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Development and Integration: the History of Engineers in the People's Development and Integration: The History of Engineers in the People’s Republic of China (1949-1989) vorgelegt von Anyi Wang geb. in Jiangsu von der Fakultät I - Geistes und Bildungswissenschaften der Technischen Universität Berlin zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Philosophie -Dr.phil.- genehmigte Dissertation Promotionsausschuss: Vorsitzender: Prof.Dr.Marcus Popplow Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang König Gutachter: Prof.Dr.Baichun Zhang Tag der wissenschaftlichen Aussprache:15.Juni 2015 2015 Berlin i Abstract The engineering profession has made a significant and distinguished contribution to Chinese society over the past century. It is a contribution, however, which has received little attention from historians apart from the lives of a handful of the most notable engineers. This paper intends to remedy the deficiency by providing an overview of engineers’ origins and development in China from 1949 to 1989. In this paper, the author attempts to analyze the developmental history of Chinese engineers by combining technology, culture and society to explore the factors affecting the development of engineers in socialist China. By reviewing the literature and empirically investigating biographical and bibliometric data, this dissertation not only demonstrates the development of the Chinese engineering profession, but also reveals characteristics of engineers’ education, career patterns and social status from 1949-1989. This research leads to the following findings, the first being the stages of Chinese engineers’ development. In the process of development, Chinese engineers were faced with various difficulties, including systemic factors that hindered innovation, alongside political factors. China witnessed several revolutions and reforms from 1949 to 1989, and Chinese engineers also went through ups and downs in the wave of history. Engineers have been through three stages from 1949-1989: They learned from the Soviet Union in the 1950s, and then started to explore their way out of the predicament through the construction of the Third Line, while suffering the eruption of ideological conflict of the 1960s-1970s, and then renewing and adjusting themselves in terms of engineering knowledge by learning from Western countries in the 1980s. The second finding is the characteristics of Chinese engineers’ occupational patterns. Engineers came from working class and peasant origins and rose through the systems of Chinese engineering education and industrial workplaces into positions of responsibility. The occupational characteristics of Chinese engineers will reveal aspects of engineers’ education, their career and vocational status, and their organizations and interaction with society. The work pursues the notion of engineers as a cohesive occupational group, treats individuals and institutions in so far as they contribute to the elaboration of this concept ii and tries to relate this to the wider context of the PRC in the 20th Century. This study has implications for the contemporary Chinese engineering profession, as it reasseses itself for its future development. iii Vorwort In dem letzten Jahrhundert hat der Beruf Ingenieur, signifikante und einzelartige Beitrage für die chinesische Gesellschaft geleistet. Doch abgesehen von die Lebensgeschichten einer Handvoll meist anerkannten Ingenieur, wurde dieser Beitrag sehr wenig Aufmerksamkeit von den Historikern geschenkt. Dieses Paper hat das Ziel, durch eine Übersicht von dem Ursprung des Ingenieursberufs und der Entwickelung des Berufes in China zwischen 1949 und 1989, die Defizite zu beseitigen. In diesem Paper versucht der Autor die Entwicklungsgeschichte der chinesischen Ingenieure zu analysieren und in der Technologie, Kultur und Gesellschaft nach Faktoren suchen die diese Entwicklung im sozialistischen China beeinflussen. Durch Reviews der Literaturen und empirische Investigation von biographischen und bibliomantischen Daten, stellt diese Dissertation nicht nur die Entwickelung des Ingenieursberuf in China dar, außerdem werden Charakteristik der Ausbildung, Karrierepattern und Sozialstatus der Ingenieure zwischen 1949 und 1989 offenbart. Die Forschung führte zu folgende Resultate: Als erstes sind die Phasen der Entwickelung der chinesischen Ingenieur. Im Prozess der Entwickelung, stellten sich dem chinesischen Ingenieur unterschiedliche Hürden, wie systematische Faktoren die Innovation gehindert haben, aber auch politische Faktoren. China mehrere Revolutionen und Reformen zwischen 1949 und 1989, und die chinesischen Ingenieur haben auch ihre höhen und tiefen im laufe der Geschichte gehabt. Zwischen 1949 und 1989 sind die Ingenieur drei Phasen durchlaufen: In den 50zigern lernten Sie von der Sowjetischen Union, dann fingen sie an durch die Konstruktion der dritten Linie ihren eigenen weg aus der misslichen Lage zu entdecken. In der 60zigern und 70zigern litten die Ingenieur durch den Ausbruch der ideologischen Konflikte und in den 80zigern erneuerten und korrigierten sie sich durch das lernen von den westlichen