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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE SOVI,ET UNION
by
Victor Zllberman
t • 1 1 f .. A thesi/ submltted to the Faculty of Graduate Stud.es
and Research, McGlll University, ln partial fu~fl11ment of the requirements for the degree of Kaster of Arts ln
Comparative Ed~catlon.
J
Department of Social Foundatlons \ . KcGlll University
Hon t rea 1. Quebec , J '\ 1979
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ABSTAACT
This stu~y descrlbes and analyzes salient features of t sport movement. Special attention Is glven to the articulation of the
physlcal educatIon programs ~nd the preparation ~f Sfflclallsts wlth the sport ratlng systems ~sed to generate m.ss partlclpltlon and enhance
mastery ln sport. The Sov~t Unlon's success ln lhternatlonal sport
15 attributed to Its system of planning and control of the sport mOvement' and especla'lly to the hlgh standards of training for phys4 cal
education speclallsts. Sport 15 considered Important not only for
the International rec~gnltlon It brlngs but also for Instllling the
collectivlstlc and moral values centra' to~iovl.t Ideology.
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1J c RESUME
Cette é'tude décr'it et analyse lu ,caracteristiques du mouvement
sportif sovl/tlque. Une attentl~n ~écl.le fut'apportle a Il Interrelation el'l,tre les progranrnes d I{ducatlon phys ique menant a la pré'parat Ion de
1 • sp:clallstes et les systèmes de classification sportifs utlll':. ,pour
stimuler la participation. de 1. m.sse ~t 'encourager la maltrlse dans le
sport. Le succ~s de llUnlon Sovl'tlque dans le domaine du sport Internatiqnal est attribue, a\ son systeme\ de planification et de controle \ du mouvement sportif et specialement1 aux hauts standards dlentralnement
" , 1 pour les sp~cl.llstes en education physique. Le sport est conslder~ Important non seulement pour la reconnaissance Internationale qu'II apporte, mals 'gaiement pour Inculquer les valeurs de collectivite' et moral Inhererentel '"a 1 Iideologie sovietique.,
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III ,. - f .. C', J t t , ~ t, ACKNOWlEDGEHENT /, ~
1 t ! This thesl5 15 prlmarlly the re5ult of the author' s experlence J~
living ln the U. S. S • R. for 26 yeus ~ hls persona 1 Involvement ln the j
.J Soviet educatlonal system u • student throu~h general school, technlcum (college) of phYIIC~1 educatlon'and the university (faculty of physlcal ed l ~Cltlon). Also "~ontrtbutlng to thls study was the .uthor's Involvement
ln the Soviet sport movement as an athlete from the Junior lev~to a 1 _ • 1t ! (, member of the Soviet National team ln the sport of wrestl Ing.
My appreclatlon 1s dlrected to h,y"advlser Dr. Thomas Elsemon, i Professor of McGIII University for hls dominant Influence behlnd this !
study a~d for hls extensive generosity wlth hls tlme, advlce and us 1stance. Flnallv, 1 would llke to use thls opportunlty to express mv " gratitude to my dear wlfe Chris who encouraged and helped me ln the ~I course of my "work on the thesls and wlthout who's Invaluable assistance 1, thls pre~ert work couldn't be completed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS- "
INTRODUCTION ... li ...... ! ...... v r
CHAPTER 1 .( 1nt roduc t Ion' ......
Oescr Ipt Ion of the/Soviet Education System ...... ,' ......
