THE INNER MEANING OF OUTER SPACE: HUMAN NATURE AND THE CELESTIAL REALM*

TIMOTHY L. HUBBARD** Texas Christian University, U. S. A.

Abstract Resumen

Kant argued that humans possess a priori knowled- Kant afi rmaba que los seres humanos poseen un ge of space; although his argument focused on a conocimiento a priori del espacio. Aunque este physics of bodies, it also has implications for a argumento se centra en la física de los cuerpos, tam- psychology of beings. Many human cultures orga- bién tiene implicaciones para la psicología del ser. nize stars in the night sky into constellations (i.e., Muchas culturas humanas organizan las estrellas impose structure); attribute properties, behaviors, en constelaciones (imponen estructura); atribuyen and abilities to objects in the celestial realm (i.e., propiedades, conductas y habilidades a objetos impose meaning); and use perceived regularity in en el reino celeste (esto es, determinan signifi cado); the celestial realms in development of calendars, y usan la regularidad percibida en los reinos celes- long-range navigation, agriculture, and astrology tes para el desarrollo de calendarios, navegacio- (i.e., seek predictability and control). The physical nes de grandes distancias, agricultura y astrología inaccessibility of the celestial realm allows a potent (buscan predicción y control). La inaccesibilidad source of metaphor, and also allows projection of física del reino celeste permite una potente fuente myths regarding origin and ascension, places of de metáforas, así como la protección de los mitos power, and dwelling places of gods, immortals, and sobre el origen y la ascensión, los lugares del poder other souls. Developments in astronomy and cos- y aquellos donde habitan dioses, seres inmortales y mology infl uenced views of human nature and the otras almas. Los desarrollos en astronomía y cos- place of humanity in the universe, and these chan- mología infl uyeron las opiniones sobre la naturaleza ges parallel declines in egocentrism with human humana y el lugar de la humanidad en el universo; development. Views regarding alleged beings (e.g., estos cambios ponen en paralelo los descensos en el angels, extraterrestrials) from the celestial realm egocentrismo y el desarrollo humano. Las visiones (and to how communicate with such beings) are acerca de los presuntos seres (como los ángeles y los anthropocentric and ignore evolutionary factors in extraterrestres) del reino celestial (y cómo comuni- physical and cognitive development. It is suggested carse con esos seres) son antropocéntricas e ignoran that in considering views and uses of the celestial factores evolutivos del desarrollo físico y cognitivo. realm, we learn not just about the universe, but also Se sugiere que al considerar opiniones y usos del about ourselves. reino celeste, aprendemos no sólo acerca del uni- Key words: constellations, origin and ascension verso, sino también sobre nosotros mismos. myths, cosmic anthropic principle, Kant, extrate- Palabras clave: constelaciones, mitos sobre el rrestrials. origen y la ascensión, principio cósmico antrópico, Kant, extraterrestres.

* The author thanks Katherine Ortega Courtney, Michael Czuchry, Pamela Marcum, Mauricio Papini, and Keiko Stoeckig for helpful comments on a previous draft of the manuscript. ** Please send correspondence to: Timothy L. Hubbard. Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University. Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA. E-mail: [email protected].

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The objects and events seen in the sky have long part of human nature. Therefore, by considering fascinated human observers. Weather permitting, humanity’s views of a distant “there” which is as the Sun can be viewed as it travels across the sky yet not experienced, we might glean some insight each day, and a person far from the lights of a city into human nature “here,” that is, by considering can view planets, comets, meteors, and thousands our views of the objects and events of the celestial of stars in the night sky. Contemporary views of as- realm, we might deepen our understanding of hu- tronomical phenomena based on radio astronomy, man nature. CCD photography, and computer simulation seem quite different from the stories and legends of an- Seeing patterns and meaning in the sky cient shaman-priests, but both contemporary and ancient views are parts of a larger tapestry in which Even the most casual and fl eeting examination of meaning is sought in and attributed to elements the night sky reveals countless objects, but such of the celestial realm. Most discussions of human objects are not seen as meaningless stimuli, nor nature discuss how experience within the terres- are the stars, planets, and other celestial objects trial realm nurtured human nature, and it will be generally perceived to be randomly placed. Ra- suggested here that the way humans interpret ob- ther, human observers see patterns in the positions jects and events in the sky, look to the sky for and movements of objects within the sky, and meaning, and ponder the possibility of life elsewhe- such observers impose meaning on the forms and re in the universe, all reveal much about human patterns they perceive within the sky. These forms nature. Unlike objects in the terrestrial realm, ob- and patterns unfold in a single instant (e.g., cons- jects in the celestial realm cannot be touched by tellations) as well as across time (e.g., phases of earthbound hands, and so information regarding the the moon). The celestial realm serves as a source correctness of human perceptions and conceptions of information regarding time (e.g., seasons) and of celestial objects is less available. As a result, the space (e.g., navigation) on Earth, and also provides celestial realm offers a purer mirror of human na- a potent source of metaphor. Although objects and ture than does the terrestrial realm, and provides a events in the celestial realm have been at least par- blank slate upon which predispositions and biases tially demythologized by developments in science, in human nature may be projected. throughout much of human history a perceived co- nnection of a person to some celestial element or a Kant’s question perceived passage of a person through the celestial realm were considered meaningful experiences that In his Prolegomenon to Any Future Metaphysics, imbued that person with great power. the 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant (1783; trans. in Campbell, 1986, p. 27) asked “How is it Structuring the sky that in this space, here, we can make judgments that Every known human culture has developed grou- we know with apodictic certainty will be valid in pings of stars into constellations that refl ect familiar space, there?” In the centuries since Kant, scientifi c individuals, objects, and shapes. The constella- understanding of the universe has greatly increased, tions of contemporary Western culture are based and many fi ndings and theories suggest that the sa- on groupings of stars made by Greek and Roman me physical and chemical laws operate across the sources over two thousand years ago, but the cons- breadth of the observable universe. Kant’s analysis tellations of Western culture are by no means the suggested to him that the laws of space are known only way of structuring the night sky. For example, to the mind because those laws are actually of the the belt of the Greek constellation of Orion forms mind, and so knowledge of space refl ects an a priori the “turtle” constellation in Mayan astronomy, and knowledge (i.e., a knowledge prior to experience the belt and lower portion of Orion form the “hand” and thus possibly innate to the organism). Such constellation in Lakota astronomy. In most cases, an a priori knowledge could be construed to be a the assignment of a given identity to a given grou-

