Fossil Fuels………………………………………………

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Fossil Fuels……………………………………………… Corso di Laurea magistrale in Relazioni Internazionali Comparate Tesi di Laurea Energy and Environment Between development and sustainability Relatore Ch. Prof. Matteo Legrenzi Correlatore Ch. Prof. Duccio Basosi Laureando Alberto Lora Matricola 987611 Anno Accademico 2013 / 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………i Introduction...………………………………………………………….........................................1 PART 1 - ENERGY SECURITY Chapter 1. Energy Security……………………………………………………………………...7 1.1 What is energy security?.......................................................................................................7 1.1.1 Definition of energy security…………………………………………………………………………..7 1.1.2 Elements of energy security………………………………………………………………………….8 1.1.3 Different interpretations of energy security………………………………………………………….9 1.1.4 Theories about energy security……………………………………………………………………..11 1.2 Diversification of the energy mix…………………………………………………………………12 1.2.1 Types of energy sources………………………………..............................................................12 1.2.2 Definition of energy mix……………………………………………………………………………..13 1.3 Growing risks………………………………………………………………………………………16 1.3.1 Energy insecurity……………………………………………………………………………………..16 1.3.2 Geological risk………………………………………………………………………………………..17 1.3.3 Geopolitical risk…………………………………………………………………….........................18 1.3.4 Economic risk…………………………………………………………………………………………22 1.3.5 Environmental risk……………………………………………………………………………………22 1.3.6 Solutions………………………………………………………………………………………………23 Chapter 2. Fossil Fuels………………………………………………....................................25 2.1 History of fossil fuels………………………………………………………………………………25 2.1.1 From the Industrial Revolution to the Second World War……………………............................25 2.1.2 From the second half of the 20th century to present days…………………………………………27 2.2 Types of fossil fuels……………………………………………………………………………….31 2.2.1 Conventional and unconventional oil……………………………………………..........................31 2.2.2 Types of natural gas………………………………………………………………..........................34 2.2.3 Classification of coal…………………………………………………………………………………36 2.3 The fossil fuel industry……………………………………………………………………………38 2.3.1 The hydrocarbon industry…………………………………………………………………………...38 2.3.2 The extraction and transportation of coal………………………………………………………….40 2.3.3 The fossil fuels market……………………………………………………………………………….41 2.4 The peak oil theory………………………………………………………………………………..46 Chapter 3. Alternative energy………………………………………………………………….48 3.1 Nuclear energy……………………………………………………………………………………48 3.1.1 History of nuclear energy……………………………………………………………………………48 3.1.2 Nuclear industry………………………………………………………………………………………51 3.1.3 Debate on the use of nuclear power……………………………………………………………….56 3.2 Renewable resources…………………………………………………………………………….59 3.2.1 History of renewable resources…………………………………………………………………….59 3.2.2 Forms of renewable energies and their exploitation………………………………………………61 PART 2 - ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY Chapter 4. Environmental Security…………………………………....................................71 4.1 What is environmental security?..........................................................................................71 4.1.1 Definition and evolution of environmental security………………………………………………..71 4.1.2 History of environmental studies……………………………………………………………………73 4.2 Environmental change…………………………………………………....................................76 4.2.1 Natural causes of environmental change………………………………………………………….76 4.2.2 Anthropogenic causes of environmental change………………………………..........................81 4.2.3 Environmental change effects………………………………………………………………………85 Chapter 5. The Debate on Climate Change………………………………………………….89 5.1 The scientific debate on climate change……………………………………………………….89 5.1.1 Supporters of the human causation………………………………………………………………..89 5.1.2 Criticism of the human causation…………………………………………………………………..92 5.2 The political debate on climate change…………………………………………………………97 5.2.1 International Relations theories and international cooperation………………………………….97 5.2.2 International environmental agreements…………………………………………………………..99 5.2.3 The United Nations Conference on Environmental and Development………………………..102 5.2.4 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change………………………………103 PART 3 – PERSPECTIVES FOR THE FUTURE Chapter 6. Responses to global warming…………………………………………………...111 6.1 Dealing with climate change……………………………………………………………………111 6.1.1 Mitigation and adaptation to climate change…………………………………………………….111 6.1.2 Mitigation…………………………………………………………………………..........................112 6.1.3 Geoengineering…………………………………………………………………………………….117 6.1.4 Adaptation…………………………………………………………………………………………...120 6.2 Barriers and