The All~round Developed Personallty 7
The Artl'culatlon of Progr.ms of pJyslcal Educ.tlon wlth the ..Soviet Sport System ••••••••.••••••••••••••••.••••••••••• 10 CHAPTER 2
tntroduct ion~ ...... , ...... ,\ ...... 16
AlI-Union Sp.ott Classlflc.tlon ...... 16
t>" !Fe GTO Camp 1ex ...... Introduction ...... 41 ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 25 ~hyslcal Education ln Soviet General Schools •••••••••••••••• 25 Physlc.l Educ.tlon ln Post Second.ry InstitutIons ln the ~vlet Union ...... 0 o. o. 0,' 0000 .. 0.0.0 .. 0 33 CHAPTER 4 Introdu~tion ...... Il ••• Il ...... 1 ...... , ...... , .. 41 Tral n09 1n Technlcums ~nd School s ...... 41 --;-.... ~ Prep.r.tlon''It the-- Univers ...... 48 CHAPTER 5 SUrMllry .nd Conclusion ...... o ...... 55 elBLIOGRAPHY ...... , •••• III •• , • • • • • • • • • •• 62 ~---... --" ------;-- -:------~-----...IiII.t ..,.I.j ,-'.7ililllilt."'1IiI51îilirno ..• .. - - - \ '. .a 1 v ,, c 1 / APPENDtX A: O.rganlZltlon of Sport ln the U.S.S.R ...... 65 ASEMDIX 8: GTO Stage 3 for Boys and Girls Aged 16-1,8 ...... 66 TABLE .. \' 3~ 1 Percentage of Tlme Devoted to Phys Ical Education r/ .. Actlvltles ln the General Schoots ...... 28 1 ,1 1, o J)l;.. ~.$ . 1 • $")~,11 ... ~ Ir vi ( 1NTRODUC TI ON -- "CItrus, altlus, fortlus" (faster, higher, stronger) characte.rlsed sport ln the .nelent tl;es. Today th!s lsn't enoug~ to descrlbe sport or to explain Its importance ln the 20th century. ,Modern sport interacts wlth science and arts. Sport helps people to learn about themselves and the surrounding world, and brings people of dlffer!nt countrtes closer together. Yet, to mill ions of people sport has become a means of Ideolog- Ical and pollt!cal struggle. In a speech !n 1963, J. ~. ~nnedy po,inted ,1 out tbat at~the present trme. the strength of a;nattQn ls d~dged by the number of rockets tnat are sent into space and the number of gold medals won at the Olympie Games. Physlcal culture and sport are considered very important to the Soviet government. espec!ally '.the !nternatronal success of the Soviet athletes. Soviet spor. authorltIes very seldom miss an opportunity to (- use theIr suceess ln sport to propagate certa!n Ideologlea! and polltlcal values. Because of the SovIet Unlon's ach!evements in international sportlng competitions, people ail around the wor1d are familiar with the fact that ~t the present ttme the U.S.S.R. holds a leading position ln the International sport movement. In the Socialist countries, especlally the U.S.S.R. an" East Germany, Tt Is belleved that mass partfcfpatlon in sBort and e!lte athletics are co~patlble and complementary in developlng the sport movement - one needs the other (Botterhill, 1979). The purpose of th!s thesis is to describe the Soviet sport move- ment 9 ivr,!~ spec lai tem used to develop Ci athletlc, competence in the context educat ion programs I~, 1 1 ! 1- • t> , , L.;;"·, l , ). vii 1 sc.hools and hlgher educatlonal Institutions. In a more general sense, " the thesis will dei ine;te> the role edocatlon and sport·pla'y in the sov.\et , ( society. The Soviet government places much Importance on education and sport as two means of developlng loyalty to tbe State and Party and the > qualities of discipline and collectivlsm. In sum, aIl that is Implled by ,4 the phrase "all-round developed Indlviduills." " Western scholars' I,nterest in the Soviet sport movement Is very recent and prompted by Soviet domina~ce at international athletlc tourna- , ments durlng the past decade. Two major studles of the ISovtet sport movement have appeared ,in the last few year~t one of which was carried out by Riordan and described the measùfable achievements of the Soviet sport movement without critlcal analysls (Rlordan, 1975). The other work, by Shneidman, Is also descriptive ln nature and, as !ts tltle The Soviet r. Road to Olympus suggests, it ls concerned mainly with thos~ parts of the movement whicn contribute to international sport dominance (Shneidman, 1978), ln contrast to these accounts, this thesis will present the Soviet sport movement as a system and will analyze Its most ImportOint elements: the All-Union Sport ClassiflcOitlon systemj the "Ready for Labor and Defense" (GTO) Complex; physical education ln the schools and in i~stltutions of higher education; and, the preparation of physlcal education special ists. là· Horeover, the thesis will illu;;trate the Interaction among elements ot' 1 the sport movement as weIl as point out the strengths and weaknesses of 1 i the Soviet sport system. \ .....:::i1:s:::::>::.:~::::-:: .. ~~~ .. ~ • .,~~.. __ .: ______~-:::.. :-::'~:M~:':_:_:_: __:::_:_:.:: ______'~_~_._~-,.