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ping of stars by a given culture refl ects individuals gan, & Walters, 1932). For example, the red planet or objects of that culture. Just as Greek and Roman Mars resembles the color of blood, and so was na- constellations refl ect fi gures in Greek and Roman med after the Roman God of War; when that planet mythology, the European names of constellations was relatively bright in the sky, it was believed that in the sky over the southern hemisphere refl ect war or other confl ict was imminent. More recently, common objects from the Age of Exploration du- the use of the name “canali” by Schiaparelli in des- ring which those constellations were fi rst viewed criptions of features he observed on Mars strongly by Europeans. The tendency of humans to impose infl uenced Lowell’s interpretations of his own ob- order and structure on the celestial realm refl ects servations of Mars. Also, the relationships between a more general tendency of humans to order and referent objects are often preserved in the relation- structure their environment (e.g., Kubovy & Po- ships between celestial elements named after those merantz, 1981; Lockhead & Pomerantz, 1991). referent objects, as in the case of Orion the hunter Thus, structuring of the stars in the night sky into pursuing Ursa Major the big bear. In prescientifi c constellations may refl ect a basic part of our hu- cultures, identifi cation of a celestial object as co- man nature. rresponding to a person or object often resulted in There are several consequences of organizing properties, behaviors, or abilities of that person the thousands of stars in the night sky into a sma- or object being attributed to the celestial object ller number of constellations and assigning names (Hubbard, 2002). For example, the word “planet” to those constellations. One consequence is that derives from the Greek word for “wanderer”, and grouping multiple stars within a given region of the planets were so named because they appeared the sky into a constellation decreases the mental to wander across the sky. Also, depictions of the effort involved in remembering the confi guration Egyptian Sun God Ra often showed human-like of the stars within that region, because grouping hands at the ends of the rays of light. multiple stars into a constellation allows an obser- ver to exploit the meaningfulness of the name of the The sky as information constellation as an aid for memory (i.e., rather than Even when human-like properties, behaviors, or each individual star occupying a single “chunk” abilities were not attributed to objects in the night of short-term memory, an entire constellation oc- sky, elements of the celestial realm could still have cupies a single “chunk” of short-term memory; predictive or informative qualities. Many cultures Miller, 1956). Grouping stars into constellations used celestial events or confi gurations such as the would thus make it easier for a single individual passage of the equinox or the reversal of the Sun’s to recognize or reconstruct from memory a larger movement along the horizon at the solstice as ca- section of the night sky. Such recognition or recons- lendrical markers of religious (e.g., rebirth of the truction would be useful in comparisons of the sky sun) or secular (e.g., when to begin spring planting) across different nights and in the subsequent use events. More broadly, the sky exhibited an order of celestial information in navigation or in keeping and regularity that could be used to structure and an accurate calendar. Also, naming constellations predict events on an otherwise chaotic Earth, as in after known individuals, events, or objects might ancient Egypt, where the rising of Sirius foretold provide a mnemonic or cue for remembering those the imminent fl ooding of the Nile. The order and individuals, events, or objects; such naming could regularity of events in the sky could also provide contribute to the continuance of cultural memory, information regarding location and navigation on and would be especially valuable in cultures that the Earth. For example, Micronesian natives tradi- were primarily oral or nonliterate. tionally used an elaborate star compass for navi- Giving names to individual objects or to groups gation between tiny islands scattered across vast of objects in the celestial realm could infl uence how distances of an otherwise empty ocean (Hutchins, that object or group was remembered or interpreted 1983). Even today, information from the sky pro- (Bower, Karlin, & Dueck, 1975; Carmichael, Ho- vided by orbiting satellites is used in global posi-

