanistan 0,354 43,6 1,054 0,352 Turkey 0,828 71,7 12,955 0,806 Indonesia 0,840 70,5 3,712 0,734 Sri Lanka 0,834 74 4,243 0,759 Iran 0,793 71,2 10,955 0,782 Pakistan 0,492 66,2 2,496 0,572 Namibia 0,811 60,4 5,155 0,686 Egypt 0,697 69,9 5,349 0,703

Source: compiled from Human Development Report 2009, p.171-174.

52 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

Table 5: Regional Values of the Human Development Index (2009)

Education Life Expectancy GDP HDI at Birth (US Dollar)

Arab States 71,2 68,5 8,202 0,719

Central and Eastern Europe and CIS 97,6 69,7 12,185 0,821

East Asia and Pacific 92,7 72,2 5,733 0,770

Latin America and the Caribbean 91,2 73,4 10,077 0,821

South Asia 64,2 64,1 2,905 0,612

Sub-Saharan Africa 62,9 51,1 2,031 0,514

OECD … 79,0 32,647 0,932

European Union … 79,0 29,956 0,937

Source: Human Development Report 2009, s.174.

are very intense. Among these countries, Turkey the assistance policy in the context of the has the highest human development index value “Global Governance”. As it is known, terrorism and Afghanistan has the lowest HDI. Table 5 is seen in the international level. No country by shows the HDI values by taking the regional itself can solve it. Therefore, international coop- status into account. eration is required in order to solve this prob- lem. The Global Governance policy including in- According to Table 5, the regions where more ternational cooperation against international terrorist activities are taken place have low in- terrorism should be introduced as soon as possi-

Official Development Assistance and Terrorism dex values compared the other regions. They ble. Beside the global governance policy, “Good also have low development indicators. Governance” practices in less developed recipient countries will provide significant con- Conclusion tributions to solving not only the problems of development and but also the problems of It is observed that the Official Development As- terrorism. sistance can not solve the development problem of the recipient countries alone. However, it can Notes: help reduce the poverty by increasing the effec- tiveness of such assistance. So, the individual * Bayram Güngör is Associate Professor participating in terrorist activities and terrorist at Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey. organizations may be minimized. The most ef- fective support to improve the efficiency of de- 1. Abadie, Alberto, “Poverty, Political Freedom velopment assistances is the administration of and the Roots of Terrorism”, The American

53 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 COMMENTARY | By Assoc. Prof. Bayram Güngör

Economic Review, Vol.96, No.2 (May Vol.20 (2004), 403-421 2006), 50-56 10. Hayden, Goran, “Governance and Poverty 2. Beall, Jo; Goodfellow, Thomas; Putzel, Reduction in Africa”, PNAS, Vol.104, No. James, “On the Discourse of Terrorism, 43, 2007, (16751-16756). Security and Development”, Journal of International Development, 18, 51-67 11. Hirotsune, Kimura, “The Direction of Gov- (2006) ernance: The Second Pillar of Poverty Re- duction Strategy”, Forum of International 3. Blomberg, S. Brack; Hess, Gregory D.; Or- Development Studies.36, March 2008, phanides, Athanasios, “The Macroeco- (63-84). nomic Consequences of Terrorism”, Jour- nal of Monetary Economics”, 51(2004), 12. Krieger, Tim and Meierrieks, Daniel, 1007-1032 “What Causes Terrorism”, Public Choice, 2008, p.1 4. Blomberg, S. Brack; Hess, Gregory D.;Weerapana, Akila, “Economic Condi- 13. Krueger, Alan B.; Maleckova, Jitka, tions and Terrorism”, European Journal of “Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is Political Economy”, Vol.20 (2004), there a causal relationship”, Journal of pp.463-478 Economic Perspectives, Vol.17, No.4, Au- tumn, 2003, 119-144 5. Briefing Paper, 6/2005, CUTS-The Centre for International Trade, Economics and 14. Lancester, Carol, “Poverty, Terrorism and Environment National Security”, www. wilsoncen- ter.org/news/docs/ACF59B2.doc 6. Clapham, Christopher, “Terrorism in Africa: Problems of Definition, History 15. OECD, www.oecd.org and Development”, South African Journal of International Affairs, 10, 2, 13-28 16. Piazza, James A, “Economic Development, Poorly Managed Political Conflict and Ter- 7. Don P. Clark, “Distributions of Official rorism in India”, Studies in Conflict and

Official Development Assistance and Terrorism Development Assistance among Develop- Terrorism, 32:406-419, 2005 ing Country and Recipients”, The Develop- ing Economies, XXX-3, September 1992 17. Weiss, Thomas G, “Governance, Good Governance, and Global Governance: 8. Frey, Bruno S;Luechinger, Simon; conceptual and actual challenges”, Third Stutzer, Alois, “Calculating Tragedy: As- World Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 5, 2000, sessing the Cost of Terrorism”, Journal of (795-814). Economic Survey, Vol.21, No.1, 2007 18. Wolfensohn, James D., “Fight Terrorism 9. Gupta, Sanjeev; Clemens, Benedict; Ba- By Ending Poverty”, www.digitalnpq.org/ hattacharya, Rina; Chakravati, Shamit, archive/2002_spring/wolfensohn.html “Fiscal Consequences of Armed Conflict and Low and Middle Income Countries”, 19. Woods, Ngaire, “The Shifting Politics of European Journal of Political Economy, Foreign Aid”, International Affairs, 81, 2 (2005), 393-409

54 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection GLOBAL CITY ANALYSIS | By Fatih EREN

BUCHAREST

“It is a city still figuring out what it wants to be”

By Fatih EREN*

Bucharest

initially wanted to analyse Bucharest as a Iglobal city in this section because Bucharest is at a stage of economic, social and physical transition as a result of global concern which started especially after 2005.

Bucharest is the capital city of Romania which lies in the south-eastern part of Romania. It is the biggest city and the principal political, cultural and economic centre of Romania.

Romania joined to European Union in 2007. This ac- cession was a breaking point for Romania in terms of the emergence of global concern towards the coun- try. Romania suddenly became the centre of foreign direct investments in Southeast Europe. It was natu- ral that Bucharest – Ilfov regions which were the pioneer counties of the country were the most inter- esting places for global investors. Coat of Arms

55 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 GLOBAL CITY ANALYSIS| By Fatih EREN

structure after 2007. Using EU funds, the city Localities under global concern renovated its drainage infrastructure; a railroad beltway, a new airport, motorways and hydroe- lectric power plants have been constructed in Bucharest. These are good developments for Bu- charest. However, Bucharest is facing with new The future of localities under global impact hardships in the new global era which it didn’t meet in its history . After Romania’s accession to the EU, Bucharest has started to attract investment capital from EU The biggest challenge for Bucharest is the funds. EU has granted 30 million euro to the ‘identity’. The city was developed in an oriental country as state aids for infrastructure invest- (Asian) urban form under constitutional monar- ments (telecommunication, transportation, en- chy in the history. Between 1948 (the World War ergy) and 22 million euro of this aid was given to II) and 1989 (the Revolution), the city was sub- Bucharest – Ilfov regions. ject to communist urban developments under socialist republic. For the last 21 years, the city is Bucharest has also benefited from the rising for- under the influence of occidental (western Euro- eign direct investment flows due to the privatiza- pean) urban developments. It is important to un- tion process in banking, telecommunication, utili- derline the fact that global investments are ties and manufacturing sectors in the country. strongly supported and speeded up the occiden- International institutional investors from Europe tal urban developments in Bucharest. Histori- have gone in a competition for loading the opera- cally, there are many discontinues and non-linear tions of major public services or purchasing im- streets which emerged as a consequence of city’s portant public enterprises in the country. organic growth between 15th and 19th century. Bucharest These organic streets (dead streets) may be con- Many individual and institutional small investors verted to continual (regular) streets; narrow from the world have found a place for themselves streets may also be developed into wide streets in Bucharest as well in order to benefit from the in the context of a revitalization project in the fast growing economy of Romania. These private public transportation system in the near future. investors have focused their investments on two EU is expected some reformations in the urban sectors: real estate and information technology (IT).

Today, international investments are still going on in Bucharest despite the global economic cri- sis which emerged at the end of 2008. Bucharest has started to feel the impact of this global con- cern on its urban form, social and economic life.

The impact of global concern on Bucharest: Analysis

The global concern on Bucharest gave a chance to the city to renew and develop its old urban infra- The location of Bucharest in Romania

56 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection GLOBAL CITY ANALYSIS| By Fatih EREN

Table 1: Foreign Direct Investments between 1995 and 2009 in Romania (UNCTAD)

structure and some revitalizations in the public transport system in Bucharest. It is natural that these reformation and revitali- zation projects must be up to EU standards.

Bucharest Bucharest’s existed unique urban stan- dards will meet with general EU standards in these revitalization and renewal pro- jects. Here, the question is: Will Bucharest take into consideration of its previous local characteristics/vision/structures which are coming from its history OR Will Bucha- rest ignore its own past and take posses- sion of a new characteristics/vision/ structures for itself which was specified by EU?

Another challenge for Bucharest in its glob- alisation and liberalisation process is the ‘integration’ at a variety of scales. The long term perspectives and demands of EU and the short term perspectives and demands of local authorities on Bucharest are in conflict in the city. The basic reason for this conflict is the competition between deci- The identity problem of Bucharest

57 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 GLOBAL CITY ANALYSIS| By Fatih EREN

sional local authorities in Bucharest. Local authorities are prefer short term ap- proaches which usually support ongoing urban development trends in their prac- tices. However, EU tried to put Bucharest (Romania in general) in a specific position (the centre of technology investments and trade) in South Europe which is appropri- ate for the new strategic vision of EU. Therefore, the application of EU direc- tions for the territorial development is quite weak in Bucharest at this stage. An effort to establish strong partnerships between project elaborating actors and implementing actors of those projects is Increasing living costs in Bucharest needed in the near future.