---,~~-,,---~~,~_,._~_~_.~ ._------ vllt ( Information contaT'~ecd ln the thesls has been obulned from' Russlan langwage sport publications collected over 'the pa~four years, as wel~, as the author's experlence ilS an athlete ln the Soviet,.sport movement. The task of descrlblng the Soviet sport movement Is not a simple one. ln assessing thelr sport system Soviet commentators use criteria .~ / P Important tà the Soviet state such as the number. of medals won at inter- national tournaments, participation of the population in the GTO and ellte programs, the number of athletlc·facillties constructed, etc. Assess[ng the efficacy of the So~iet sport movement is not so straight forward, however. The sport movement must also be assessed in te~s - ,,~, -~ of the fitness of the population and the role sport plays in Soviet 1 society." The scant scholarly llterature on the Soviet sport movement that t 1..I~S Ippeared "ni t Il e western countrles#. ten d s to re fi ect S'oVlet pre- occupation wlth International competitions and tangible athletic achieve- ments. The more hollstic treatment provided in 'thls thesis, it is hoped, will glve a mpre reallstlc plcture of the Soviet sport system ta western physlcal educators. 1.( .. 1 ) ---f------·--·---....- ...-, ..... • / ------.---_::n'rt'J!/!I!iI!wI~ e $ - . .=---~ , " (~ ,.- ...... '-"'I:""""..,....~"~._ .. - .,_ ...... _'" ·~iJ •• '.. , 1 ~ , "- CHAPT) 1 SOVIET SPORT MO\IEHE:;:~UCAnONAL SYSTEM Introduction . This chapter considers features of the Soviet educational system, o / . important to an understanding of the sport movement, specificalJy its centr.:llizatJon and collectivistic orientation. It_also outlines the con- cept of the "all-round developed" persona 1 ity, bui lder of CommunÎst ,society, which is central to"the purposes of education and sport. The last sec- tion of the chapter shows OOw programS" of physical education are articu lated with the ~port system and identifies the government élgencies which 1, /y are responsible for supervising. coordinating a~d directing the Soviet sport movement. (,- '\ De~ription of th~ S6viet ~ducation Sïstem Article 121 of the Soviet Constitution's Chapter X on Fundamental ~ Rights and Duties (Tomiak, 1972. p.,39) confers the right of ail Sov,jet 1 citl.zens to education and enumerates mea~ures designed to ensure this } r"'- , right: '~he citizens of the U.S.S.R. have !he right to an li ~ ~ educat [on. ThIS rlght is ensured by th~ compulsory ... general schools ci~ eight years; by the wide develop- ment of general and polytechnical secondary education, J of vocatlonal and technrcal training and of l1igher and -,,'-'" spedal ized secondary education on the buts of joint deveJopment of évening and correspondence courses, by J 1 " , . ,- ,." ...... 11 _ ...... ~'7 ...... __ .. ~ .. ~ ____~.~ ______.-dM~----~--·--~_·~ .-- • ClIIIII '::, 1, 2 ,>" 1l ( t the gratuit y of ail fbrms of education; by the system î '" of state' scholarships, free education in the mother tongue in the schools and organization of free voea- tional, technical and agricultural instruction for the workers in factories, state and collective far~~ " 7, 1978, the Soviet Union celebrated the 61st Anniversary of t h e Communlst.. Revo l'utlon. When the Bol~heviks took power in'October 1917 and set up a government, there were many problems to solve, among the • most important were defense of the co~ntry and déveloping industry and education~ Three days after the Communist Revolution, 1917, astate 1 create a neweducatiorial system' ver:y different from that existing in ''\ , ~ Czarist Russia. In this connection, J. J. Tomiak (1972, p. 11-12) has ob- served that "th'e new .soviet Government quickly began to introduce a series l of fundamental education reforms : ..... making education compulsory, construc- ( " ting new educational system, 1 iterature, pedagogies. The whole system of schools from kindergarten~~o universi,ty was declared to constitute ,. one school, one unbroken ladder •• ~he basic link was to be a universal, free, secular and undifferentiated sehool. 