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tioning and navigation and in weather forecasting. analogous to the need or desire underlying a belief For ancient peoples, unpredictable astronomical in astrology. Historically, it was often believed phenomena such as comets were often viewed with that such visitors were angels or other supernatu- alarm and were considered to be harbingers of im- ral beings, but in recent decades, there are some pending doom or chaos (although there have been who believe such visitors are extraterrestrials that a few exceptions in which an unexpected celestial arrive on board interstellar spacecrafts. Jung (1978) event was viewed positively, e.g., the legendary suggested sightings of UFOs (unidentifi ed fl ying nativity star). objects) and UFO occupants are analogous to visits Given that celestial confi gurations and events from angels that were reported in prior times; in could predict or provide information regarding both angelic and extraterrestrial visitations, a more general or large-scale events on Earth, it would not advanced being from a distant place often brings a be surprising that some cultures tried to extend the message to humans. Within a Jungian framework, predictive and informative power of celestial con- such experiences have been suggested to refl ect fi gurations and events to encompass local or small- expressions of archetypal imagery associated scale events and even specifi c individuals. Such with the human collective unconscious, and so the an attempted extension may be behind the develo- appearances, behaviors, and information given by pment of astrology in many prescientifi c cultures such “angels” or “extraterrestrials” could in fact and in the continued interest in astrology by some originate deep within the unconscious mind of the within Western culture. What does the existence of person having the experience. Such a “visitation” astrology reveal about human nature? It suggests might therefore refl ect a basic aspect of human that humans have a need or desire for informa- nature. tion that might allow them to predict, control, or In recent years, reports regarding visitors from understand themselves and the world around them. the celestial realm have exhibited a more sinister Individuals who believe they can predict or control tone, and reports of “alien abduction” in which their environment generally exhibit better mental humans have been taken and experimented upon health than do individuals who believe they can- without their consent have become relatively com- not predict or control their environment (Lefcourt, mon. Many investigators reject the possibility that 1976), and so astrology might have developed as a such reports refl ect actual abductions by aliens type of control or coping strategy. Such a notion is (but see Mack, 1994), and a number of alternative consistent with observations that interest in astrolo- interpretations and explanations have been propo- gy and in other forms of the occult typically increa- sed. One alternative interpretation that is consistent se during times of social unrest or uncertainty, as it with Jung’s framework is that the alien abduction is precisely at those times that information such as experience refl ects an unconscious realization of that promised by astrology would be most useful. human exploitation and irresponsibility toward Of course, individuals claiming special knowledge nature, and this realization is depicted in imagery or ability in such areas might also gain in power, involving unsympathetic aliens who exploit hu- wealth, or infl uence. Even so, in its focus on the in- mans to revitalize their own dying species (e.g., dividual, astrology may have been one of the earlier Grosso, 1985). Additional alternative explanations attempts to understand human nature. for the phenomenology of the alien abduction expe- Sometimes information from the celestial realm rience include a high susceptibility to suggestion, came not from confi gurations or appearances of fantasy-prone personality, sleep anomalies, psy- stars, planets, or other celestial bodies, but from chopathology, partial resurfacing of memories of visitors from the sky. Throughout human history childhood abuse, false memory syndrome, nearby there have been numerous stories of messengers tectonic stress, temporal lobe lability, and effects of from celestial realms who visited Earth, and in at magnetic fi elds on brain function (for discussion, least some cases, belief in such visitations may re- see Appelle, 1996). In the absence of an actual fl ect a need or desire for predictability and control alien abduction, the phenomenology of the typical

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alien abduction experience would presumably re- tion of Earth and sky involved the possibility of a fl ect at least some elements of human nature. journey to the celestial realm by those few humans who received special training or assistance (e.g., in The sky as metaphor Hebrew mythology, Ezekiel and Enoch). Numerous Even when the celestial realm does not provide legends of shamans and priests spoke of bridges explicit information, elements within the celestial between the stars and Earth, and individuals who realm can still provide a source of meaning for during their life on Earth could cross such bridges human language. Even a casual inventory of lan- and journey to the celestial realm and then return guage reveals the celestial realm provides many to Earth were viewed as able to draw on sources of metaphors, and some examples include: when a great power and knowledge. Indeed, “skywalking” person is successful, he or she becomes a “star” in or “journeying the sky” remains a potent source of the fi eld and “the sky’s the limit;” when a person is power in shamanic cultures. Unless the possibility happy, he is “on cloud nine,” “in seventh heaven,” of an actual physical journey to the celestial realms or “sky-high;” and when a person is captivated, he is acknowledged, the experiences during such an is “starry-eyed” or “has stars in his eyes.” It has alleged journey would refl ect the nature of the per- been suggested that much of human thought is me- son who experienced the journey rather than the taphorical or structured by metaphor (e.g., Lakoff nature of the actual elements of the sky. & Johnson, 1980), but why might the celestial The importance of “journeying the sky” may realm offer such a potent source of metaphor? One also be found in a more literal sense in contempo- possibility is that many elements of the celestial rary scientifi c culture. During the Cold War of the realm appear constant across human experience; no 1960s, the United States sought to demonstrate matter where or when on Earth people lived, they the superiority of its democratic and capitalist go- experienced the sky, and the cycles of the moon and vernment over the form of government of Commu- stars remain the same regardless of from where on nist countries, and one of the prime demonstrations Earth the moon and stars are viewed (allowing for was the Apollo program in which the United States differences in visibility related to latitude). Fur- landed astronauts on the moon and then safely re- thermore, examples of regularity and order in the turned those astronauts to Earth. The astronauts of sky such as the seasonal variations in the rising and the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs were setting of a given star or constellation, the paths of revered as cultural heroes, and the “space race” bet- circumpolar stars, and the cycles of progressive and ween the United States and the Soviet Union was retrograde motions of the planets, could be seen as a contest not only for dominion of the sky, but for grounding, framing, or establishing a larger order dominion of the political landscape of the Earth. In or harmony for life on Earth (e.g., Freidel, Schele, this case, journeying the sky was a literal physical & Parker, 1993). voyage potent with political meaning. Similarly, the docking of American and Soviet spacecraft in the Journeying the sky Apollo-Soyuz mission, the presence of internatio- Even though changes in the confi gurations or appea- nal crews on the Soviet Mir station and American rances of elements in the celestial realm provided ca- shuttle, and the construction of an international lendrical or other information that helped frame and space station can be seen as political symbols. In structure life in many human cultures, the Earth ancient shamanic practices and in contemporary and sky were often viewed as separate, and the politics, the sky is conceived to be a realm of power, celestial realm was generally considered beyond the and by visiting the sky, both shaman and statesman reach of typical earthbound humans. One exception gain in power and in stature. Only the vehicle of to the general separation of Earth and sky involved the metaphor has changed, the basic nature of the the possibility that angels, extraterrestrials, or other human who undertakes the voyage has not: in both beings from the celestial realm could journey to ancient and contemporary cultures, one who jour- Earth. A second exception to the general separa- neys the sky becomes powerful.

