THE INNER MEANING OF OUTER SPACE: HUMAN NATURE AND THE CELESTIAL REALM* TIMOTHY L. HUBBARD** Texas Christian University, U. S. A. Abstract Resumen Kant argued that humans possess a priori knowled- Kant afi rmaba que los seres humanos poseen un ge of space; although his argument focused on a conocimiento a priori del espacio. Aunque este physics of bodies, it also has implications for a argumento se centra en la física de los cuerpos, tam- psychology of beings. Many human cultures orga- bién tiene implicaciones para la psicología del ser. nize stars in the night sky into constellations (i.e., Muchas culturas humanas organizan las estrellas impose structure); attribute properties, behaviors, en constelaciones (imponen estructura); atribuyen and abilities to objects in the celestial realm (i.e., propiedades, conductas y habilidades a objetos impose meaning); and use perceived regularity in en el reino celeste (esto es, determinan signifi cado); the celestial realms in development of calendars, y usan la regularidad percibida en los reinos celes- long-range navigation, agriculture, and astrology tes para el desarrollo de calendarios, navegacio- (i.e., seek predictability and control). The physical nes de grandes distancias, agricultura y astrología inaccessibility of the celestial realm allows a potent (buscan predicción y control). La inaccesibilidad source of metaphor, and also allows projection of física del reino celeste permite una potente fuente myths regarding origin and ascension, places of de metáforas, así como la protección de los mitos power, and dwelling places of gods, immortals, and sobre el origen y la ascensión, los lugares del poder other souls. Developments in astronomy and cos- y aquellos donde habitan dioses, seres inmortales y mology infl uenced views of human nature and the otras almas. Los desarrollos en astronomía y cos- place of humanity in the universe, and these chan- mología infl uyeron las opiniones sobre la naturaleza ges parallel declines in egocentrism with human humana y el lugar de la humanidad en el universo; development. Views regarding alleged beings (e.g., estos cambios ponen en paralelo los descensos en el angels, extraterrestrials) from the celestial realm egocentrismo y el desarrollo humano. Las visiones (and to how communicate with such beings) are acerca de los presuntos seres (como los ángeles y los anthropocentric and ignore evolutionary factors in extraterrestres) del reino celestial (y cómo comuni- physical and cognitive development. It is suggested carse con esos seres) son antropocéntricas e ignoran that in considering views and uses of the celestial factores evolutivos del desarrollo físico y cognitivo. realm, we learn not just about the universe, but also Se sugiere que al considerar opiniones y usos del about ourselves. reino celeste, aprendemos no sólo acerca del uni- Key words: constellations, origin and ascension verso, sino también sobre nosotros mismos. myths, cosmic anthropic principle, Kant, extrate- Palabras clave: constelaciones, mitos sobre el rrestrials. origen y la ascensión, principio cósmico antrópico, Kant, extraterrestres. * The author thanks Katherine Ortega Courtney, Michael Czuchry, Pamela Marcum, Mauricio Papini, and Keiko Stoeckig for helpful comments on a previous draft of the manuscript. ** Please send correspondence to: Timothy L. Hubbard. Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University. Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA. E-mail: [email protected]. 52Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana/Bogotá (Colombia)/Vol. 26(1)/pp. 52-65/2008/ISSN1794-4724 The inner meaning of outer space: human nature and the celestial realm The objects and events seen in the sky have long part of human nature. Therefore, by considering fascinated human observers. Weather permitting, humanity’s views of a distant “there” which is as the Sun can be viewed as it travels across the sky yet not experienced, we might glean some insight each day, and a person far from the lights of a city into human nature “here,” that is, by considering can view planets, comets, meteors, and thousands our views of the objects and events of the celestial of stars in the night sky. Contemporary views of as- realm, we might deepen our understanding of hu- tronomical phenomena based on radio astronomy, man nature. CCD photography, and computer simulation seem quite different from the stories and legends of an- Seeing patterns and meaning in the sky cient shaman-priests, but both contemporary and ancient views are parts of a larger tapestry in which Even the most casual and fl eeting examination of meaning is sought in and attributed to elements the night sky reveals countless objects, but such of the celestial realm. Most discussions of human objects are not seen as meaningless stimuli, nor nature discuss how experience within the terres- are the stars, planets, and other celestial objects trial realm nurtured human nature, and it will be