solutions to policy implementation………………………………………………125 6.2.1 Barriers to effective implementation of climate and energy policies…………………………..125 6.2.2 Overcoming the barriers to policy implementation………………………………………………128 Chapter 7. A sustainable future?....................................................................................131 7.1 Sustainability…………………………………………………………………………………….131 7.1.1 Definition and brief history of sustainability…………………………………….........................131 7.1.2 The three pillars of sustainable development and green economy……………………………134 7.2 Clean energy projects…………………………………………………...................................137 7.2.1 The Grand Inga Project…………………………………………………………………………….137 7.2.2 The Noor Solar Project……………………………………………………………………………..139 7.2.3 Masdar City………………………………………………………………………………………….142 7.2.4 The Geysers………………………………………………………………………………………...144 Conclusions..…………………………………………………………………………………….147 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………...153 Articles……………………………………………………………………………………………156 Websites………………………………………………………………………………………….161 Tables. 1. Classification of energy sources……………………………………………………………………………………13 2. Classification of oil……………………………………………………………………………................................32 3. Conventional and unconventional oil………………………………………………………………………………34 4. Classification of natural gas…………………………………………………………………................................35 5. Conventional and unconventional natural gas…………………………………………………………………….36 6. Classification and extraction techniques of coal…………………………………………………………………..38 7. The hydrocarbons industry………………………………………………………………………………………….40 8. The market of fossil fuels……………………………………………………………………………………………45 9. Nuclear wastes………………………………………………………………………………………………………55 10. Renewable resources and exploitation techniques……………………………………………………………..66 11. Interpretations of environmental security………………………………………………………………………...73 12. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development……………………………………………..103 13. Flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol……………………………………………………………………108 14. Geoengineering methods…………………………………………………………………...............................120 15. Differences between mitigation and adaptation to climate change………………………………………….122 Figures. 1. World energy consumption by fuel in 2010 and projections for 2040………………………………………….15 2. World energy consumption by source in 2012……………………………………………………………………15 3. The seven levels INES………………………………………………………………………………………………51 4. The nuclear fuel cycle……………………………………………………………………………………………….52 5. Natural, low enriched and high-enriched uranium…………………………………………...............................54 6. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)…………………………………………………………………………80 7. Kyoto Protocol and Doha Amendment……………………………………………………...............................107 ABSTRACT Energia e ambiente risultano essere due elementi inscindibili nelle relazioni internazionali. Sin dall’antichità, svariate fonti energetiche sono state sfruttate per generare forza e calore, così permettendo l’evoluzione della società. Date le loro maggiori proprietà, il consumo dei combustibili fossili ha permesso un’accelerazione del progresso umano, tuttavia, tale incre- mento ha comportato seri problemi ambientali, prevalentemente legati all’immissione di agenti inquinanti nell’atmosfera. In particolar modo, l’aumento della concentrazione di gas serra ha determinato un incremento delle temperature medie terrestri con effetti distruttivi in alcune aree del pianeta. Il cambiamento climatico, generato dal surriscaldamento globale, è un problema comune, che deve essere affrontato in un contesto internazionale, se si vo- gliono evitare conseguenze irreversibili. Gli effetti del surriscaldamento non solo mettono a dura prova la vivibilità degli essere umani sul pianeta, ma costituiscono anche un freno per lo sviluppo delle generazioni presenti e future. Tale situazione peculiare ha fatto sì che ve- nisse introdotto il concetto di sviluppo sostenibile, volto a garantire il progresso senza com- promettere ulteriormente l’ambiente. La sostenibilità, infatti, punta sullo sfruttamento delle fonti di energia verde, in primis le rinnovabili, ma anche l’uranio, il cui impatto è senza ombra di dubbio nettamente inferiore a quello dei combustibili fossili. Oltre alle conseguenze eco- logiche, un altro punto a favore delle fonti alternative è, fatta eccezione per l’energia nu- cleare, la loro capacità di rigenerarsi all’infinito. La prima parte è interamente dedicata alla sicurezza energetica. Il primo capitolo fa chia- rezza sul tema, il quale viene generalmente esplicato come la disponibilità di un’offerta ener- getica sufficiente a prezzi accessibili. Tale definizione si appresta a molteplici interpretazioni, che si rispecchiano nella composizione di altrettanto diversi
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