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Humanity’s place in the universe Heaven” is given to the Emperor. Given the belief that humans directly or indirectly originated from Within human history are numerous speculations the sky, the celestial realm would have had an im- that the origin of humanity and the destination of portant role in shaping human nature. (at least some) souls after death are in the celestial Not only are the origins of humanity someti- realm. The place of humanity, as well as the place mes attributed to the stars or to the sky, but some of Earth, is often defi ned relative to the celestial cultures also believe that when a person dies he or realm and elements observed in the celestial realm. she ascends to the stars or even becomes a star or Throughout much of human history and in many other celestial object. For example, the stars of the human cultures, Earth (or that part of Earth where Pleiades are seen as dancers, brothers, and fi ghting a given cultural group lived) was believed to be at women in various Native American cultures, nym- the center of the universe, but advances in science phs in Greek mythology, and the wives of the seven have relegated Earth to orbiting a minor common rishis in Hindu mythology. Several Native Ameri- G-type star in a distant suburb of an unremarkable can and other shamanic traditions believe the Milky galaxy (for histories, see Ferris, 1988; North, 1995; Way is the bridge between the land of the living Pannekoek, 1961). Although many discoveries in and the domain of the dead, and in Pawnee mytho- science moved the place of humanity increasingly logy, the one who receives the spirit of the dead is a further away from any supposed center of the uni- star at the north end of the Milky Way. In Egyptian verse, other discoveries regarding the formation of mythology, the pharaoh ascended to the celestial elements within stars and the chemistry of inters- realm and became a star. The idea of ascension is tellar dust clouds suggest humanity is related to especially well illustrated in the Paradiso of Dante’s the celestial realms in ways more fundamental and Divine Comedy: The heavens form the outermost intimate than mere geographic location. of several concentric spheres enclosing Earth (as specifi ed by the Ptolemaic model dominant at the Origin and ascension myths time of Dante), and the process of approaching God Several aboriginal peoples have origin myths in- in the outermost sphere involved ascension and volving a descent from the sky. For example, the passage through the intervening spheres. Finally, a Dogon tribe of Africa claims life on Earth came hallmark of the Christian faith is the belief that Je- from the Sirius star system, and in Pawnee mytho- sus Christ ascended to heaven after his resurrection, logy, the fi rst man was the offspring of the sun and and the Islamic faith proclaims that Mohammed moon and the fi rst woman was the offspring of Ve- ascended to heaven during a dream. nus (for other examples, see Krupp, 1984; Miller, When we consider the idea of ascension, the 1997; Williamson, 1987). In some origin myths, “heavens” in a religious sense are usually co-ex- humans did not come directly from the sky, but tensive with the “heavens” in a physical sense (at the creator gods who made humans have celestial least from a physical viewpoint on Earth). Why roots, as in Inca mythology, in which Viracocha might this pairing of the physical sky with a meta- descended to earth and created plants, animals, and physical realm occur? One possibility involves the men and built the city of Tiahuanaco. In other origin relative permanence of elements in the sky: Within myths, the gods literally are the sky, as in Egyptian the span of a single human lifetime, the relative mythology, in which the sky is formed from the bo- positions and seasonal patterns of the stars do not dy of Nut, or dominion over the sky is reserved for change by any perceptible amount (changes due to the most important gods, as in Greek mythology, in precession of Earth’s axes or to stellar drift unfold which Zeus was god of the sky. Additionally, even on time scales far longer than a human life), and so when humans do not descend directly from the sky the relative positions and seasonal patterns of many or from celestial elements or gods, the right to rule stars have a phenomenological permanence. Once over humanity often comes from celestial realms, early humans became aware of their own mortality, as in Chinese mythology, in which the “Mandate of they could have associated changes involved with