1I A.significant achievement ~f the Soviet state over the past sixt Y u u years is' its rise from one of the most baçkward countries of thé ,world to one of the most powerful nations. The Soviet Union has àchfeved a great d'eal especially in regard to education. Prior to the revolution, school ing 'was very' 1imi ted. Most educated people were concentrated in \ the CÎties of central Russia. The worst situation existed in the pe'ri- ,G pherill parts of the country like Slberia,.,Uzbeklstan. Bacaraobia and others. n. _._-~ '1 .. - -. J' 'r 3 1 '1 \ ! t.. 1 ( ;: Only a small percentJ'ge of the educa~ people were women. And, statis tics for ed~cation in Russia prior to 1917 probably ex.ggerate CI.rlst achievementsl Shortly after the Revolution, lenin wrote that "there is onlyone country l~ft in Europe where the education is at su~h a low lèvel, that is Russia .•. four-fifths,of the young ,ner~tion are not educated. 1I "American black people," he noted, llhave twice the opportunity for educa- " J t ion than the Russian people." CBelorusova, 1972, Vol. 41, p. 49) t Robert C. Wesson 0972, p. 251l in his book The Soviet Russian State .writes, ',!Education {s ... an area of major succes,s of the Soviet sys- tem, which tak~.2 pr,ide equally in having raised the country from relative l ' ">. backwardness to the ,orld's second industrial power and in having turned IJ a largely i lliterate nation into one of the most advanced in technical training, with'by far the world's largest pool of scientists and engin eers." The success,of the SovieL1educatton system is 50 lvident because of the va~t difference in educational provision prior ta the Revolution com- pared to today. One third of the Soviet population Cexcluding pre-school children) are now involved ln educati~n. Educatlon'is the road to achieve ment in, Soviet society moreso than perhaps rVWhere else. One example wi Il illustrate the importance of education in the U.S.S.R. and what has been achieved by th~. Soviet government. In the city of Lvov, (600,000), "- a large industrial center 'in the Ukraine, there are 10 universities, 12 tertiary institutions of hig'her learning, 26 special ized secondary chools, 2,600 general sahools with an enrollment of 450,000 studènts secondà'ry "schools (46,0~O) (Krenina, 1976, No. 5, p. 6).' c Il Sil MKIAir:i ------ft ·0 ft ! i ft 4 c ln contrast to the educational systems of some western countries, the Soviet system is very centralized. The AlI-Union Ministry of Eduea- tion and the Hinistry of Higher Eduçation have control of curriculum and staffing, and the granting of degrees and certificates in the various republ ics. With sorne exceptions dictated by the recognition of the mln- ority languages, all Soviet children of a given age shouJd be studying the Q same lessons on the same day. The Soviet Union with sueh ~ large territory and population, réquires such centralization. Because the government controls the curriculum it is able to influence the education of non- Russian nationalities (more than one hundred) by prescribing that the Russian language, culture, and Communist ideology and politics be taught in school. "Rigidity and central control ,'1 Gran~ (1972, p. 22) observes, "ls an outstanding feature of education in the U.S.S.R .... vseful to the Communis,t regime though it was, tight eentralization had its origins in the habits and traditions of Tsarist Russia." Many government agencies participate in maklng the Soviet educa- tional system a smooth mechanism. The Ministries of Education at the republ ie and national levels cooperate and work together. Responsibility for general schools rests with the AIl-Union Ministry of Education. The AlI-Union Ministry of Higher and Secondary Speeialized Education admin " isters unlversities and most colleges and specialized secondary schools. Sehools for workers are the responsibllity of the Committee of th~ Council of Ministers for Voeational-Technieal Edu~atlon. This pattern is dupli· eated with.some variations at the level of the Union Republ ies. ~ There are, in addition, twenty "autonomous republies" with Mlnistries of Edu- c , -!tll'.