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Scientific Communities in the Developing World Scientific Communities in the Developing World Scientific Communities in the Developing World Scientific Communities in the Developing World Edited by jacques Caillard V.V. Krishna Roland Waast Sage Publications New Delhiflhousand Oaks/London Copyright @) Jacques Gaillard, V.V. Krishna and Roland Waast, 1997. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. First published in 1997 by Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd M-32, Greater Kailash Market I New Delhi 110 048 Sage Publications Inc Sage Publications Ltd 2455 Teller Road 6 Bonhill Street Thousand Oaks, California 91320 London EC2A 4PU Published by Tejeshwar Singh for Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd, phototypeset by Pagewell Photosetters, Pondicherry and printed at Chaman Enterprises, Delhi. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Scientific communities in the developing world I edited by Jacques Gaillard, V.V. Krishna, Roland Waast. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Science-Developing countries--History. 2. Science-Social aspect- Developing countries--History. I. Gaillard, Jacques, 1951- . 11. Krishna, V.V. 111. Waast, Roland, 1940- . Q127.2.S44 306.4'5'091724--dc20 1996 9617807 ISBN: 81-7036565-1 (India-hb) &8039-9330-7 (US-hb) Sage Production Editor: Sumitra Srinivasan Contents List of Tables List of Figures Preface 1. Introduction: Scientific Communities in the Developing World Jacques Gaillard, V.V. Krishna and Roland Waast Part 1: Scientific Communities in Africa 2. Sisyphus or the Scientific Communities of Algeria Ali El Kenz and Roland Waast 3. Scientific Communities in Egypt: Emergence and Effectiveness A.B. Zahlan 4. Kenya: Crisis in the Scientific Community Thomas Owen Eisemon and Charles H. Davis 5. 'The Nigerian Scientific Community: The Colossus with Feet of Clay Yvon Chatelin, Jaques Gaillard and Ame Sophie Keller 6. The Senegalese Scientific Community: Africanization, Dependence and Crisis Jacques Gaillard 7. Science and Technology in South Africa: A New Society in the Making Jean-Baptiste Meyer Part 2: Scientific Communities in Asia 8. Twists and Turns in the Formation of the Chinese Scientific Community Yang Anxian, Shen Aiqun, V.V. Krishna and V.P. Kharbanda 9. A Portrait of the Scientific Community in India: Historical.Growth and Contemporary Problems V.V. Krishna 10. The Thai Scientific Community: Reforms in the NIC of Time? Charles H. Davis, Jacques Gaillard and Thomas Owen Eisemon Part 3: Scientific Communities in Latin America 11. Bitter Harvest: The Growth of a Scientific Community in Argentina Hebe Vessuri 12. Growing Pains: Brazilian Scientists and their Shifting Roles Antonio Botelho and Simon Schwartzman 13. Science and Production in Venezuela: Two 'Emergencies' Rafael Rengifo, Arnoldo Pirela and Rigas Amanitis Contributors Index List of Tables Growth of Number of Students and Degrees in Algerian Universities, 1857-1990 Growth of Different Higher Education Sectors in Algeria, 1970-90 Publication Output, 1980-90 Annual Averages of Publications Indexed by ONRS, PASCAL and IS1 Research Budgets in the University Sector, 1976-90 Relative Publication Outputs by Main Research Areas Number of Students Enrolled in Egyptian Universities by Major Discipline Number of Graduates from Egyptian Universities by Major Discipline Egyptian Institutions P~blishingFifty or More Refereed Publications Publication Outputs of Four Arab Countries, 1970-85 Publication Output in the Arab World by Country and by Field, 198145 Annual Per Capita Output of Scientific Publications Kenyan Mainstream Scientific Authors by Institutional Affiliation, 1985-91 Mainstream Scientific Authors by Major International and Regional Institutions, 1987-91 Kenyan Authors of Agricultural Literature by Institutional Affiliation, 1985-91 Kenyan R&D Institutions' Sources of Research Funding, 1988-89 The Nigerian Universities Teaching Staff in Nigerian Federal Universities, 1965-66 to 1984-85 The Federal Research Institutes Number of References from the Ten Most Productive Countries, 1987-90 Thematic Distribution for the Top Three Countries-Main Research Areas Indicator of National Affiliation Indicator of Associativity Distribution of Senegalese and Expatriate Scientists in the Main Public Institutions Number of Scientists in the Main Institutional Sectors in 1990 Sources of Research Funding in Senegal Growth of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1949-91 Selection Criteria for Researchers in Research Institutions R&D Expenditure by Major Science Agencies National Expenditure on R&D List of Tables 7 9.3 Growth of Indian Journals in S&T, 1900-90 255 9.4 Growth of Journals in Different Specialities of Biological Sciences in India. 