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life and death with other changes in their terrestrial that culture. In many mythological cosmologies, a environment, and then drawn the conclusion that powerful being created the universe, and human na- immortality required a permanent or unchanging ture was often defi ned by the relationship between environment. For humans searching for a realm of that powerful being and humans. For example, in relative permanence, the celestial realms (especia- the Judeo-Christian tradition, the imperfect nature lly the circumpolar regions in which the stars never of humans as unavoidable sinners springs from the set) would have seemed an ideal setting. Indeed, relationship between the Judeo-Christian God and many prescientifi c cultures believed circumpolar humans. Unlike many prior cosmologies, the Big stars were immortal and that after death a soul Bang cosmology does not address any meaning that migrated to the polar region of sky would or purpose of the universe or of humanity, and become similarly immortal (for discussion, see this parallels (and might have given impetus to) Krupp, 1984). contemporary existential views of human nature that suggest the existence of humanity in general Cosmology or of a given individual in particular does not ha- Human origin and ascension mythologies often in- ve an intrinsic meaning or purpose. Furthermore, volved a cosmological component, that is, in addi- the Big Bang cosmology separates the creation tion to addressing the origin of humankind, such of the universe from the creation of Earth and the mythologies also addressed the origin of the univer- creation of humans by several billion years. This se. Many cultures believed in a cyclic cosmology in separation of cosmic history and human history in which the universe was periodically destroyed and part refl ects a demythologizing by science of celes- created anew. For example, in Mayan mythology, tial realms and of biological realms, and changing the end of a great cycle involves the destruction views about cosmology might then be linked with of the current universe and the creation of a new changing views about human nature. universe, and in Hindu mythology, the universe exists when Brahma is awake and is destroyed or Removing humanity from the center reabsorbed into Brahma when Brahma sleeps. In In Western culture prior to the Copernican revolu- contemporary Western culture, reigning scientifi c tion, the Earth was considered to be the center of the models of cosmology are based on the idea of a universe. In the initial Aristotelian and subsequent “Big Bang” in which the current universe was Ptolemaic models of the universe, the Earth was created in the explosion of a primordial particle, surrounded by a series of larger concentric crys- the effects of which are still observed today in the talline spheres that contained the sun, moon, pla- red-shifting of light from distant stars (indicating a nets, and stars. For nearly two thousand years the continued expansion of the universe driven by the Earth-centered Ptolemaic model provided a way in force of the initial explosion) and in the presence which to understand the celestial realm. However, of cosmic background radiation. Whether the ulti- observations of the night sky were not always in mate fate of the Big Bang universe is to continue agreement with the Ptolemaic model. One problem expanding forever or to eventually stop expanding was the occasional and unpredictable appearance and perhaps fall back on itself (in a more cyclic of comets, meteors, and other objects within the ce- cosmology in which the universe is periodically lestial realm. A more troublesome problem was the destroyed and created anew) hinges upon the den- appearance of retrograde motion of some planets. sity of the universe and the cosmological constant Also, because the Ptolemaic model was incorrect, (for discussion, see Ferris, 1998). discrepancies between predictions of the model and What relevance might the Big Bang or other observations of the celestial realm inevitably arose. cosmological theories have for a consideration of Epicycles (i.e., small circular movements imposed human nature? The cosmology of a culture would upon the larger motions of the orbits) were added infl uence beliefs regarding any meaning or purpo- to the Ptolemaic model as a way to accommodate se of the universe or of humanity that is held by the discrepancies. Eventually, the pattern of epicy-

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cle adjustments became exceedingly complex, and as individual humans mature, they realize they are the evidence against the Ptolemaic model became not at the center of their social universe. A general so overwhelming, that the Earth-centered Ptole- principle in the life sciences is that ontology recapi- maic view was replaced by the sun-centered Co- tulates phylogeny (i.e., the growth of the individual pernican view. retraces the growth of the species), but in this case Although observations of the celestial realm phylogeny (as in the growth of astronomical scien- were not the only spurs to the development of Wes- ce) also recapitulates ontogeny (the growth of the tern science, they contributed in signifi cant ways. individual human); the decline in egocentrism with When Galileo aimed his telescope at Jupiter, he maturation of the individual has been paralleled by saw evidence that Jupiter was orbited by its own a decline in anthropocentrism with maturation of system of satellites, but this fi nding confl icted with astronomical science. religious views of that time which specifi ed that the Earth was the center of the universe. Subsequent The anthropic cosmological principle observations by Brahe, and Kepler’s use of those Even though Western science removed humani- observations in uncovering the laws of planetary ty from the center of the universe, remnants of motion, revealed that the orbits of the planets co- an anthropocentrism in which humanity plays an rresponded to ellipses rather than to the perfect important role in the universe may be seen in the circles suggested by the notion of crystalline sphe- anthropic cosmological principle (Barrow & Ti- res, and this further confl icted with religious views. ppler, 1986). In its strong form, the anthropic cos- Newton’s discovery that the same law of gravity mological principle suggests the universe must that governed motions of objects on Earth also go- have those properties that allow intelligent life to verned motions of objects in the sky questioned the come into being. In one view, this is trivial, because prevailing separation of the laws of Earth and the if the universe had different properties, we would laws of heaven. Copernicus removed the privileged not be here to observe the universe, and the fact that place of Earth, and coupled with Darwin’s subse- we are here suggests the universe is not otherwise. quent removal of the privileged place of humanity, However, in another view, the anthropic cosmolo- effectively changed Western culture’s view of hu- gical principle is profound, because if other uni- man nature from humans as a special and unique verses were possible, then why does our universe creation to humans as an ever less important and exhibit the particular properties that it does? Only insignifi cant part of the cosmos. one implication will be noted here: the anthropic The removal of humanity from the center of cosmological principle suggests a role for humans the physical universe that occurred with scientifi c in the universe, and in a strong form, suggests that development is mirrored by the removal of the indi- human nature is an important determining factor vidual from the center of his or her social universe of the properties of the universe. Although such an that occurs with cognitive and social development. implication is consistent with an interpretation of One of the notable characteristics of young children quantum physics in which observers “collapse the is a high level of egocentrism, that is, an inability to waveform” and observation by a conscious human detach from their own viewpoint and take the pers- defi nes which reality out of an infi nite number of pective of another. Eventually, a child matures and simultaneously present possibilities is manifested, learns that other people may have different views, such an interpretation is controversial. It is not clear thoughts, perspectives, and feelings (see Royzman, how idealism at the level of the quantum relates to Cassidy, & Baron, 2003). The anthropocentrism realism at the levels of humans, planets, stars, and that placed Earth at the center of the physical uni- galaxies. verse parallels the egocentrism that placed the child at the center of his or her social universe. As We are star-stuff astronomy matured as a science, humanity realized The removal of humanity from the center of the it was not at the center of the physical universe, and universe does not mean humans do not have pro-