The changing cost of living is also a matter in Bu- mania in coherence with the Romania’s territorial charest. On one hand, the sales of residential development plan and new EU vision for South property to international investors were speeded Europe. In this context, the European Institute of up after 2005 as a result of economic and legal Innovation and Technology was founded in the reforms which was made by the state in the EU city in 2008. In addition, a new large technology membership process. This international invest- park was planned by territorial authorities in the ment interest on the city’s housing stock caused a city. As a result of governmental incentives to- Bucharest rapid increase on house prices and house rents in wards IT sector, many international technology Bucharest. On the other hand, many international companies came to Bucharest and opened their brands were involved in the local retail market head offices in this city. There are about 13.000 through newly developed shopping centres after IT companies at the moment. Every year, about 2007 and the prices of retailing products in- 3000 new small, middle or large technology com- creased gradually as much as the European aver- panies have been established in the city. These age in the stores and supermarkets of new shop- developments will lead the birth of a new upper ping centres. The number of wholesale markets social class among the local urban community. and market places which have a semi-legal status The life style of this new social class will be dif- and provide relatively cheap retailing products to ferent from the ordinary local people of Bucha- the customers are decreasing year to year in a rest in terms of living and working times and or- planned way in order to take the unregistered der in the urban area. This new social group and local economy under control in the city in rela- their visitors will bring in a social mobility and tion with the city’s future vision. These develop- high-style living to Bucharest. ments mean that the cost of living in Bucharest is rising every year under global impact. New developments will have a negative impact on the success of present transportation policy in Bucharest is introduced to a new social life and Bucharest. One of the key transportation strategy order in the new global process. It is becoming for Bucharest is to reduce car traffic in the city. the centre of new technology investments in Ro- New shopping centres with available parking

58 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection GLOBAL CITY ANALYSIS| By Fatih EREN

spaces which were developed all over the city ficulty on the success of the restriction on car use makes the realization of this strategy difficult. In policy. It is important to bear in mind that the addition, users and visitors of new A-class office rising levels of car ownership under global im- buildings and technology centres may tend to use pact will increase traffic congestion together with their private cars instead of public transportation air and noise pollution in the near future in Bu- in the future. Therefore, the free and flexible charest. movements of the people working and visiting these offices and centres can also be another dif- I want to complete my Bucharest analysis with an environmental impact of the global concern. As part of the European waterway project connect- High-style living is rising in Bucharest ing the Rhine and Danube rivers, bottlenecks in the Danube rivers between Bulgaria and Romania will be eliminated. This project involves the artifi- cial deepening of the river to reach a minimum depth of 2.5 meters at all times of the year. This trans-national project seems to be an important transportation project for Europe’s cohesion. However, not only this project may have a perma- nent negative impact on valuable intact stretches along the Da- nube, but also it may have an negative impact on the speed and amount of Bucharest water flowing in the rivers of Bu- charest. These rivers are hosted several A Dalmatian Pelican in important spe- Danube River cies such as Dal- matian Pelicans. A less destructive, ecological and innovative solu- tions must be considered in the project design process for environmental care and for saving the natural life in the rivers of the world.

Note:

* Fatih Eren is Doctoral Researcher in Department of Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield. Increasing traffic congestion in Bucharest E-mail: [email protected]

59 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 JOURNAL OF GLOBAL ANALYSIS Interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed academic journal by CESRAN (Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis) www.cesran.org/jga

Editor-in-Chief: Ozgur TUFEKCI King’s College London, UK ISSN: 2041-1944 Managing Editor: Husrev TABAK UCL, UK Book Review Editor: Kadri Kaan RENDA King’s College London, UK Associate Editors: Emel AKCALI, Dr. University of Birmingham, UK Mitat CELIKPALA, Assoc.Prof. Kadir Has University, Turkey Bayram GUNGOR, Assoc. Prof. Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Editorial Board: Sener AKTURK, Dr. Harvard University, USA | William BAIN, Dr. Aberystwyth University, UK | Alexander BELLAMY, Prof. University of Queensland, Australia | Richard BELLAMY, Prof. University College Politics London, UK | Andreas BIELER, Prof. University of Nottingham, UK | Pınar BILGIN, Assoc. Prof. Bilkent University, Turkey | Ken BOOTH, International Affairs Prof. Aberystwyth University, UK | Stephen CHAN, Prof. SOAS, University of London, UK | Nazli CHOUCRI, Prof. Massachusetts Economics Institute of Technology, USA | John M. DUNN, Prof. University of Cam- bridge, UK | Kevin DUNN, Prof. Hobart and William Smith Colleges, USA | Mine EDER, Prof. Bogazici University, Turkey | Ertan EFEGIL, Assoc. Prof. Sakarya University, Turkey | Ayla GOL, Dr. Aberystwyth University, UK | Stefano GUZZINI, Prof. Uppsala Universitet, Sweden | Elif Ince HAFALIR, Assist. Prof. Carnegie Mellon University, USA | David HELD, Prof. London School of Economics, LSE, UK | Raymond HINNE- Indexed BUSCH, Prof. University of St Andrews, UK | Naim KAPUCU, Assoc. Prof. University of Central Florida, USA | Fahri KARAKAYA, Prof. Uni- versity of Massachusetts Dartmouth, USA | Abdulhamit KIRMIZI, Dr.  Columbia International Affairs Online (CIAO) SOAS, University of London, UK | Cécile LABORDE, Prof. University Col- lege London, UK | Ziya ONIS, Prof. Koc University, Turkey | Alp OZER-  EBSCO Publishing Inc. DEM, Prof. Coventry University, UK | Oliver RICHMOND, Prof. Univer-  EconPapers sity of St Andrews, UK | Ian TAYLOR, Prof. University of St Andrews, UK | Murat TUMAY, Dr. Selcuk University, Turkey | Talat ULUSSEVER, As-  IDEAS sist. Prof. King Fahd University, Saudi Arabia | Ali WATSON, Prof. Uni- versity of St Andrews, UK | Stefan WOLFF, Prof. University of Birming-  Index Islamicus ham, UK | Hakan YILMAZKUDAY, Assist. Prof. Temple University, USA | International Advisory Board:  International Bibliography of Book Reviews of Yasemin AKBABA, Assist. Prof. Gettysburg College, USA | Mustafa Schorlarly Literature in the Humanities and AYDIN, Prof. Kadir Has University, Turkey | Ian BACHE, Prof. University of Sheffield, UK | Mark BASSIN, Prof. University of Birmingham, UK | Social Sciences (IBR) Mehmet DEMIRBAG, Prof. University of Sheffield, UK | Can ERBIL, As- sist. Prof. Brandeis University, USA | Stephen Van EVERA, Prof. Massa-  International Bibliography of Periodical Litera- chusetts Institute of Technology, USA | John GLASSFORD, Assoc. Prof. ture in the Humanities and Social Sciences Angelo State University, USA | Bulent GOKAY, Prof. Keele University, UK | Burak GURBUZ, Assoc. Prof. Galatasaray University, Turkey | Tony (IBZ) HERON, Dr. University of Sheffield, UK | John M. HOBSON, Prof. Uni- versity of Sheffield, UK | Jamal HUSEIN, Assist. Prof. Angelo State Uni-  International Relations and Security Network versity, USA | Murat S. KARA, Assoc. Prof. Angelo State University, USA (ISN) | Michael KENNY, Prof. University of Sheffield, UK | Gamze G. KONA, Dr. Foreign Policy Analyst, Turkey | Scott LUCAS, Prof. University of  Lancaster Index to Defence & International Birmingham, UK | Christoph MEYER, Dr. King’s College London, UK | Kalypso NICOLAIDIS, Prof. University of Oxford, UK | Bill PARK, Mr. Security Literature King’s College London, UK | Jenik RADON, Prof. Columbia University,  Research Papers in Economics (RePEc) USA | Ibrahim SIRKECI, Reader Regent’s College London, UK | Claire THOMAS, Dr. University of Sheffield, UK | Brian WHITE, Prof. University  Social Sciences Information Space (SOCIONET) of Sheffield, UK | M. Hakan YAVUZ, Assoc. Prof. University of Utah, USA | Birol YESILADA, Prof. Portland State University, USA |  Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory CHINA REVIEW | By Antony Ou

Confucius Vs. Avatar:

Rethinking Confucian Advocacy in the 21st Century

By Antony Ou*

Introduction

Fei Mu, who is now regarded as one of the all-time Confucius Vs. Avatar -favourite directors of China, filmed Confucius in 1940 during the time of the Japanese invasion. He attempted to reconstruct the life of Confucius (551-479BC) during the period of Spring and Au- tumn (770-476 B.C.). Every copy of the film had supposedly lost and forgotten until 2001, Hong Kong Film Archive has received an anonymous film donation of the long-lost movie. It was re- stored and shown in 2010. After watching the film twice in 2010, as a scholar of Confucianism, I do not think that the movie carries exceptionally strong modern political message, although Fei Mu was a patriot who produced several crucial patri- otic movies. Instead, Fei Mu tried to provide us a very plain and overall picture of Confucius within his context: A chaotic and divided feudal state of Lu with internal struggles for power. Confucius, at A portrait of Confucius

61 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 CHINA REVIEW | By Antony Ou

his age of 50, was exiled and travelled to other man scientists create Na'vi-human hybrid bodies, countries for 14 years in order to pursue his namely avatars. The avatars are connected to hu- moral and political ideal of ren (benevolence). He man controllers’ neurons so that they can re- had never succeeded and went into many kinds of motely control their avatars. The avatars are the troubles. Nevertheless, his teachings have subse- “good guys” who attempt to make friends with the quently influenced imperial China for more than Na’vi, and that is how the story begins. 2000 years afterwards.