··"-"·· ..-~,.""'---"" • , 5 c - ~ cwt10n of their awn. Decisions affecting the general schools are passed ,1 from the V.S.S.R, Ministry of Education to the republic ministries for i implementation. Instructions are then passed on ta regional, provincial j and city educational bodies and district departments, and ultimately, to i sehool d irectors and teachers. A'S Grant Cl 972, pp. 33-34} MS noted "by ~ the time it cornes ta the teacher, the area of personaJ discretlon, though ~,t ,", ., greater than it used to be, is very smal1. .• not only basic policy, but Il: n i the content of the curriculum, schemes of work, textbooks, teaching methods ~ t ~ and the like are prescribed for the teacher in considerable detail." 1 The Sov iet government "cons iders the creat ion of a "new man", 1 ( \ builder of the Communist society, of great importance. The Soviet school plays an important role in raising the young generation with a Communist mental ity. M. B. Folsom (1957, p. 58) writes, "education is viewed b'y the Communist Party as an instrument for the formation of a Communist society." This orientation is carried on through the school system in many different ways; through every subject taught, through the Communist youth organizations (the "Octibrists"."Pioneers" , and the "Komsomol"), ~ through school celebrations, competitions, etc. Through such school activities an attempt is made tfPr ce pol itically trained, disciplined builders of Communism, patriots nd internationalists (Pravda, August 22, 1969). ~ Soviet education beglns in kindergarten where Soviet poetry, and \ songs are l~d and pol itical holtdays celebrated. Political education in the U.S.S.R. continues through the entire,,,educational program - ) 1 general school. secondary and higher education and through every part I~ 6 of life. Outside of school, Communist ideolagy.is presented through radio, televisian, books, newspapers, magazines, movies, songs, .'1l celebrations, the arts - opera, bal let, sculpture, palntings, etc. { 1 Teaching and learning in Soviet sehools is planned with the In- ~ tention of inculcating responsibil~ty tg the collective. This feature t. of Soviet education has its arigin in the work of Makare~~ko who experl mented with collectivistic methods of raising children during the early , 1920'5. In his view, the purpose of the collective in the Soviet educa-0 tion system is to develop such qualitie~ as discipline, eomradeship, res- pect for eIders, teachers, and the State. Makarenko bel ieved that children are more easily influenced and disciplined through peer pressuré. / For example, if a student is not spending enough time to do weIl in his L, ~ " studies, according to Makarenko, rèmediation is more likely if the collec- r. , tive Chis classmates) talk to him, encourage him to study, effer him help, '"'1 and try to make him realize that his poor grades are a reflection on tije ~ 1 class as a whole. Responsibility for moni\toring behavlor Is placed on 1 î 1 students with the teacher's guidance. Collecti~istic methods of raising children emphasize respect for par"ents, teachers, the Communist' Party " ,t and its youth qrganizations, loyalty to tne country. and 50 on. This is considered essential ta the creation of a new man - builder of Communism \ - a long and complex process. A friendly, purposeful collective is 1 thought to provide a positive environment where the best quaI ities of 1 an individual sheuld develop. The collective is a mini society and helps ta inform the Individual's response to the surrounding world. It is a \ model of the relations of adult society; an enviranment wnere the indi~ ~ ..JF.I ___-·--~, .... -·"· / 7 ,r-" 11 "II' ! \~ , , , t idual learns and experlenc~ relatlon~ between him and society. A. C. Makarenko used sport terminology in describing the functloning of collec- tives. He pointed out that Communist ~esoluteness, spirit, and ~rpose fulness cannot be fostered wi~hout "exerclse" in appropriate behavior. And the collective, he added, i5 