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found connections with the celestial realm; indeed, tions, but thus far the way in which humanity has recent discoveries suggest that humans are con- approached issues regarding extraterrestrial life and nected to the universe in fundamental and intimate the search for extraterrestrial life provides more ways. Spectrographic studies suggest that even insight into human nature than into whether or not the most distant of stars, dust clouds, and nebulae extraterrestrial civilizations exist. are comprised of familiar chemical elements found on Earth. Indeed, many elements found on Earth Conceptions of extraterrestrials (e.g., carbon, gold, iron) were forged long ago Extraterrestrials are often portrayed in the popular within the furnaces of ancient stars, and were then media as bipedal organisms similar to humans. distributed throughout the cosmos in supernovae Although some of this is probably due to budge- explosions. Our physical bodies contain molecu- tary and time constraints of television and mo- les from ancient suns, and as Sagan (1985, p. 256) vie production, it might also refl ect how humans eloquently pointed out, “we are made of star-stuff.” think about extraterrestrial beings. When asked Interstellar space is fi lled with organic molecules, to sketch a “space alien,” most people rearrange and some astronomers suggested such molecules or modify elements they are already familiar with seeded or fertilized life on our own planet. At least (e.g., add an eye, antennae, ridges on the forehead, some of the water in Earth’s oceans is thought to etc.), and such sketches usually contain a recogni- have originated in comets that struck our planet in zable head, arms, torso, eyes, ears, etc. similar to its infancy. The origins of humanity, both mytho- those of the human form (Ward, 1991). However, logical and chemical, may have lain in the stars the human form is the result of millions of events and other elements of the celestial realm; human over millions of years of evolution, and humans nature, as well as the nature of all life on Earth, is could appear radically different if evolutionary his- inextricably linked to the celestial realm. Although tory on Earth had unfolded differently. On proba- Kant’s philosophical analyses suggested to him that bilistic grounds, an intelligent species that evolved human minds contained an a priori understanding elsewhere would appear very different from hu- of space, recent fi ndings and theories in astronomy mans (Dobzhansky, 1972; but see Swords, 1995), suggest that mind, life, and the universe may be and yet we imagine intelligent extraterrestrial be- even more tightly coupled than Kant claimed, and ings to be rather humanlike. An extraterrestrial related in ways Kant never imagined. very similar in appearance to humans might also seem more comprehensible (i.e., more likely to Human nature and extraterrestrial have similar mental and emotional experiences) intelligence and less threatening or frightening than would an extraterrestrial very different in appearance from If the atoms and molecules of our bodies and of humans. In general, humans are remarkably anthro- our planet were forged in distant stars, and if li- pocentric in their notions of how extraterrestrials fe on Earth arose from the operation of physical could appear or think (Baird, 1987). and chemical processes that operate in the same way across the breadth of the observable universe, What we perceive and what we imagine then it is possible that life might also have arisen Our physical senses perceive only a small portion elsewhere. Life on Earth evolved a species capable of the potentially available information. For exam- of human-level intelligence and civilization, and ple, our eyes perceive as visible light electromag- so it is possible that life on some extraterrestrial netic radiation between approximately 380-760 planet could have similarly evolved a species to an nanometers in wavelength. This is a very small equivalent (or perhaps greater) level of intelligence portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and we and civilization. In recent decades the search for might be sensitive to these specifi c wavelengths extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) has searched only because they are the wavelengths of solar ra- the skies for signs of such extraterrestrial civiliza- diation that are most effective in penetrating Earth’s