Hu Mei has made another film of Confucius this For any educated American public, they can easily year in 2010. It has created numbers of contro- associate this with the 2003 Gulf War: American versies at the same time. The film was originally troops, together with supported allies, unilater- scheduled in 2009, which was the commemora- ally launched an unjust war against Iraq for oil. tion of the 60th anniversary of the People’s Repub- Consequently, this anti-war movie acts as a cata- lic of China (PRC). However, the release date was lyst for pacifists and also serves as an education adjourned to January 2010. The new Confucius for people who still support the unethical war. As movie takes a very different approach from the for any green-alert global citizen, this film is a old one by “hollywoodizing” Confucius— Confu- horrific mirror of human beings: in the name of cius becomes a “nationalist” and an almost de- short-term efficiency, effectiveness and economy; railed lover. One can argue that these were propa- and for the pursuit of material happiness, human ganda strategies that could possibly boost the box beings can annihilate any obstacle in front of -office (Gross revenue of 127 millions RMB). Yet, Chinese people seem to prefer James Cameron’s movie Avatar, which received around $700 mil- lions RMB nation-wide (2.7 billion USD world-

Confucius Vs. Avatar wide). The film has conquered the Chinese box office for three weeks and received positive re- views. Why do the Chinese people like Avatar, much more than their very own national “avatar” Confucius? Why do the Americanized futuristic freedom fighters won over the “blood and soil re- lated” ancient Chinese saint?

Avatar and Its Implication to China

The movie Avatar sets the time in 2154, where human beings invade the planet of Pandora, for the sake of unobtanium, a type of precious energy for the Earth. The “hawkish” humans ignore and damage the population, culture, feelings, and rob natural resources of the Na’vi, the human-like in- Avatar by James Cameron habitants with blue skins. At the same time, hu-

62 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection CHINA REVIEW | By Antony Ou

American Imperialism anymore; it actually re- ‘China is never a “harmonious” flects the present social unfairness of China. place due to its undemocratic In the last issue of Political Reflection (PR), in the and injustice environment. The article named “Hong Kong Democracy: A Pessi- “haves” are the exploiters and mistic Review”, I contend that, the “have-nots” are severely The concept of a “harmonious society” has become oppressed.’ an over-arching theme campaigning over the years in China. The Chinese central government advo- cates that it is necessary to construct a them. Pollutions of any kind are intractable prob- “harmonious society” while enjoying the economic lems, but they can be delayed to our next genera- prosperity. The term has been repeatedly criticized tion. Human beings are hopeless when it comes to as a strategy that underplays the democratic re- environmental protection, just like what was por- form of China. trayed in the film. China is never a “harmonious” place due to its un- How does the 3-D Avatar relate to China? If one democratic and injustice environment. The checks closely the newspapers on Chinese local “haves” are the exploiters and the “have-nots” are injustice: corrupted developers from different re- severely oppressed. The Gini coefficient is alarm- gions of China force innocent citizens to move out ing (0.45 in 2009). There are plenty of demonstra- of their homes with minimal compensations. The tions and social conflict every single day, which poor citizens could be raped, murdered and their for the majority of them would never occupy a properties are most probably confiscated by their tiny corner of both the national and international

Confucius Vs. Avatar local officials. In other words, many of these local newspapers. As I have mentioned in the last issue officials have already violated most of the univer- of PR, “the only reason for a government to pro- sal human rights by any global standard. Chinese mote harmony is because the society of which it scholars regard such political atrocity as “New governs lacks harmony.” Enclosure Movement”. Moreover, the eviction law can by no means protect its own citizens. The gov- Government Propaganda and Historical Dis- ernment can gain lands with minimal costs for tortion government and private projects, infrastructure development and rapidly growing economy. Bei- The movies Avatar and Confucius were shown jing Olympics 2008 and Shanghai Expo 2010 are more or less the same time in China. For the latter, two prime examples illustrating the problems of it did not enjoy a high box-office like the former. the New Enclosure Movement. Thousands of Cinemas were then allowed only to show the 2-D homes were literally destroyed for happy tourists version of Avatar. Some of the movies were even from the West. Maybe the advancement of the 3-D banned to show any version of Avatar so as to technology can only partly explain the phenome- pave way for the movie Confucius. In addition, non of Avatar’s success. Yet, in many Chinese government units and state enterprises had been movie viewers’ eyes, the movie Avatar is not about “block-booking” the tickets of Confucius for mem-

63 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 CHINA REVIEW | By Antony Ou

bers of staff. For some of the theatres, in order to boost the figures of Confucius tickets, they were sending the tickets as free gifts for people who purchased Avatar tickets. The Chinese web-users were infuriated by the unnecessary actions of their government and some of them actually advo- cated to boycott the film Confucius. The govern- ment “marketing” of the movie was a complete failure and it never gains sympathy from the me- dia and the general public. However, for people who would like to know more about Confucius do not know much about his life and philosophy, the government might successfully provide an alter- native but distorted image of Confucius. These distorted contents of distorted content of Confu- cius indeed convey strong political modern mes- sage for modern Chinese. Confucius in 2010

As Yao Dali, a prominent Chinese historian, pro- 1) Yan Yuan, the most appreciated disciple of Con- claims, “If I were Confucius and watch the new fucius, died at his age of thirty-one. According to film, I would never wish to be Confucius!” To Yao, historical evidence, he died because of sickness, Confucius depicted in the film is a highly distorted and probably due to malnutrition. However, the image, which is not following strictly to historical movie director Hu Mei manufactures history by evidence. Such a statement is a fierce challenge to arranging Yan Yuan as a tragic hero: He rode a

Confucius Vs. Avatar the historical accuracy of the “hollywoodized” horse carrier, loaded with piles of bamboo strips film. Anyone who reads The Analects and The Book (texts for teaching), following Confucius and other of Records (Shiji), the two most reliable historical students. It was a day of snowstorm and they sources for Confucius’ life and philosophy, would needed to go across a frozen lake. Accidentally, realise immediately one of these historical manu- the ice cracked and Yan Yuan fell into the water. facturing below: Instead of saving himself, he sacrificed himself by diving into the frozen water repeatedly and saving the bamboo strips. Some might relate him to “If I were Confucius James Cameron’s Titanic’s self-sacrificed Jack. Oth- ers relate him to Lei Feng, a selfless and model sol- and watch the new dier during the Maoist period. film, I would never 2) Confucius once had a private meeting with Nan wish to be Zi, who was the favourite mistress of the Duke of Confucius!” Wei. According to historical texts, by ancient stan- dard, she was an immoral person by having affairs with the Prince of Song. However, it is hard to ar-

64 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection CHINA REVIEW | By Antony Ou

gue whether Nan Zi seduced Confucius in any play was to present a strong political message of sense. Interestingly, the role was presented as a feminism in the early 20th century. In this sense, Chinese version of Cleopatra who tempted Confu- unlike many Chinese historians and philosophers’ cius with captivating clothing and seductive mu- negative views on the recent movie Confucius, I sic. As the sage of Chinese people for more than cannot find anything wrong by “manufacturing 2000 years, Confucius resisted firmly with propri- Confucius”. ety against the temptation. What I would like to focus in this essay is the 3) In an inter-state meeting (the conference of moral-political lesson of the movie. Films are Jiagu) between Lu and Qi, as a representative of deeds. There could be quite a number of political Lu, Confucius never applied any surprise military conjectures of the film Confucius, yet, one of the move to deter the strong force of Qi. Instead, dur- most obvious motives of the film is— Confucius is ing the meeting, Confucius killed the midget a nationalist. The state-promoted movie empha- armed dancers of Qi, whom Confucius accused sises ancient concepts such as social harmony, them as the ones who did not act according to Li respect of hierarchy, and individual conformity (the Rite of the central authority Zhou), and they within a society. These ancient virtues, according were also a security threat to the Duke of Lu. By to the movie, can all contribute to modern Chi- modern standard, such killing might be classified nese nationalism. In my reading of the 2010 as “handicapped discrimination”. movie Confucius, it is a much more intense na- tionalistic product than the film Confucius in The list is not exhaustive. However, a question 1940. One must be noted that these modern appli- follows: what’s wrong with hollywoodized Chi- cations of ancient concepts are dubious— it could nese movies like Confucius? Arguably, Hollywood elements make films enjoyable and entertaining.