the "gymnasium f~hrs. type of gymnàs- tics. 1I (Krasovitskiy, 197a) ( The AII-round Deve 1Oeèd ~~ 1 r ty The important goal of creating a new man is being aehieved by the Soviet State through diff~~stitutions embracing aIl of the Soviet population at d[fferent ages starting from kindergarten, through 1 the sehool system, the military forces, factories, farms, and sa on. The task of raising the young generation as ali-round developed individ- 1 uals, as Soviet educator Korolev (1960, p. 6) has stated, "is. root prob- lem, the mair problem of pedagogieal theoryand practice." ln lenin's words, Bel orusova , 1972, Vol. 41, p. 33), "our aim is toward education,; teaching and the preparation of the aIl-round developed person who will be able to do everything •.• this i5 the direction of Communism and t6 aehieve it'will ,ja.ke many years." Krupskaya (lenin's wife), Gorkiy Makarenko, Lunaemrrskty and other Soviet educators concerned themselves with this subject. KruPf~ya, for instance, suggested that the Soviet schools should prepare all-roynd developed, spirltually~ disclpl ined men. To achieve thi~ p~[ple have to be healthy, brave, and physi ally prep red she said (pedag~CS Publishing House, • Krupskaya onsidered p y- sica 1 educat ion education. The importance attached « to fostering alI-round continued down to the., !' Illit ---- .., _. ---~- ••-. ------3' .. ft ft - l ' 1 ~., l , present da:;. In his speech celebrating the 50th Anniversary o,f the Kom~ ~ somol, (Sovetskly Sport, April 18,1978) Soviet ~es~dent, L. BreZhn}v ! r ~ remarked "we wan1 to see our )4outh not on 1y beaut i fu 1. but,ill, so hea 1thy,. \ i .\ and phy~ Ica II y strong." i Central to an understanding 0 the Ideology of the all-rounJ'. dev- "! 1 li eloped and physical work whlch î the founders of socialism SOU9h)" to abolish. '''Ol,"",,-..and Engels (Folsom, :' , ~ 1957, p. 12) stressed that lIed{catlon ~ould be mental, physica! (gymnas !~, if tics and military training), and technical (acquainting children wlth the .~ lJrocess of production)." Their education.! philosophy was based on the writings of Fourier and Owen regarding the harmonious development of phy- j ~ '\~ slcal and mental aptitudes. Fourier and Owen, according to Korolev, j Î' (1960, p. 7), argued that "man must develop his abilities in every way t through vOiried practical activity, an,d work must regain the attrOictiveness .~ f it ldst as a result of its division." This was"later elaborated by Marx ,{ ~ 1 who according to Korolev (1960, p. ?) "performed a great service in dis- 1 j covering and formulatlng an objective universal law of social production that de~ands changes in labor and the rounded development of the individual •.. the very nature of large-scOlie industry requires that the incomplete worker, the simple performer of a particular social functlon, should be replaced by a roundl~oped indlvidual for whom different social fun { c~lons represent successive means of vital actlv(ty.1I ln this process, the division between Intellectual and physical work is completely removed. What precisely is the rounded development of the indivldual as understood by Marxlsm? Answers vary but Korolev's t1960, p. 12) explana c tlon touc~s on the essentlal points: ." \ 1" ----- .. f . '" - ...... -"""'...... ,-, --...-..-..---,.. ~_._--_... -_ .. - , , 9 , l. J 11 « "It means molding a person who wUI perform both. physical and mental work, wi Il produce both material \ ~and spiritual values, will be h.armpnlously developed physically and s~lrltually, and wil\' be active ln ' public affairs. It means inculcating lofty ethical . ,/,~,/' -, ideals and esthetical t and vari~jmaterial and spiritual needs. d development does not mean, of course, that a person must knojeverythlng in aIl spherel of work, or be a maste\;\expert vir tuoso in aIl fields. It is the traini~~bf a,person who can orient himself anywh~re ln the system of pro- ~ duction and in its scientlfic and technï'cal principles, has mastered the basic prlntiples of modern sèience, is prepared to change hls occupation if the interests of society and hls Incl1natlons requi re iL" ln other words, the physical, ethlcal, aesthetic and cognitive aspects of education are supposed to complement each other in aclii)eving a comman , goal whlch is expressed ln terms of the upbrlnging of a worthy citizen of a Communist soci~. Education from seeks to har~on- [oust y develop mlndfdbody. For th'ls the Communist Party gii encouragement and pnysical training (Novosti Press ~gency e, 1974). 