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atmosphere. Thus, the nature of human visual ex- Human nature and extraterrestrial nature perience was determined by the constraints of the Although humans might eventually gain some planet upon which humans evolved. The universe scientific or descriptive knowledge of the bo- might appear very different to intelligent beings dy structures of an extraterrestrial, could such that evolved in a different environment and whose knowledge help humans to understand the sub- “visual” experience encompassed a different set of jective experience of that extraterrestrial? This wavelengths. Indeed, one of the surprises of con- question is reminiscent of a long-standing issue temporary astronomy is how different the universe within philosophy regarding the relationship bet- can appear if “viewed” using different wavelengths. ween mental (i.e., subjective) experience and the For example, radio waves penetrate the dust cloud physical body and referred to as the mind-body between Earth and the galactic core, but visible problem (for reviews, see Churchland, 1988; War- light does not; thus, the Milky Way galaxy “looks” ner & Szubka, 1994). The ultimate resolution of very different in radio astronomy and in visible the mind-body problem will profoundly infl uence light astronomy. Even within terrestrial environ- our understanding not just of human nature, but ments, there are other animals with very different also of extraterrestrials and the relationship bet- sensory systems (for a survey, see Hughes, 1999), ween human nature and extraterrestrial nature. and so how much more different might the sensory Although the standard reading of Kant’s ques- systems of an extraterrestrial species that evolved tion with which this article opened focused on the in a very different environment be? physics of bodies in the celestial realm, a broader Philosophers have argued that humans might reading which includes the relationship between not be able to imagine what the subjective experien- humans and extraterrestrials focuses on the psy- ce of an organism with a vastly different sensory chology of beings in the celestial realm. How can system would be like. In the most famous example, we know with any certainty that the beliefs, desi- Nagel (1974) argued that because humans did not res, and mental states experienced by humans here navigate by radar or have sensory receptors that will be similar to the beliefs, desires, and mental responded to spatial information in echoic refl ec- states experienced by extraterrestrials out there? tions, humans could not understand the experience Would an extraterrestrial have the same subjective of what it was like to be a bat (although humans experiences and mental states as a human? Perhaps could certainly describe the functioning of bat ironically, consideration of extraterrestrial nature radar at an abstract or verbal level). Similarly, it may shed light on one of the most debated issues could be argued that if the perceptual experience regarding human nature, the mind-body problem. of an extraterrestrial was radically different from Only the two most relevant potential resolutions the perceptual experience of a human (and such of the mind-body problem will be considered here. differences might be implied by differences in the In identity theory, subjective experiences are sim- anatomy and physiology of the sensory receptors ply the functioning of physiology (e.g., pain is the of extraterrestrials and of humans), then humans fi ring of C-fi bers). The only way an extraterrestrial could not understand the subjective experience could have the same subjective experiences as a of what it would be like to be that extraterrestrial. human would be if that extraterrestrial was made of Although an inability to understand subjective the same materials (e.g., carbon, water) in the same experience does not preclude an abstract or verbal concentrations as are humans. To the extent that an description, explanation, or prediction, it may limit extraterrestrial was made of different materials or understanding (Hubbard, 1996). If humans could of the same materials in different concentrations, its not imagine what it is like to be an extraterrestrial subjective experience would be different from that that has very different subjective experiences, then of a human, and humans would be less likely to un- how could humans understand extraterrestrial natu- derstand the mental states of that extraterrestrial. In re and understand how extraterrestrial nature might functionalism, relationships between mental states, relate to human nature? sensory inputs, and motor outputs are more relevant

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than are the specifi c materials in which those rela- highly specifi c ways (e.g., Rosch & Lloyd, 1978) tionships are instantiated (e.g., pain is a pattern of dependent upon their experience and their biology, activity within a network of processors). To the ex- and across human cultures there are wide variations tent that an extraterrestrial exhibited relationships in category structures (e.g., Lakoff, 1987, discusses between mental states, sensory inputs, and motor an Australian aboriginal language in which a single outputs similar to those of a human, its subjective category contains the elements of women, fi re, and experience would be similar to that of a human, dangerous things). How large might differences and humans would be more likely to understand between the category structures of humans and the the mental states of that extraterrestrial. Interes- category structures of an extraterrestrial species tingly, philosophers who support functionalism that evolved under vastly different environments and oppose identity theory invoke the possibility and circumstances be? Our conceptual and cate- of humanlike mental states in a nonneural-based or gory structures have served humanity reasonably noncarbon-based extraterrestrial as a demonstra- well, but it is not obvious that those structures are tion of the alleged falsity of identity theory (e.g., the only (or even the best) ones that could have Lewis, 1980; Putnam, 1975). been evolved. Would an intelligent and technolo- gical species that evolved elsewhere have similar Receiving a message categories and concepts? If not, would there still be Understanding the mental states and subjective suffi cient overlap with human categories and con- experiences of extraterrestrials is relevant to de- cepts to allow comprehensible communication bet- tecting, deciphering, and interpreting any message ween humanity and that species to occur? Without from an extraterrestrial civilization. Given current a suffi cient similarity in conceptual and category scientifi c understanding and technical ability, the structures, deciphering or interpreting any message fastest and the cheapest method for communica- would be extremely diffi cult (see Baird, 1987). ting across interstellar distances is to transmit a signal using electromagnetic radiation (e.g., radio Responding to a message waves), and it is generally assumed that any extra- If humanity responded to a message from an extra- terrestrial civilization near our level of scientifi c terrestrial source, what should we say? Actually, understanding and technological ability would be humanity has inadvertently already been saying a similarly limited. If an extraterrestrial civilization great deal to potential extraterrestrial listeners, as wanted their radio signal to be detected by another our radio and television broadcasts radiate outward civilization, which frequency would they use? The from Earth. An extraterrestrial civilization with a frequencies typically chosen in SETI are within the suffi ciently sensitive receiver could even now be “microwave window” containing radio emission watching original broadcasts of the 1936 Olym- lines of hydrogen and the hydroxyl radical (which pic Games, I Love Lucy, or the original Star Trek, are components of water). However, the choice among the millions of other programs that have of these frequencies may refl ect the importance of been broadcast. Such “leakage” signals are pre- water to humanity and the idiosyncrasies of Earth’s sumably quite different from a message explicitly atmosphere rather than any characteristics or cri- designed for the purpose of communicating with teria important to an extraterrestrial civilization an extraterrestrial civilization. The fi rst attempts to (see Klein, 1990). Because humans consider those explicitly design messages for contact with an ex- frequencies as the logical choice, it is assumed that traterrestrial civilization involved plaques attached an extraterrestrial civilization would consider those to the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft launched in frequencies as the logical choice as well. the 1970s and the radio message transmitted from If a message from an extraterrestrial civiliza- Arecibo toward the M13 globular cluster in 1974. tion is received, humanity would face the daunting These messages included information about who task of trying to decipher or interpret that message. we are and where we are (e.g., pictures of a man Humans conceptualize and categorize the world in and woman, a map of our solar system, etc.), and