Confucius Vs. Avatar Also, this is how arts should work (both high and pop arts). The means and functions of movie are very different from philosophy and history, that the former is quite similar to literature, which em- phasizes arbitrary selection, exaggerations and distortion; entertainment, creativity and ambigu- ity. Blockbusters such as The Gladiator, Robin hood, and 300, all involve historical distortion and artificial creation. In this sense, historical distor- tion and art creation of movies are inevitable and sometimes desirable. For instance, in 1928, Lin Yutang, the so-called “Master of Humour”, pro- duced an one-act play named “Confucius visited Nan Zi”. In the play, Nan Zi was portrayed as a feminist who argued strongly for gender equality, while Confucius was embarrassed and confused by such progressive thought. The purpose of the Movie Confucius by Fei Mu in 1940

65 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 CHINA REVIEW | By Antony Ou

ment’s propaganda. However, if we really have to use his words out of context, then according to “Confucius once warned Yan Yuan that The Analects, Chapter 12 of Yan Yuan, “Not to do “Look not at what is contrary to to others as you would not wish done to yourself.” propriety; listen not to what is contrary I believe that no one likes to be limited their to propriety; speak not what is contrary choices of movies, either the officials or the citi- to propriety; make no movement which zens. Good paternalism does not apply to such a is contrary to propriety." case. During the Cultural Revolution, revolution- ary model operas were the only legal movies and dramas for general public. Of course, any pro- Confucian movies and literature were banned and be a straw man fallacy without acknowledging Anti-Confucius Movement prevailed. Citizens, for particular contexts and authorial intentions. As a most of them, were disciplined, bored and became result, the modern manufacturing product of Con- apathetic to politics. The Confucianism advocacy fucius in any form is merely a political tool for in the 21st century might, ironically, share some of “social-reengineering”. (For details, see What is the features of the propaganda of that particular Living and What is Dead in Confucius: A Question tragic period, since they are both one-sided, selec- for Rising China, Political Reflection Issue No.1) tive, and manipulated. Confucius once warned Yan Yuan that “Look not at what is contrary to Can anyone possibly imagine during the Cultural propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propri- Revolution (1966-1976), Chinese people con- ety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make demned their “own heritage” by smashing the ma- no movement which is contrary to propriety." jority of Confucius and related temples? There However, for any modern Chinese people in the were tens of thousands of books about Anti- 21st century, they must be aware and realise that

Confucius Vs. Avatar Confucius Movement. However, since the early they are still not entitled to have the universal 80s, Sinology was “liberated” and became a hot rights to “look, listen, speak and make move- subject for generations of scholars. The public ments”. celebrates its revival. Therefore, the movie Confu- cius is actually just a part of the unfinished project Note: of the boom of sinology since the 1980s. There are other prime examples, including Yu Dan’s lectures * Antony Ou is a PhD Researcher of Univer- in Chinese Central Television (CCTV). sity of Sheffield, the China Review editor of Political Reflection Magazine, and the China Rethinking Confucianism Advocacy in the 21st Representative of CESRAN. His monograph, Century Just War and the Confucian Classics: A Gongyangzhuan Analysis, has been pub- Confucius, an ancient person who was born 2560 lished and is available at amazon.com. years ago, can never tell whether we are obliged E-mail: [email protected] to watch his biographic movie of the 21st century. Twitter: https://twitter.com/ouantony It is even not a wise thing to do to check The Ana- Douban: http://www.douban.com/people/ lects for quotes that can mildly justify the govern- ouantony/

66 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection FILM REVIEW | By Alaaddin F. Paksoy

Midnight Express: Hatred Beats Cinematography

“The fault of the movie is simple. It is a movie about Turkey without any Turk in it, neither in the cast nor in the production team. Its hatred against Turks is too overt which makes the narration weak and less rivet- ing than it could have been.”

By Alaaddin F. Paksoy*

idnight Express is a story about a Turkish prisoners are dirty, and even the glorious young American man, Billy Hayes, city Istanbul and Turkish food which all Turks are who was arrested in Turkey when proud of are bad in Midnight Express. he was smuggling hashish before Mboarding airplane. The film was released in 1978 and won 2 Oscars. Now it is much easier to reach the movie but it is getting less popular while there are more sources to learn something about Turkey.

Midnight Express has a big impact in restricted Midnight Express: Hatred Beats Cinematography Turkish image in the western world. In absence of the internet and other alternative information net- works in the late 70s and 80s, the movie had been a crucial keyword in the discussions regarding Tur- key’s ill treatment to prisoners. However the movie depicts more than a regular human rights violation and represents everything BAD if they are some- how related to Turkey/Turkish/Turkishness: Ugly moustached, very dark tanned (probably darker than Turkish average), homogenous police officers grinning and looking at a naked American boy (Bill Hayes) with homosexual intentions, the Turkish lawyer is a real trickster, the Turkish prosecutor is so cruel, the Turkish prison is like a pigsty, the

67 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 FILM REVIEW | By Alaaddin F. Paksoy

Representation of Turkish people in Midnight Ex- “Midnight Express aroused so much press, it is emphasised that the director Alan interest in a –relatively- less globalised Parker wants the Turkish characters speaking in world. If a script as overtly hatred as Turkish so that the audience can understand Billy Midnight Express used in a new movie Hayes’ isolation in the middle of mayhem. The di- rector says: “Part of Billy's problem was the alien- today, it could be perceived like a ation because he was surrounded by people comedy or just a rubbish fantasy.” speaking a strong guttural language he couldn't understand so he did not know what was going on a good share of the time” (1).

The fault of the movie is simple. It is a movie about Technically, the successful part of the movie is in Turkey without any Turk in it, neither in the cast its visuality. The sets were perfectly made and the nor in the production team. Except some estab- director used the light finely when he shoots the lishing shots from Istanbul, all scenes of the movie scenes at prison and court. Politically, the success- were shot in Valetta, Malta. Even this information ful part of the movie is that it reached its aim as it could be enough to watch it critically and think it has been a strong evidence and reference when as a clear anti-Turkish propaganda. Turkey’s bad human rights record was on the agenda. The movie is full of stereotypes and exaggerations but it should be definitely powerful on audience Midnight Express aroused so much interest in a – who has never visited Turkey or made some re- relatively- less globalised world. If a script as search on it. However, it can be claimed that Mid- overtly hatred as Midnight Express used in a new night Express was not cleverly made. Few people movie today, it could be perceived like a comedy can praise the script of the movie or its cinema- or just a rubbish fantasy. Alinur Velidedeoglu shot tography in general. First of all, its hatred against an amateur interview video with the real Billy Turks is too overt which makes the narration Hayes in Cannes in 1999 and Hayes confessed that weak and less riveting than it could have been. the movie was full of exaggerations. Although the Secondly it includes clear mistakes that you may movie aimed to humiliate Turkey and Turkish not expect from a professional film crew. The people, one should claim that the movie could also

Midnight Express: Hatred Beats Cinematography story reveals that the production team did not (or have little (or moderate) impact on rehabilitation could not) dare to ask help from a Turkish per- of human rights and democracy in Turkey. spective. Amendments in regulations, the reports of inter- national organisations and people’s own experi- Call of prayer (the azan) and Muslim prayers are ences show the huge change when it is compared incorrect in the movie. As an anachronism, the with the conditions in the 1970s. “fez” hat were shown several times worn by Turk- ish public although it was abolished in 1925 and Notes: not popular at all in Turkey in the 1970s. Also the Turkish conversations are mainly incorrect in the * Alaaddin Paksoy is Doctoral Researcher at movie as they were made by foreign cast. It is the University of Sheffield. even impossible for Turkish audience to under- stand them as the original movie does not include 1) Zaim, Dervis. Representation of Turkish the English subtitles when the conversations are people in Midnight Express. Literary jour- in Turkish. Regarding this, in Dervis Zaim’s article, nal, November 1994.

68 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture:

"Turkey's Security Perspective in its Region and the Relations with the E.U"

By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

May 11th, 2010 - 5.30pm, University of Birmingham

is Excellency Mr Yigit Alpogan has cal Affairs and Ambassador of Turkey to Turk-

been Ambassador of the Republic menistan. Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture of Turkey to the United Kingdom of HGreat Britain and Northern Ireland since July 2007. Prior to this he was Secretary General of the National Security Council of Turkey from Oc- tober 2004 to July 2007 and Ambas- sador of Turkey to Greece from No- vember 2001 to September 2004. Mr Alpogan entered the Foreign Ser- vice in January 1968 and has held positions as Deputy Under-Secretary in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Director General for Bilateral Politi-

69 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

Although the topic men- the focus was still about tions about the security as- security aspects to the rela- pects of Turkey and Tur- tionships of Turkey but the key’s relations with the out- main issue came from the “It has always been an ar- side world, the main em- development issue and phasis is going to be Tur- dent desire in both the Turkey’s position in the key’s membership with the times of Ottoman Empire world where it would like EU. However, before going to be and in which group and later in the Republican into the Turkey’s member- Turkey should take its ship to the EU, I am going to times to place. In fact, this has talk about the historical associate Turkey with started with 1959 with the perspective of security and Rome Agreement as we all Europe or in general sense Turkey’s position in the know, the first seeds of the world. We like to talk about with the West.” EU. Turkey applied for an Turkey and its geopolitical associate membership in position on the world map 1959 and with Ankara by starting saying that Tur- Agreement in 1963, the key tries to be a member of first relation started with the EU and part of Europe but it does not stop the EU started with this respect. This should not there. Turkey is also a Balkan Country, a Mediter- be any surprise to anybody that Turkey opted es- ranean Country, a Black Sea Country, part of the pecially after the end of the Cold War and the fall Caucasus, part of the Middle East and Asian Coun- of the Berlin Wall and so on that Turkey made its try. Therefore, it is like a prism for a policy formu- choice with the West. Because this was a national lator to look at the situation of Turkey in the trend, in fact, when one looks at the Turkish his- world and its security aspects and its future aspi- tory. It has always been an ardent desire in both rations about where Turkey’s position would like the times of Ottoman Empire and later in the Re-

Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture to be. publican times to associate Turkey with Europe or in general sense with the West. Turkish gov- It was easy during the Cold War times as far as ernment always tried to be in closer contact with the security aspect was concerned because there the west and with the modernisation idea or the was the cold war and there were two camps. In project that the West “always” generally repre- that, Turkey took a place rather early in 1952 and sents. This process of modernisation began with Turkey became a member of NATO. After the the Tanzimat Prescript promulgated in 1839 and thaw of relations between east and west that was thereafter other steps were taken during the Otto- around mid 70s, when the conference for security man times. We had our first constitutional era in and cooperation in Europe was founded, Turkey 1876 and second one in 1908 and after the col- took its place. This was one forum where in the lapse of the Ottoman Empire in the First World old terms east and west met, had discussions War, Turkish nation started to come into being about arms control, economic cooperation, hu- and in 1920, we had the inauguration of the first man rights and so on. After the demise of the So- Turkish Grand National Assembly which carried viet Union and when a new era opened, of course out the national war of liberation. In 1923, we had

70 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

the proclamation of the republic and the Ataturk mainly in the field of economy and the customs era dawned on Turkey which had undertaken but it was also a strong indication of the efforts many reforms which were of great importance as trying to integrate the Turkish economy that of well as they concerned very different areas of so- the EU back in 1996. In 1999, we have been finally cial life in Turkey. In short, with these efforts Tur- recognised as a candidate country though we key came to become a country where the require- were not able to start negotiations. For this, we ments of the modern age, as it was back in 1920s had to wait until 2005. 17th of December 2004 and so was already there. And for the Turkish Na- was a memorable day for us as Turkey was recog- tion under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal nised as the country which had fulfilled at least Ataturk, these series of political, cultural and so- the initial requirements to start negotiations with cial as well as economic reforms were imple- the EU. Of course the understanding was that mented which put Turkey on a par to speak with other additional reforms would follow and 10 the other countries of the West. Of course, there months later after the gaining of the status to were still needed efforts which were to be fol- start the negotiations with EU and in October lowed later. This was the main background and 2005, the actual negotiation period with the EU the main foundation of the modern Turkey which started. Today, the current negotiating process has started to take shape. continues between Turkey and the EU. It is al- ready close to 5 years. In line with these progressive steps, Turkey also participated in almost all of the western institu- Negotiations as you know is a process where a tions like the Council of Europe, OECD, OECE and candidate country or an aspiring country adapts NATO. In our eyes, the EU membership is a part of its legislation to that of the EU. Therefore maybe strategic process of transformation, moderniza- the word negotiation is a misnomer, because the tion of Turkey. As I mentioned a while ago, the EU if one regards it as a club, has certain criteria adventure of Turkey for full integration with or qualifications to enter, and the aspirant would Europe Union, as in those days was called Euro- either fulfil the requirements, thereby adapt to all

pean Communities, started with the first step, an the requirements, thereby making the necessary Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture application as an associate membership in the EU changes to its legislation and undertake reforms in 1959. In 1962, Ankara Agreement was fol- in many fields because it’s a matter of adapting lowed. Other steps were: in existing structure to the 1987, the application for EU. Turkey is now in that full membership to the EU, “Turkey, in fact, was (and process and it is done by we signed for the Customs chapters. There are 34 still is) the only country Union, in 1996, Turkey, in chapters that cover differ- fact, was (and still is) the among the member states ent areas. They are agricul- only country among the and the candidate states ture, social, relationship member states and the that has CU agreement that is labour relations, for- candidate states that has with the EU, there is no eign policy, monetary pol- CU agreement with the EU, icy, economic policy, eco- other example of this.” there is no other example nomic and social life in the of this. This is of course country, etc. We have now

71 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

opened 12 chapters and provisionally closed one member countries. That means even after Turkey chapter out of this. So the message is that the has fulfilled all the requirements, those countries process is going slowly. Why is that? First of all, with those requirements would go to their citi- Turkish people feel that they have not been zens and ask whether they like Turkey in the EU. treated equally by the EU. Here I need to make a One such country as France. And after all these differentiation between EU and EU countries. EU negotiations, with more than % 50 of votes saying is an entity body whereas EU countries are differ- no, Turkey would be rejected. This cannot be clas- ent countries. When I talked about EU, this is the sified in any way as justice and right way of act- collective will or power of the EU where Turkey is ing. Another country for this example is Austria. facing difficulties in conducting its entry into the Also there are other hurdles that have been put EU. Until Turkey has on the way of Turkey. started negotiations, Eight chapters are every country which blocked because of the has got the candidate Cyprus problem. Cy- status started negotia- prus problem is a “The Greek Cypriot administration tions. The aim of nego- problem of interna- tiations is clear and as a result of unresolved Cypriot tional issue. To us, the simple, full member- issue and as a result of the Greek EU made a big mistake ship. When Turkey Cypriot taking into the EU in a by taking this prob- started negotiations, premature way, they have blocked lematic area into its negotiations were open midst as a full member all by themselves three or four ended, this is the first and because of this instance of inequality in more chapters.” problem and its reper- Turkey’s relationship cussions, eight chap- with the EU. Another ters are blocked. one is that a new notion France blocked four

Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture came around 2004 and 2005 when we started more chapters. In the opinion of France, those negotiations. People in the EU started to talk chapters which had direct bearing on Turkey’s about digesting capacity of the EU. They said that integration with Europe which is the substance of Turkey was too big, too populous with a big econ- the matter, they should put on a hold. Foreign pol- omy; it might take time for the EU to digest Tur- icy, for example, France doesn’t let Turkey to key. Previously there was no country classified open up this chapter and start negotiations with like this, therefore, they had very smooth negotia- the EU. Agriculture is another chapter. When tion process. Now Turkey is being faced with such chapter is not opened for negotiations, the adap- excuses from the EU. Third one is that, when any tation processes that are legislation, law etc. can- candidate country in the past, fulfilled the nego- not be started to be discussed. About 14 chapters tiations, requirements, they have become mem- are blocked like this. The Greek Cypriot admini- bers automatically. For Turkey, when we finish up stration as a result of unresolved Cypriot issue this negotiating period, in other words, closing all and as a result of the Greek Cypriot taking into the these 34 chapters in a successful manner, we EU in a premature way, they have blocked all by would still be facing referendum from the EU themselves three or four more chapters. Because

72 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

In the EU, the EC the governing body has repeat- edly reminded the EU as a whole, must not only stick to its commitments but also act in accor- “...we believe that ‘pacta dance with previous decisions taken by consen- sunt servanda’ should sus. In other words, on the road to the full mem- be essential and the bership, we believe that ‘pacta sunt servanda’ signatures on the papers should be essential and the signatures on the pa- pers should be kept by the EU. Aside from Tur- should be kept by key’s capabilities to adapt and own those princi- the EU.” ples that give life to the EU, no other considera- tion like the ones mentioned a while ago should play a role. We, on the one hand, try to negotiate with the EU, on the other hand, try to stress that as we know that the EU works on a veto basis, point. We want to give the message that Turkey when one country does not go along with the ex- only wants equal treatment and justice in its ne- isting project or proposal, they can put a veto on gotiating process with the EU. Again I want to it. So Greek Cypriot did exactly that. Depending on make a difference between EU as a common or their mood, three or four additional chapters joint will of group of nations and the attitude of were also blocked. In short we cannot touch upon individual countries. There are a great number of 17 chapters. So the situation is there are 34 chap- countries in the EU that support Turkey’s mem- ters. 12 have been opened, 22 left, 17 of these, bership. I am happy to state that these countries because of those blockades or blockages, cannot are led by the Britain. Also Spain, Italy, Sweden, be opened, there are only 5 chapters left on the Portugal, Baltic countries, which have the major- way to the full membership which can be opened ity in voting if it came to voting (unfortunately it which is not enough while we have 17 resting is not a matter of voting) and others are strongly over there without even being touched upon. In a in favour of Turkey’s participation. But because of

sense we can say that we are approaching a dead this veto system and the stopping mechanism of Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture lock in a technical term and while Turkey is ready negotiating, the process cannot do much except to become a full member and integrate with the encouraging us with all these difficulties to con- EU, the negotiation process will apparently need tinue on the road for full membership. When we some more time. Despite all these political diffi- ask for integration to the EU, we have a different culties involved, we are determined to accelerate set of arguments in favour of Turkish accession the momentum of the reforms and prove our and we try to bring these to the attention of Euro- commitment to the accession process. We are not pean people, political leaders especially to the implementing the reforms to satisfy the EU, I countries who do not like to see Turkey in the EU, think this message should be given to the EU. We at least for the time being. We try to tell them to are adapting new norms and legislation for Turk- look at the accession from a political perspective ish people. Because this reformation and mod- first of all. Turkey is the only country simultane- ernization is in interest of the Turkish people re- ously the member of G20, NATO and the Organi- gardless of whether EU takes us in or not. We will zation of Islamic Countries. Turkey is the largest continue on this reform process. non EU contributor to ESDP missions which is the

73 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

security armed of the EU. Turkey is also deter- areas in our region, if only EU has realized this mined partner for security, stability and harmony asset and taken Turkey without further objections in a multitude of regions. On issues as diverse as, to its midst. In terms of economy, Turkish econ- Iran, Iraq, the Middle East, Afghanistan, Pakistan, omy has become one of the fastest growing Georgia, Kosovo and others, Turkey’s efforts are economies in the world which is due to the deci- directed at facilitating dialogue and compromis- sive implemented structural reforms and success- ing. Turkey has taken the initiative in the Cauca- ful macro economic policies. Turkey is the 15th sus by suggesting the Caucasus stability and coop- largest economy in the world and 6th largest econ- eration platform. The normalization between Tur- omy in Europe. Also Turkey is predicted by inter- key and Armenia is in progress. We also worked national observers to have one of the top ten for the stability of the Balkans. Kosovo and Bosnia economies in 2050. High growth rates recently Herzegovina still need our have positive impact on attention and support. Also our GDP per capita, raising in the few last years, Tur- it to almost 10000 $. Also key brought Israel and according to the OECD fig- th Syria together, conducted “Turkey is the 15 largest ures, Turkey will become facilitation work between economy in the world and 6th the third highest growing these countries, but be- largest economy in Europe. country after China and cause of Israel’s attack to India in 2017. As a result of Also Turkey is predicted by Gaza, unfortunately it did- the liberalization policies n’t bear any result. Also in international observers to since 1980s, Turkish econ- Turkey, Afghanistan and have one of the top ten omy enjoys high growth Pakistan met and came to- economies in 2050.” rates on its foreign trade gether. Moreover, Lebanon every year. Consequently, and Iraq’s embittered the total trade volume hit groups came together in 334 billion dollars in 2008.

Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture Turkey through quite and effective diplomacy. With a population of 73 million people, Turkey is Turkey supports the Middle East peace process one of the 10 emerging markets in the world and and we would like to see that NATO is successful attracting about 17 million dollars FDI on the av- in Afghanistan and Pakistan. International terror- erage annually. In short, economically, let alone ism should be eradicated. Turkey is also a non being a burden of the EU, Turkey would become permanent member of the UN Security Council an asset of the EU with this high level of develop- and this is a reflection of our increasing weight in ment and with these economic indicators. I should international politics. We enjoy the confidence add here very briefly that Turkey was affected and we are trusted by the international commu- very lightly by the recent global economic crisis. nity in those different areas in diplomacy. In This was started as a financial economic crisis, short, we want to give the message that Turkey since reforms that have been undertaken back in politically would be an asset for the EU. Turkey 2001 as a result of preparation for eventual EU would be an arm where EU cannot reach. We negotiations. The Turkish banking sector is the would facilitate EU’s outreach to Caucasus, the strongest economic banking sector in the world Middle East, central Asian Turkic republics, other today. Therefore it was very comfortable for Tur-

74 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

key to weather this storm because of the strength Azerbaijan’s and Caspian’s natural gas resources of our banking sector. One other important asset to be available first for Turkish domestic needs for the EU is the field of energy. Turkey is close to and following that, for two main projects. First the 70% of the world’s energy resources. Being at one is called the Turkish-Greek interconnection. the centre of world energy map, Turkey is trying Turkey is transmitting natural gas from Azerbai- to realize projects with a view of strengthening its jan to first Greece and it is proposed through role as a transit country. In order to contribute to Greece down into the Mediterranean and to Italy. the Europe’s energy through source and route Second one is to connect Bulgaria, Romania, Hun- diversification, Turkey has elaborated all its en- gary and Austria, which is called the Nabucco pro- ergy efforts under two main projects. First one is ject. the east west energy corridor and second one is the north south axis. In the east west energy corri- The basic agreement has been signed and the dor, the first one is the Baku Tbilisi Ceyhan oil start of the project is 2012 which will take 3 years pipe line which carries about 50 million tons of oil of construction. So a huge natural resource has from Azerbaijan and the Caspian Sea. In other been transformed through Turkey to satisfy words, oil richness of the countries of the east of Europe’s needs. By this way turkey would be in- Turkey is carried to the Mediterranean. Second strumental in providing EU as the fourth major one is the natural gas capacity of the Caspian Sea artery. We know that Europe gets gas mainly from and Azerbaijan where it is integrated into the na- Russia, in that sense Europe needs a diversifica- tional grid in Erzurum in Turkey. This line brings tion of its resources, from Norway, LNG from Al-

Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture

75 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 KEYNOTE LECTURE | By HE Mr. Yiğit Alpogan

Turkey, we believe it can hardly influence world politics in the 21st century. Some European politi- “As Turks, we would like to believe cians are well aware of the benefits of Turkish that the EU is not a Christian club; in- membership to the EU including foreign secretary stead, we hope that the EU will be Milliband who stated that the project of an out- opening its arms to all the cultures ward looking EU needs a clear goal, inclusion of Turkey as a full and equal member. As a member and civilizations in the world.” of the EU, Turkey’s contribution to the EU will be much more than European opinion thinks. With Turkey as a member, the EU will be a stronger geria. Therefore, in addition to these three, this economic, military and political power. The Turk- line around 2015 will be the fourth energy supply ish membership will enable the EU to be more artery for Europe. This is another argument for effective in areas targeted by its neighbourhood Turkey to become a full member of the EU so that policy as well as in volatile but strategic regions. everything should be smooth and Turkey should With Turkey on board, the EU will demonstrate be playing this role as an EU country. This shows that European ideas are about humanity and civil- the merits of Turkish accession into the EU in the ity and it embraces not clashes with different cul- field of energy. Also geographically, by its mere tures. The Turkish membership will prove that position, Turkey’s proximity to the Balkans and the EU is not an exclusive club based on religious the rest of Europe as well as to the emerging mar- and others subject considerations. As Turks, we ket in central Asia, the Middle East and the North would like to believe that the EU is not a Christian Africa would create significant business opportu- club; instead, we hope that the EU will be opening nities for the European firms and European pri- its arms to all the cultures and civilizations in the vate sector. One of Turkey’s biggest assets is its world. Finally we believe that Turkey’s member- educated, young, dynamic human resource. The ship will help the EU and the West in broader current average age is 28 years. By contrast, the terms to promote security, security and prosper-

Turkish Ambassador to the UK Lecture west European population growth is stable or ity. We will continue to bring this to the attention negative, therefore, in the future, Turkey’s distinc- of the European leaders. Meantime we will con- tive capacity is expected to contribute signifi- tinue faithfully to negotiate as much as we can cantly not only to Turkey but also Europe. The negotiate in the light of those impediments that I centre of gravity as we all know of the global have mentioned. We won’t lose our hopes be- economy is shifting from developed to emerging cause we believe that Turkey’s place is in Europe countries and from west to east. There is a grow- and Turks will continue to be working together ing interest from US to China, India, Asia, Russia and cooperating with the Europeans. and the Asia Pacific region. This region is a prior- ity of the Obama administration as the secretary Note: of state Hilary Clinton states America’s future is linked to the future of the Asia Pacific and future * Political Reflection’s Editorial Board would like of this region depends on America. Hence the to thank Aksel Ersoy for his efforts to prepare the European continent is losing its political impor- transcription of Mr. Yigit Alpogan’s speech at the tance in the world stage day by day and without University of Birmingham on May 11th, 2010.

76 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection LEADER OBSERVER | By Simay Özlü Diniz

Turkish Business Cowboys in the U.S.

By Simay Özlü Diniz*

afer Caglayan, the state minister for the United States. This article not only aims to foreign trade of the Republic of Turkey, applaud the minister’s achievements but also to visited the United States with the touch upon the policies of the current Turkish ambition of improving Turkish- government AKP. ZAmerican economic cooperation and promote Turkey’s research and development incentives to Mehmet Zafer Caglayan is the Minister of Turkey the world. Beginning on July 17, Caglayan toured and Member of Parliament of the current Texas, Illinois, Georgia, California and New York government AKP that has been in power since for a week to find out ways to enhance trade with 2007. Caglayan was graduated in mechanical

Zafer

Caglayan Turkish Business Cowboys in the U.S. (R)

Caglayan was decorated with honorary fellowship of Houston (1).

77 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 LEADER OBSERVER | By Simay Özlü Diniz

engineering from Gazi University in Ankara in petroleum, construction, lumber, paper and is rich 1980 and pursued his career in the aluminium in natural resources. industry. Before his appointment as the Minister, he was the president of the Ankara Chamber of The CIA World Factbook states that although Industry and the vice-president of the The Union Turkey has improved economically between 2002 of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of and 2007 through investment in emerging Turkey. He worked for structural and micro- markets, the country has been burdened as a economic reforms and engaged in lobbying result of high current account deficit and external activities. He is the president of two companies debt (CIA Website 2010). One of the key factors Akel Alüminyum A.S and Caglayanlar Alüminyum that is required for the development of Turkey is Limited. The minister’s dynamic character stability. In that respect, further economic and resulting from his business background and his judicial reforms and admission to the EU are friendly personality is required to advance the influential in establishing already improving foregin relationships and networking direct investment (FDI). The for promoting economic stock value of FDI was at more cooperation. Caglayan has “In spite of the than $180 billion at the end of risen when he found the global financial 2009. There has been opportunity for using his crisis of 2009, privatization sales in the corporate skills in the political country, that are currently Turkish economy arena after the AKP was approaching $39 billion. In elected as the governing party. remained robust May 2006, the Baku-Tbilisi- due to its banking Ceyhan pipeline became The primary goal of Caglayan and structural effective to flow oil up to 1 is to introduce economic reforms million barrels per day from opportunites in Turkey to the Caspian to market. In spite implemented foreign investors and increase of the global financial crisis of Turkish exports. Turkish when the country 2009, Turkish economy

Turkish Business Cowboys in the U.S. economy has been improving suffered a national remained robust due to its since its establishment. financial crisis in banking and structural reforms According to the Turkish implemented when the 2001.” Exporters Assembly (TIM) country suffered a national Turkish economy has become financial crisis in 2001. The the 17th largest economy in information about Turkey’s the world having a GNP of 750 financial status on the website billion USD(TIM Website 2010). Turkey survived of CIA World Factbook ends with explaining the the Global Crisis without any destructive effects country’s need for exports and how the and relatively small losses. The country has the uncertainty related to policy-making discourages highest growing rate in Europe with 5.8% average investor confidence. economic increase between 2002 and 2008. The national per capita income over 10.000 US$ has As the foreign trade minister, Caglayan aims to tripled since 2002 and the inflation is around 5%. improve Turkish economic cooperation with The country has been industrialized especially in other countries as well as the U.S. He conducted a textiles, food processing, autos, electronics, trip to U.S. in July 2010 to facilitate the economic mining (coal, chromate, copper, boron), steel, relationship between the two country (World