2 ---·-...... -'""";"------..--~l~ , , ) c ! The Articulation of Programs of Physlcal~Educatlon wlth the Soviet Sport Sys tem When reading Soviet literature on physlcal ~ucatlon and sport ~. one often encounters phrases such as the 'Soviet PhYS~ education sys· tem','Soviet sport system', 'system of preparation of physical education special ists', etc. Sport 1s usually assoclated wlth the notion of a ~ 'system'. One important reason for the success of the U.S.S.R. (and other social ist countrles) ln 1 athletic competitions is the faet it possesses a sport system. ew Zealand's John Walker, Olympie 1,500 meter champlon and! world mile record-holder rem.uked after , a tournament (Gazette, F~b,~~ry 6, 1979) "the Commu':,'ist countries wi Il ~ domlnate the medals i)/~he Olympics because they hàve organi~tion and a system." (Like other aspects of S'ovlèt llfe, sport IS hl9hl~ organlzed. J { Characterish~O-J.he Soviet Union sport 'system is a high degree of , centralization and control. i Physlc.1 C"I~ sport Is supervÎsed and coordinated by the f 1 severa! government agenctes. See Appendlx A for the ist. At the highest level, control over the sport i sed by the Sector of Physlcal Culture and Sport which is accountable to the Department" of Propaganda of the Central COlTl1l1ttee of the Communl\st Party. The Communist Party apparatus From top to bottom (from central to local committees) has sectors and departments with quallfied staff responslbl~ for physlcal culture and sport. The Communist Party provldes ideologlcal and politlcal guidance ta the sport movement and functions ta gener~te « mass participation ln sport (Shnetdman, 1978) 9" aa « ---~------.. • 1 1 ! ln the ~.S.S.R., programs of physical cultur~ and sport are of \ . two types: state and pub! ie organizations. The flrst type consists of programs organized by the followln~ ~genc1es of government: J. The U.S.S.R. Hlnistry of Education and its local branches: preschool Institutions (nurseries and klndergarten)l general education $chools, • boarding schooJs, ped&gogi~al eolleges and pedagogieal Institutes, and other educational institutions. 2. The Mlnistry of Higher and Seeondary Speclallzed Education of the "- " { U.S.S.R., ~nd Union Republics: universities, technlcums (colleges) and other hlgher and post secondary specialized institutions. 3. The Hinistry of Defense of the U.S.S.R., the Soviet army and navy, military secondary schools (uchllisha) institutes and academles. ~ 4. The Ministry of Defense of the U.S.S.R., .nd~lts branches responslble .i for hospltals, medlcal schools, medlcal secondary school (uchiJisha) f and institutes, and others. 1 r S. The l'Ilnistry of Cult,ure of the U.S.S.R. and Union Republics wh!ch 1 supervise recreational centres, parks, schools, secondary schools 1 (uchilisha) and Institutes of culture, and so on. 6. The State Commlttee of the U.S.S.R. Councll of,rHi~lsters' for Voçatl.on- al-Technical Education and its local braDches;and, .. 7. The State Commlttee of the U.S.S.~., Councll of Mlnisters for Tele vision and RadIo. (Kukushkln, 1975) Publ le programs of physlcal culture and sport are organized by socletles for workers ln factories and offices. students ln the Soviet army and navy, and for the general population through communlty 1 (il ..-_ ..... ---- • - , . - ,. -"--'" ._--- 12 r! « ,~ centers. Sorne of these soeieties are organized on a republ le level and \ • others at the national level. 