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it is assumed that any extraterrestrial civilization and this refl ects a tendency to impose structure and sophisticated enough to receive the message would organization on otherwise random stimuli. Many also understand our pictorial conventions and be human cultures attributed a variety of properties, able to determine how to access the message (e.g., behaviors, and abilities to objects in the celestial would understand how to use the stylus and the re- realm, and this refl ects a tendency to impose me- cord album attached to the Voyager probes). aning and attributions on otherwise ambiguous sti- Assuming diffi culties with deciphering and in- muli. Many human cultures exploited the perceived terpreting messages can be solved, and this is by no regularity and order of the celestial realms in the de- means assured, the vastness of interstellar distances velopment of a more accurate calendar, long-range would result in any sustained dialogue based on navigation, agriculture, and possibly astrology, and radio (or other electromagnetic) communication this refl ects a need for predictability. The tendencies taking centuries to unfold. We should therefore to impose structure, organization, meaning, and the choose our topics of conversation wisely. Scientists need for predictability, may all refl ect fundamental involved with SETI see science as important, and aspects of human nature. Also, the celestial realms so usually suggest scientifi c information should be provide a rich source of metaphor for many human the fi rst kind of information exchanged between hu- cultures, and this may refl ect a general metaphori- mans and an extraterrestrial civilization. Although cal nature or structure of thought. an exchange of scientifi c information might be Early human cultures viewed the celestial realm useful in establishing a common ground for further in mythic terms, and mythologies regarding human communication, we might ultimately learn more origin and destination after death often involved from a dialog with an extraterrestrial civilization if descent from or ascent to a celestial realm. The the dialog focused on differences between our ci- celestial realm has long been conceived of as a vilizations. It may be in the social sciences and the place of power and as the dwelling place of gods “humanities” that the greatest differences between and immortals, and even today those who visit humans and extraterrestrials occur, and from dis- that realm gain in power, knowledge, and stature. cussion of which we could learn the most. After all, The demythologizing of the celestial realm by de- humanity is the only clear example of a technologi- velopments in astronomy and cosmology greatly cal and language-using civilization we have, but it infl uenced views of human nature and of the place is diffi cult to understand general principles with a of humanity in the universe, but views regarding sample size of one. If we asked the right questions, the possible nature of beings who originate in or contact with an extraterrestrial civilization could come from the celestial realm may still refl ect signifi cantly deepen our understanding of human mythic or archetypal elements of human nature nature, about who and what we are. as well as a general anthropocentrism. In general, how we explain celestial phenomena in the ab- Conclusions sence of direct feedback, and how we conceive of extraterrestrial intelligence prior to encountering a Kant asked “how is it that in this space, here, we message or representative from an extraterrestrial can make judgments that we know with apodictic civilization, might tell us more about human nature certainty will be valid in space, there?” but rather than about celestial phenomenon or where or how than appealing to a separate a priori knowledge as to look for extraterrestrials. Although discussion of suggested by Kant, perhaps we simply respond on Kant’s question usually focuses on physical laws, the basis of the predispositions and biases of hu- implications of Kant’s question for psychological man nature. If so, then judgments of a distant space laws may ultimately be more important. In looking such as the celestial realm might reveal some of the at the celestial realm, we see more than distant po- predispositions and biases of human nature. Many ints of light. In gazing at the most distant reaches human cultures divided the multitude of stars in of space, we encounter the most intimate parts of the night sky into a small number of constellations, our human nature.

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Fecha de recepción: septiembre de 2007 Fecha de aceptación: marzo de 2008

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