Nationen. Das zweite Resultat ist die Charakteristik der chinesischen Ingenieurberufsmuster. Ingenieure kommen aus Arbeiter- und Bauernfamilien, stiegen auf im System der chinesischen Ingenieursausbildung und industrielle Arbeitsplätze und nahmen Positionen der Verantwortung an. Die Berufscharakteristik der chinesischen Ingenieure werden auch Aspekte der Ingenieursausbildung, ihre Karriere, ihr beruflichen Status, ihre Organisationen und ihre Interaktion mit der Gesellschaft aufdecken. Die Arbeit verfolgt die Vorstellung von den Ingenieuren als einer kohäsiven Berufsgruppe, iv Individuums und Institutionen in so fern behandelt wie sie der Zusammenarbeit des Konzeptes beitragen und es wird versucht Verbindung zu dem breiten Kontext der PRC im 20. Jahrhundert aufzubauen. Diese Studie hat Implikation für den gegenwertigen chinesischen Ingenieursberuf, da es sich für die zukünftige Entwickelung neu einschätzt. v Table of Contents List of Figures x List of Tables xi Abbreviations xii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Problem definition 1 1.2 Objectives and settings 8 1.2.1 Engineering and engineers 8 1.2.2 The scope of this study 14 1.2.3 Concepts related to engineers in a Chinese context 18 1.3 Research approach 21 1.3.1 Methodology 21 1.3.2 Structure 23 1.4 Review of literature 24 1.4.1 Philosophy and history 25 1.4.1.1 Engineering philosophy and the disciplinary framework of engineering philosophy 25 1.4.1.2 Research on the history of engineering 28 1.4.1.3 Research on the history of engineers 33 1.4.1.4 Research on the Chinese science and technology occupational group 35 1.4.2 Main literature references 37 1.4.2.1 Archive materials 37 1.4.2.2 Newspapers and other publications 38 1.4.2.3 Memoirs and biographies 39 1.4.2.4 Other historical data 39 1.4.2.5 A note on Statistics 40 1.5 Limitations and further study 41 Chapter 2: The formation and development of Chinese engineers 42 2.1 Socialist transformation period 1949-1965 42 2.1.1 Status of Chinese engineers before 1949 42 vi 2.1.1.1 Traditional intellectuals in the Qing Dynasty 43 2.1.1.2 Early Chinese engineers in the late Qing Dynasty 44 2.1.1.3. The proliferation of engineers in the Republic of China(1911-1949) 44 2.1.2 Formation period of Chinese engineers occupational framework, 1949-1965 48 2.1.2.1 National science & technology policy 50 2.1.2.2 Utilization of technical and engineering personal 58 2.1.2.3 Training programs for engineers 61 2.1.2.4 Employment of engineers 70 2.1.2.5 Social standing of engineers 74 2.1.3 Sino-Soviet cooperation and 156 Projects 75 2.1.3.1 The origin of 156 Projects 75 2.1.3.2 The association of Soviet engineers 77 2.1.3.3 The cooperation between Soviet engineers and Chinese engineers 81 2.1.3.4.The impact of 156 Projects 83 2.2 Cultural Revolution period, 1966-1976 85 2.2.1 Policy and Planning 86 2.2.1.1 Economic development plan 87 2.2.1.2 Scientific and technological policy 88 2.2.2 Changes in engineering training program 89 2.2.2.1 Education revolution in engineering universities 90 2.2.2.2 Factory-Based training of technical personnel 96 2.2.3 The treatment and daily work of engineers 99 2.2.4 Mobility of engineers 102 2.2.4 The China Model: a case of ‘Two-Bombs, One-Satellite’ Project 105 2.3 Engineers in the Reform period, 1978-1989 110 2.3.1 Data on scientific and technical personnel 111 2.3.2 Policy adjustment 114 2.3.3 The new formation of an engineers’ framework 117 2.3.3.1 Training of engineers 118 2.3.3.2 Occupational conditions 121 vii 2.3.3.3 Professional title system 122 2.3.3.4 Engineering organization 122 2.3.3.5 Legal protection 124 2.3.4 Engineers come to power 125 2.3.5 International cooperation and imitative innovation (taking BaoSteel as an example) 126 Chapter 3 Education and training of engineers 132 3.1 Single level or Multilevel：the structure of Chinese engineering schools 134 3.1.1 Undergraduate education: the ever-changing training objectives 134 3.1.2 Professional-secondary education: a supplement to undergraduate education 138 3.1.3 Postgraduates: the approach to cultivating engineering teachers 141 3.2 General or special education, a dilemma for Chinese engineering education 144 3.2.1 Colleges and departments 150 3.2.2 Disciplines and majors 154 3.2.3 Curricula 160 3.3 Theory and practice 165 3.3.1 The establishment of practical patterns 165 3.3.2 The deviation from practical patterns 168 3.4 Examples: Tsinghua University and Beijing Institute of Electric Power 170 3.4.1 Polytechnic University of Tsinghua University 171 3.4.1.1 The establishment of Polytechnic University of Tsinghua University 171 3.4.1.2 Departmental adjustment with the Soviet pattern as the model 174 3.4.1.3 The implementation of informal teaching systems 181 3.4.1.4 Recovery of engineering education 184 3.4.2 Engineering college - Beijing Institute of Electric Power 189 3.4.2.1 Secondary technical schools 189 3.4.2.2 Specialized higher educational institutions in a particular industry 190 3.4.2.3 Multi field schools with advantages in industry 193 Chapter 4 Careers and vocational status 197 4.1 Professional fields 197 4.1.1 Agriculture engineers: Peasant scientists vs.
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