78 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection LEADER OBSERVER | By Simay Özlü Diniz

Bulletin Website 2010). The minister represents Houston including Exxon, Conoco Philips, the foreign trade policies of the AKP that includes Westlake Chemical, JP Morgan, General Electric boosting economic activities in the U.S. as well as Oil and Gas, Port of Houston Authority, the rest of the world. According to initiatives of Schlumberger, Texas Medicam Center, Methodist the Foreign Trade Undersecretariat, Turkey's International, AECOM, ForsterQuan, Greater foreign trade target countries are the United Houston Patrnership, Euroil, BP, Houston Airport States and China as well as many other countries. System, Shell, ORR Textile Co. Ltd., Mayor of Caglayan said, the Turkish government provides Baton Rouge/Louisiana, Shaw Energy and great incentives for investment in the country. Chemicals Group and Oklahoma Chamber of The Turkish minister describes Turkey as one of Commerce. the world's most vibrant and fastest growing economies. He also The following day, Caglayan mentiones that in spite of its joined the banquet hosted by dynamic economic potential “Turkish Texas Turkish American Turkey doesn’t have have its Chamber of Commerce and place in U.S. trade and is construction Houston Chamber of Commerce trying to increase exports to industry, that has a where he was decorated with the country. During his visit honorary fellowship of Houston Caglayan said, although the business volume of (TTACC Website 2010). As a United States has an import 170 million USD in representative (cultural vice volume of 1.6 trillion USD, president) of American Turkish Turkey's exports to that over 80 countries, Association (ATA) I also country remains only 3.5 did not have a part attended the luncheon and had billion USD (TTACC Website a chance to meet Mr. Caglayan. 2010). He also added that in the U.S. In the program Texas Senator Turkish construction construction Rodney Ellis gave a speech. industry, that has a business During the luncheon program volume of 170 million USD in industry.” in which 300 businessmen

over 80 countries, did not attended, the minister Turkish Business Cowboys in the U.S. have a part in the U.S. conducted a live phone construction industry. The minister mentioned conversation with Turkish Airlines (THY) that Turkey's next foreign trade destination is Director General Temel Kotil and requested the China after the United States, and he would THY to start direct flights from Istanbul to conduct a similar visit to that country. Houston to promote business (Turkish Weekly Website 2010). Caglayan wanted to present the A significant part of Caglayan’s U.S. tour involved Americans that Turkish businessmen are Houston in addition to his visits to Illinois, available 24 hours to work internationally and Georgia, California and New York. Houston is the emphasized that they are fast and practical. The fourth populous city in the U.S. and is considered time will show whether he convinced Americans as the medical center and the energy capital of that Turks are trustworthy people and Turkey is the world. In Houston, Caglayan attended a one of the countries that they would prefer to dinner participated by company representatives invest in. (TTACC Website 2010). Following the dinner he met with executives of U.S. companies whose The recent developments in the international turnovers are around 1.2 trillion U.S. dollars in arena regarding the AKP’s policies on Israeli

79 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 LEADER OBSERVER | By Simay Özlü Diniz

dispute and Iran raised the questions of whether dictability which will allow further investment in Turkey is headed towards the East instead of the country as proposed by Caglayan and AKP. following its Western policy that promotes the country to be a part of the West, especially the EU. With the purpose of clarifying Turkey’s position Notes: in the world, Caglayan briefly mentioned Turkish foreign policy axis has not changed and * Simay Özlü Diniz is Doctoral Researcher emphasized that Turkey gets along with Israel as and Teaching Assistant at the University of well as the rest of the world. He also stated that Houston. today he is here because Turkey wants to promote its economic and political relationship 1) Source: Texas Turkish American Chamber with the U.S. and its face is not directed towards of Commerce Website http:// only one direction but Turkey is facing the world. www.ttacc.org/component/content/ In order to show that Turkey respects Jews, article/2-homepage-news/78-turkish- Caglayan visited the construction site of a m i ni s t e r - m e e t s - t u r k i s h - a m e r i c a n - synagogue built by a Turkish company (World businessmen-in-houston.html Bulletin Website 2010). References: Nowadays, one of the hottest debates on Turkey is whether the country is leaning towards the East  CIA Website. Retrieved July, 28 2010. or the West as a result of AKP’s current strategies. (https://www.cia.gov/library/ It might be possible that Turkish foreign policy publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ axis has not changed but the country is respond- tu.html). ing glocally. Today, with the affect of global  Texas Turkish American Chamber of culture it is almost impossible for Turkey and Commerce Website. Retrieved July, 28 other non-Western cultures to ignore the Western 2010. “Turkey aims to open construction model development. In responding to this global industry in US”, “Turkish Minister Meets culture the states construct a glocal culture by Turkish-American Businessmen in

Turkish Business Cowboys in the U.S. redefining their own identities and creating Houston” (http://www.ttacc.org/). meanings. This glocal culture is much more in accordance with the countries’ social structure  Turkish Exporters Assembly Website. rather than imposed Western ideologies that are Retrieved July, 28 2010. (http:// alien to their culture. Turkey is a unique case that tim.org.tr/). is trying to democratize, maintain its cultural  Turkish Weekly Website. Retrieved July, 28 identity while preserving good relations in its 2010. “Caglayan calls THY from Houston, geographic region and pursuing economic devel- says ‘Start direct flights to Houston’”. opment. It is most likely that balance, stability and (http://www.turkishweekly.net/ consistency are the keys for Turkish development news/105099/turkey-press-scan-24-july- which sounds easy in theory but indeed hard in 2010-.html). practice. One of the most important developments in Turkey is the forthcoming referendum on 12th  World Bulletin Website. Retrieved July, 28 of September, 2010 that will determine the role of 2010. “Turkish Minister meets executives of judiciary in the country. The outcomes and the top US firms in Houston” (http:// following national status will determine whether www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php? Turkey will achieve the desired stability and pre- id=61685).

80 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection AFRICA REVIEW | By Chris, M. A. Kwaja

President Goodluck Jonathan and Nigeria’s Frail Democracy

By Chris, M. A. Kwaja*

The death of the Late President and Commander in and low places of the Nigerian society. This was Chief of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Umaru reflected in the creation of a ministry of the Niger Musa Yar’adua on Wednesday, 5th May, 2010, cre- Delta and the granting of amnesty to militants; ated a power vacuum that was immediately filled commitment electoral reform and the setting up by his Vice, Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, who be- of the presidential committee on electoral reform; came acting President following the inability of the Late President to discharge his constitutional responsibility due to ill health. The National As- sembly bowed to pressure from the people to de-

clare President Goodluck Jonathan as Acting President Goodluck Jonathan President under what was described as the Doc- trine of Necessity, without invoking Section 145 of the Constitution that prescribes that the Late President can resign on the grounds of incapacita- tion, or can be declared unfit to rule, as well as impeached as the case may be.

In a fundamental sense, President Goodluck Jona- than is a product of the Yar’adua/Goodluck ticket that came into power on the 29th May, 2007. In his maiden speech to the nation, the Late President recognized and appreciated the fact that the gov- ernment was a product of a flawed electoral proc- ess. In this sense, he expressed the commitment of the regime towards upholding the principles of President good governance, the rule of law, constitutional- Goodluck Jonathan ism, as well as the fight against corruption in high

816 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 AFRICA REVIEW | By Chris, M. A. Kwaja

commitment to the rule of law and due process. room for adjustments so as to into the ensu- All of these constitute the pillar upon which the ing circumstance as it relates to his candida- philosophy of the government stood. With the ture. death of Yar’adua, Goodluck is now saddled with the responsibility of realizing these goals. In the final analysis, President Jonathan has legion of challenges to contend with, as far as politics The current political atmosphere in Nigeria is and governance is concerned. The way he handles characterized by strong expectations as well as these challenges which ranges from addressing concerns from both the media and the people in issues of internal security, providing transforma- general about the capacity of President Jonathan tive leadership, strengthening state institutions to to provide the type of leadership that the people deliver better services to the people, reforming expect from him. The role a group of aides of the the electoral process so as to have credible proc- Late President, popularly referred to as the cabal ess for the transfer of political power will no played, as far as politics and governance are con- cerned, impacted negatively on the image of the government, thereby raising skepticisms as to whether the present President will be given the free-hand to govern.