1900-80s 257 9.5 Advance Research Centres in Molecular Biology in India 258 12.1 Political Ideologies of Brazilian Elites 343 13.1 Two 'Scientific Styles' of Scientists 357 13.2 Technological Learning in Sampled Firms 367 List of Figures Mainstream Scientific Production of the Countries Under Review, 1985-1992 Research Output of Egypt, 1967-1991 Number of Mainstream Scientist Authors in Selected African Countries, 1980-1991 The Five Most Productive Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa Main Scientific Orientations of Nigerian Science Enrollment of Students at the University of Dakar, 196@-1990 Africanization of Teaching Staff at the University of Dakar, 1977-1989 Number of Researchers at ISRA, 1975-1987 Number of Documents by Institutional Sector Number of Authors by Document Number of White Research Staff Members and Others Organization Chart of South African Research Company R&D Funding Sources Distribution of Students Per Sector and the Proportion of Whites, Indians, Blacks and Mixed Races in 1988 Preface The project on which this volume is based was constituted by the Science, Technology and Development Group of the French Institute for Scientific Research and International Cooperation (ORSTOM), Paris, and the Sociology of Science Group of the National Institute for Science, Tech- nology and Development Studies (NISTADS), New Delhi, during 19W1991. The ORSTOM Group organized two international workshops during this period on the theme 'Emergence of Scientific Communities in the Devel- oping Countries'. The first workshop was organized at ORSTOM, Bondy, France, during 21-25 April 1990; and the second one at Annaba, Algeria, during 24-31 May 1991 in collaboration with the Centre for Research in Applied Economy and the Upper Institute of Management of Annaba. About thirty scholars working in the field of Science, Technology and Society (STS) studies in the context of developing countries participated in these two workshops to discuss various issues relating to the institutional- ization and assimilation of modern science and technology (S&T), profes- sionalization of science, and the growth and effectiveness of scientific communities in the countries of Asia, Latin America and Africa. While the first workshop was useful in exploring the status of S&T in the developing world, the emergence and effectiveness of scientific communities was the focus of the second workshop in Annaba. The deliberations at this latter workshop led to the realization that despite considerable growth in the fields of social history of science and science policy studies, our understanding of the emergence of scientific communities in the developing world is quite limited, and one rarely comes across focused research material on this theme dealing with various countries in a single volume. Thus, the idea of the present volume emerged at this meeting. However, only five out of about twenty-five papers presented at these workshops have been selected for this volume. Other papers dealing with different themes are being published as workshop proceedings from ORSTOM. The chapters on India, Algeria, Senegal, Brazil and Venezuela presented at the two workshops were subjected to several revisions before reaching their present form. Given the limited expertise represented at the work- shops, the editors of the volume invited established scholars working on China, Kenya, South Africa, Thailand, Argentina, Nigeria and Egypt to contribute to this volume. In the process of working together on various themes concerning the problem of the emergence of scientific communities in the developing world, we have constituted an informal network called ALFONSO. The members of this network have been in recurrent contact 10 Scientific Communities in the Developing World for the last three years by making use of various international conferences. The main objective of this network is to promote the field of STS studies in the regions of the developing world. Some of the contributions to this volume were originally written in French and Spanish and have been translated into English. This process consumed more time than we envisaged in 1992, which has delayed the completion of this volume. The editors of the present volume assume complete responsibility for any 'errors' or omissions still deserving atten- tion. Many friends, individuals and institutions have extended recurrent support and cooperation for the project and this volume during the last three years. We wish to particularly acknowledge the support of ORSTOM and Maison Des Sciences De L'Homme, Paris, and NISTADS, New Delhi. Without the recurrent support of these three institutions, the project and this volume could not have been launched. The Science, Technology and Development
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