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Constructivism; Instrumentalism; Syria

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Constructivism; Instrumentalism; Syria Sectarianism or Geopolitics? Framing the 2011 Syrian Conflict by Tasmia Nower B.A & B.Sc., Quest University Canada, 2015 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the School for International Studies Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences © Tasmia Nower SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2017 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Approval Name: Tasmia Nower Degree: Master of Arts Title: Sectarianism or Geopolitics? Framing the 2011 Syrian Conflict Examining Committee: Chair: Gerardo Otero Professor Tamir Moustafa Senior Supervisor Professor Nicole Jackson Supervisor Associate Professor Shayna Plaut External Examiner Adjunct Professor School for International Studies Simon Fraser University Date Defended/Approved: August 1, 2017 ii Abstract The Syrian conflict began as an uprising against the Assad regime for political and economic reform. However, as violence escalated between the regime and opposition, the conflict drew in Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia, which backed both the regime and opposition with resources. The current conflict is described as sectarian because of the increasingly antagonistic relations between the Shiite/Alawite regime and the Sunni- dominated opposition. This thesis examines how sectarian identity is politicized by investigating the role of key states during the 2011 Syrian conflict. I argue that the Syrian conflict is not essentially sectarian in nature, but rather a multi-layered conflict driven by national and regional actors through the selective deployment of violence and rhetoric. Using frame analysis, I examine Iranian, Turkish, and Saudi Arabian state media coverage of the Syrian conflict to reveal the respective states’ political position and interest in Syria. Through process tracing, I further identify three causal mechanisms – strategic framing, ethnic/sectarian outbidding, and resource mobilization – to examine how these states catalyzed sectarianism in the Syrian conflict. Keywords: sectarianism; primordialism; constructivism; instrumentalism; Syria iii Dedication To my family for their infinite support and faith. iv Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the unwavering support of my supervisor, Dr. Tamir Moustafa, who guided my academic pursuits, challenged me to think deeper, and ultimately, for his infinite patience with my process. I would also like to thank each of the IS faculty members who contributed to my education experience at Simon Fraser University. My appreciations also go to our small MAIS Cohort of 2015 for their insights and laughter during our late-night conversations. Last but not the least, I would like to express my special gratitude to my family for their invaluable encouragement and support in the pursuit of my dreams. v Table of Contents Approval .......................................................................................................................... ii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iii Dedication ...................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vi List of Figures................................................................................................................ viii List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................. ix Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 Outline of Thesis ............................................................................................................. 6 Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................ 8 Primordialism .................................................................................................................. 8 Instrumentalism ............................................................................................................. 10 Constructivism ............................................................................................................... 13 Identities and Interests ............................................................................................... 16 Structure and Agents ................................................................................................. 17 Logic of Anarchy ........................................................................................................ 17 Individuals as Agents of Construction ........................................................................ 18 Chapter 3. Alliances and Enmities in the Middle East ........................................... 22 Background of the Syrian Conflict ................................................................................. 22 Historical Alliances ........................................................................................................ 24 Turkey-Syria Relations ............................................................................................... 24 Saudi Arabia-Syria Relations ..................................................................................... 26 Iran-Syria Relations ................................................................................................... 28 Domestic Constituencies ............................................................................................... 30 Saudi Arabia .......................................................................................................... 30 Iran ........................................................................................................................ 31 Turkey .................................................................................................................... 32 Chapter 4. Tracing Sectarianization of the Syrian Conflict ................................... 34 Section A: Methodology ................................................................................................ 35 Media in the Middle East ............................................................................................... 35 Frame analysis .......................................................................................................... 36 Process Tracing ............................................................................................................ 39 Section B: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 42 Frame Analysis ............................................................................................................. 42 Iran ............................................................................................................................ 43 Saudi Arabia .............................................................................................................. 48 Turkey ....................................................................................................................... 51 Process Tracing ............................................................................................................ 55 Shifts in Strategic Framing ......................................................................................... 55 vi Ethnic/sectarian Outbidding ....................................................................................... 59 Resource Mobilization................................................................................................ 63 Saudi Arabia .......................................................................................................... 63 Iran ........................................................................................................................ 64 Turkey .................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 5. Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................ 69 Global Actors: Russia, the US, and Qatar .................................................................. 76 Policy Implications ..................................................................................................... 78 References ................................................................................................................... 80 vii List of Figures Figure 1. Variants of Constructivism: A Range of Views over the Speed and Frequency of Ethnic Identity Change (Chandra, 2012, p. 20) ................. 15 Figure 2: Number of articles about the Syrian conflict published during March 2011, March 2012, March 2013, and March 2014. ........................................... 42 Figure 3: Frames used by Tehran Times in covering the Syrian conflict during the month of March in 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014 ................................................ 44 Figure 4: Frames used by Asharq Al-Awsat when covering the Syrian conflict during the month of March in 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014 ..................................... 48
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