In the run up to the 2011 Presidential elections, the decision or otherwise of President Goodluck Jonathan to contest for the office of the President in 2011 raises serious concern for the future of Peoples the country’s democracy. At least four scenarios Democratic can be developed in this sense: Party (PDP) 1. Not minding the consequence of his action,

President Goodluck Jonathan he might jettison the zoning arrangement of doubt determine his fate as far as the political fu- the ruling Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), ture of Nigeria is concerned. He must avoid some which allow for a Northerner to be Presi- of the pitfalls of the Late Yar’adua by not provid- dent from 2007-2015, and contest; ing an enabling environment for a new set of ca- bals to emerge as a way of reversing the deficits 2. In the face of stiff resistance from both the that have characterized politics, democracy and PDP and the North, he will abandon the governance. This is the sure way towards re- PDP and contest for the Presidency under a building trust, confidence and responsibility on different political party; the Nigerian political system now and in the fu- 3. He will resist all forms of pressure, respect ture. the zoning formula of the PDP, and be a Vice President to a candidate from the North so Note: as to get the party’s ticket in 2015; and * Chris, M. A. Kwaja is Lecturer/Researcher in the Centre For Conflict Management And 4. He might pursue all the three scenarios at Peace Studies at the University Of Jos, Jos, the same time, depending on what the is- Nigeria. sues are, the interests, as well as forces at Email: [email protected] play. This will give him enough time and

82 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection RECENT BOOKS

ISBN: 978-1-4000-6695-7 countries international RECENT BOOKS ON POLITICS immigration is getting more With the war on terror inextricable in both social and Between Threats and War doctrine while international economical aspects. In this U.S. Discrete Military actors has turned their all book Ronaldo Munck has Operations in the Post–Cold military forces mainly towards gathered detailed articles War World Islamic terrorists, the academic which directly adress the world has turned their important points of Author: Micah Zenko attention to the Muslim World immigration issue. Many in order to understand its different researchers answer ISBN: 9780804771917 characteristic values, living key questions of immigration styles etc. In her book Isobel issue such as who immigrant The use of military force is Coleman examines the is, what the effects of always a chaotic problem in situation of women in the immigration over developing international relations. Even Middle East and put forward economies are, what the role of though it is used as the final their roles in social and race and gender in tool in order to solve conflicts political life. By evaluating immigration problem is etc. between political actors, activits and radical movements especially in contemporary in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, The Struggle over world it causes more problems Afghanistan, and Pakistan she Democracy in the Middle than it solves. In his book tracks the the signs of growing East Micah Zenko analyzes US’ feminism and how women military operations which is contribute reform in these Editor: Nathan J. Brown, Emad Shahin one of the most contreversial countries. issue in post-Cold War era. He ISBN: 978-0-415-77380-5 evaluates thirty six US military Globalisation and Migration operations and explains their New Issues, New Politics Many residents of the Middle aims, achievements and East - and more recently, casualities. By doing that he Editor: Ronaldo Munck Western powers - have placed creates an excellent database great hope in democratization for politicians and researchers ISBN: 978-0-415-59087-7 in the region. Yet in order to make cost-benefit authoritarianism remains the analyzes of these operations. As globalization has been norm and movement towards deepening its impacts over democracy is both slow and uneven. Paradise Beneath Her Feet world economy it brings many How Women Are different and complicated The Struggle over Democracy Transforming the Middle problems to the international in the Middle East examines East relations agenda. One of these democracy and complicated issues is the democratization in the light of Author: Isobel Coleman situation of immigrants. regional realities rather than Especially for industrialized the wishful thinking of

83 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 RECENT BOOKS

outsiders. Specialists from the money system, while the and Kazunori Minetaki region analyze democratic chaotic privately-owned banks prospects in the region, while reap the benefits without ISBN-10: 0804773890 accomplished scholars from shouldering the risks. This the United States and the book argues that money is a The notion that innovation in United Kingdom analyze public resource that has been information technology could Western policy, providing a hijacked by capitalism. spark a revitalization of the wide-ranging survey of the Japanese economy became a efforts of individual countries and the effect of external Mary Mellor explores the hot topic in 2000, and the influences. Addressing themes history of money and modern Japanese government including sectarianism, culture, banking, showing how finance announced an e-Japan Strategy religion, security and the capital has captured bank- for creating a "knowledge promotion of democracy, the created money to enhance emergent society" in January book examines the experiences speculative leveraged profits 2001. However, just when a of activists, political parties, as well as destroying collective consensus seemed to be religious groups and approaches to economic life. emerging regarding the governments and highlights Meanwhile, most individuals, importance of IT innovation in the difficulties involved in and the public economy, have Japan, the country's IT bringing democracy to the been mired in debt. To correct industries were deeply Middle East. Providing a multifaceted approach to the this obvious injustice, Mellor influenced by a recession that issue of democratization, this proposes a public and originated in the U.S. Although book will be a valuable democratic future for money. economic conditions have reference for courses on Ways are put forward for improved, strong IT-driven Middle Eastern politics, structuring the money and economic growth in Japan has political science and banking system to provision not bounced back. democracy. societies on an equitable, ecologically sustainable Using a newly constructed set RECENT BOOKS ON ECONOMICS sufficiency basis. of data, this book examines how the Japanese economy has This fascinating study of been affected by advances in The Future of Money: From money should be read by all information and Financial Crisis to Public economics students looking for communications technology, Resource an original analysis of the and whether Japan's economy during the current experience with IT Author: Mary Mellor crisis. advancement was a short-lived bubble or part of a truly ISBN-10: 0745329942 Information Technology revolutionary change in the Innovation and the Japanese Japanese economy that will As the recent financial crisis Economy lead to long-term growth. The has revealed, the state is authors discuss similarities central to the stability of the Authors: Kiyohiko Nishimura and differences between

84 Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection RECENT BOOKS

Japan's experience with IT entrusting the world economy pertinence of Marx's method in innovation and that of the to financiers who believe that the analysis of contemporary United States, where IT is they can 'create' money and global capitalism wherein thought to have played a major wealth. cultural production takes role in stimulating the centre stage. economy. Marx and the Dynamic of the Capital Formation: An The Invisible Hand: Financial Alchemy in Crisis: Aesthetics of Political Economic Thought Yesterday The Great Liquidity Illusion Economy and Today

Author: Anastasia Author: Beverley Best Author: Ulrich van Suntum Nesvetailova ISBN-10: 0230102395 ISBN-10: 3540204970 ISBN-10: 0745328784 This study offers a close This book explains the world of In July 2007, the combination examination of Marx’s economics in simple terms. of a seemingly unstoppable dialectical method of analysis Starting with the questions put rise in house prices and bullish through the lens of current forward by the first economists banks swimming in liquidity debates in cultural studies, it proceeds to the core of meant that almost anyone political economy, and critical today`s economic theory and could get a mortgage in the UK sociology. It seeks to reanimate provides the reader with or US. Little more than a month Marx’s theoretical a straightforward introduction later the supply of credit dried reconstruction of the capitalist to what economists discovered up practically overnight, formation from the point about wealth, unemployment, leaving the world wondering of view of recent and emerging growth, and inflation. The how bank liquidity could social dynamics within author is Professor of suddenly vanish. In Financial advanced consumer Economics at the University of Alchemy in Crisis, Anastasia economies. The book consists Münster in Germany, where Nesvetailova shows that this of two parts: part one the original version has been liquidity never actually existed. reconstructs the defining a great success. Renouncing The rise of sophisticated movement of Marx’s analytical the use of any formal methods, financial instruments created approach as a function of he offers the reader a historical what appeared to be an abstraction. It demonstrates perspective of the main abundance of liquid funds but how Marx’s method articulates economic problems the world was in fact a credit pyramid. a specific theory and practice has to deal with today. The As soon as house prices of representation—one of inclusion of many anecdotes stopped rising the reality was the several dimensions as well as simple figures and exposed. Nesvetailova's bold through which it expresses interesting photos makes and radical analysis explains an “aesthetic sensibility”; part the reading of this book a why the credit crisis was an two opens up to a broader source of great pleasure and inevitable consequence of analysis of the continuing benefit.

85 www.cesran.org/politicalreflection Political Reflection | September-October-November 2010 JOURNAL OF CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION AND SECURITY Peer-reviewed Academic journal by CESRAN (Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis) www.cesran.org/jcts

he Journal of Conflict Transformation and Security (JCTS) provides a plat- form to analyse conflict transforma- tion as the processes for managing Tchange in a non-violent way to produce equitable outcomes for all parties that are sustainable. Se- curity is understood as encapsulating a wide range

Editor-in-Chief of human security concerns that can be tackled by Prof. Alpaslan Ozerdem, Coventry University, UK both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ measures. Therefore, the Journal’s scope not only covers such security sec- Managing Editor tor reform issues as restructuring security appa- Dr. Rebecca Roberts, Coventry University, UK ratus, reintegration of ex-combatants, clearance of explosive remnants of war and cross-border man- Assistant Editors agement, but also the protection of human rights, Mr. Richard Slade, Coventry University, UK justice, rule of law and governance. Mr. Husrev Tabak, UCL, UK

Book Review Editor Ms. Sukanya Podder, University of York, UK

Editorial Board Prof. the Baroness Haleh Afshar, University of York, UK | Prof. Bruce Baker, Coventry University, UK | Dr Richard Bowd, UNDP, Nepal | Prof. Ntudo Edobe, University of Yaounde II, Cameroon | Prof. Scott Gates, PRIO, Norway | Dr Antonio Giustozzi, London School of Economics, UK | Dr Cathy Gormley-Heenan, University of Ulster, UK | Prof. Paul Gready, University of York, UK | Prof. Fen Hampson, Carleton University, Can- ada | Prof. Mohammed Hamza, Lund University, Sweden | Prof. Alice Hills, University of Leeds | Dr Maria Holt, University of Westminster, UK | Prof. Alan Hunter , Coventry University, UK | Dr Tim Jacoby, University of Manchester, UK | Dr Khalid Khoser, Geneva Centre for Security Policy, Switzerland | Dr William Lume, South Bank University, UK | Dr Roger Mac Ginty, St Andrews' University, UK | Mr Rae Mac Grath, Save the Children UK Somalia | Prof. Mansoob Murshed, ISS, The Netherlands | Dr Wale Osofisan, Help Age International, UK | Dr Mark Pellling, King's College, UK | Prof. Mike Pugh, University of Bradford, UK | Mr Gianni Rufini, Freelance Consultant, Italy | Dr Mark Sedra, Centre for Int. Governance Innovation, Canada | Dr Emanuele Sommario, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Italy | Dr Hans Skotte, Trondheim University, Nor- way | Dr Arne Strand, CMI, Norway | Dr Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh, University of Po, France | Dr. Mandy Turner, University of Bradford, UK | Prof. Roger Zetter, University of Oxford, UK