generally perceived to be randomly placed. Ra- suggested here that the way humans interpret ob- ther, human observers see patterns in the positions jects and events in the sky, look to the sky for and movements of objects within the sky, and meaning, and ponder the possibility of life elsewhe- such observers impose meaning on the forms and re in the universe, all reveal much about human patterns they perceive within the sky. These forms nature. Unlike objects in the terrestrial realm, ob- and patterns unfold in a single instant (e.g., cons- jects in the celestial realm cannot be touched by tellations) as well as across time (e.g., phases of earthbound hands, and so information regarding the the moon). The celestial realm serves as a source correctness of human perceptions and conceptions of information regarding time (e.g., seasons) and of celestial objects is less available. As a result, the space (e.g., navigation) on Earth, and also provides celestial realm offers a purer mirror of human na- a potent source of metaphor. Although objects and ture than does the terrestrial realm, and provides a events in the celestial realm have been at least par- blank slate upon which predispositions and biases tially demythologized by developments in science, in human nature may be projected. throughout much of human history a perceived co- nnection of a person to some celestial element or a Kant’s question perceived passage of a person through the celestial realm were considered meaningful experiences that In his Prolegomenon to Any Future Metaphysics, imbued that person with great power. the 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant (1783; trans. in Campbell, 1986, p. 27) asked “How is it Structuring the sky that in this space, here, we can make judgments that Every known human culture has developed grou- we know with apodictic certainty will be valid in pings of stars into constellations that refl ect familiar space, there?” In the centuries since Kant, scientifi c individuals, objects, and shapes. The constella- understanding of the universe has greatly increased, tions of contemporary Western culture are based and many fi ndings and theories suggest that the sa- on groupings of stars made by Greek and Roman me physical and chemical laws operate across the sources over two thousand years ago, but the cons- breadth of the observable universe. Kant’s analysis tellations of Western culture are by no means the suggested to him that the laws of space are known only way of structuring the night sky. For example, to the mind because those laws are actually of the the belt of the Greek constellation of Orion forms mind, and so knowledge of space refl ects an a priori the “turtle” constellation in Mayan astronomy, and knowledge (i.e., a knowledge prior to experience the belt and lower portion of Orion form the “hand” and thus possibly innate to the organism). Such constellation in Lakota astronomy. In most cases, an a priori knowledge could be construed to be a the assignment of a given identity to a given grou- Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana/Bogotá (Colombia)/Vol. 26(1)/pp. 52-65/2008/ISSN1794-4724 53 Timothy L. Hubbard ping of stars by a given culture refl ects individuals gan, & Walters, 1932). For example, the red planet or objects of that culture. Just as Greek and Roman Mars resembles the color of blood, and so was na- constellations refl ect fi gures in Greek and Roman med after the Roman God of War; when that planet mythology, the European names of constellations was relatively bright in the sky, it was believed that in the sky over the southern hemisphere refl ect war or other confl ict was imminent. More recently, common objects from the Age of Exploration du- the use of the name “canali” by Schiaparelli in des- ring which those constellations were fi rst viewed criptions of features he observed on Mars strongly by Europeans. The tendency of humans to impose infl uenced Lowell’s interpretations of his own ob- order and structure on the celestial realm refl ects servations of Mars. Also, the relationships between a more general tendency of humans to order and referent objects are often preserved in the relation- structure their environment (e.g., Kubovy & Po- ships between celestial elements named after those merantz, 1981; Lockhead & Pomerantz, 1991). referent objects, as in the case of Orion the hunter Thus, structuring of the stars in the night sky into pursuing Ursa Major the big bear. In prescientifi c constellations may refl ect a basic part of our hu- cultures, identifi cation of a celestial object as co- man nature. rresponding to a person or object often resulted in There are several consequences of organizing properties, behaviors, or abilities of that person the thousands of stars in the night sky into a sma- or object being attributed to the celestial object ller number of constellations and assigning names (Hubbard, 2002). For example, the word “planet” to those constellations.