1 The public form of organizing physical culture includes the activitles of trade unions. Organlzations functionin~ under the system of tradè unions which offer sport and recreational programs include: 1. Ail-Union Voluntary Sport Societies CS) (Burevestnik, Vodnik. Zenit, Lokomotiv, Spartak); 2. Republican Sport Societles (15) Trud (Russian Republic); Avaogard (Ukra ine); Krasnoe Znamla (Belorussia - Red Flag); Enbek (Kazakhstan SSR); Nefchi (Azerbaidzhan SSR); Ashhatank (Armenia); Gantiadia \ (Georgia); Daugava (Latvia); Jalgiris (Litva) i Kalev (Estonia); Alga (Kirghizia); Tajikistan (Tadjikistan); Zahmet (Turkmenia}j Mexnat (Uzbekist&n); Modova (Moldavia); and 3. Republican Rural Sport Societles (IS) "Urojai (Russian Republic)j-, Kolos (Ukraine); Urojai (Belorussia}j Kairat (Kazakhs~an); Pahtakor (Uzbekistan); Hocilot (Tadjikistan); Varpa (Latvia)j Niamunas (Litva); ) Hehsul (Azerbaidzhan); Kolhozehu (Kirghizia) i Kolhoznikus (Motdavia) j Cevan (Armenia); Kolhozchi (Turkmenia); Kalrneurne (Georg'la); ludV;;-- (Estoniay.' '\ These sport organizatlons se~k to involve the rural and urban populations in regular sporting activitles. One of the main reasons for the Soviet Union's success ln international sport ,is the successful coordination of the Many different Soviet organizations and institutions of th~ sport movement. the Committee of Physical Culture and Sport c , 13 J (wh{ch rep'resents the government in the sport movement) , Commun! st ~arty l ~ l represented mainly by Komsomol. and the trade unions. The Soviet i j i system of physical education is the organic interaction of thase different j state and public orglnlzltions. An army of people work in the various Soviet sport organtzations helping to keep the Soviet system of physical culture and sport running as a smooth mechanism. Onlya very smal1 number of people. mostly instructors at the lower level of the sport movement actually work on . an unpaid basis. Sport is professionalized. TheU.S.S.R. accepted professional ization of the sport mov,ement many years aga. Sport has become a function of the state used to achieve various internai and, ;-..J' external pol itical goals. The U.S.S.R. entered international sporting competitions on a regular basis after World War Il. A significant step in thts direction was the U.S.S.R.'s participation ln the 1952 Helsinki Olympie Games when the non-official battle began for dominance in international sport. If the U.S.S.R. cQuldn't conclusively prove the worth of its political system in technological, a9ricultu~al(accomP!iShments then, perha~ J 'J there was a chance for it ta do 50 through sport.• The U.S.S.R-. in~ a great dea! of money ln sport and has improved quickly in international events. A sport "system" gives a country an ad~~e - it is Setter able to adopt new techniques and methods. and. significantly: to reward accomplishments and pun[sh failure. An example of the funetion~ng of the reward system is the post of Minister of Sport of the U.S.S.R. After each Olympie Games 'which the Soviet Union lost, a new Minister l, ••.., •. -"'--.-'~'- - -~---- _.-" ... ------~ l, "" ... '''''' .....,' ./ 1 i! has s post for more than ten years. inltially being appointed i j after the 1968 Olympie Gam~s in Mexico (the U.S.S.R. won thé most medals , 1 ( and points in the and Olympie James). This.reward system Invol ! 1972 1976 ~ 1t 'les athletes. coaches and sport administrators, and is the means by t 1 ~ which finaneial gain, awanis, state orders and better job appointments ~ . t~ are obtained. Perfection is sought. Improvement and correcting mistakes i ~ .l ( '; ___ ~i s e l]ip ha s i zed . j ~/-l:) ,-~/ f (\ ' Sport in the U.S.S.R. has become a tool of the state that is used f: ) . .\ -) ( > to achieve var,ious internaI and external political goals. The Soviet ~ ,,~ 4 rt movement is.. a central ized system involving many sport organ.lzatiorys, ~-! each functioning Jin çoncert. The Soviet sport system differs from that ,f. of western countries in important respect~s highly centrallzed. j weil planned, professionallzed and explieitly orlented to the identlfi- cation and eultivation of athletic talent. Subsequent ehapters of this thesis treat important parts of the Soviet sport system such as the Ail-Union Sport Cla'ssification and GTO~ (Ready for Labour and Oefense) rating system~ physical education programs within general schools and institutions of~her learning, and the pre- paratlon. 0 f ph ySlca • 1 e d)ucatlon . speCla . l'IstS. Th e nex t c h ap t er provl . d es a (; description and discusses the Ideological basis and organization of , physical education programs and their relationship to the sport movement. l The seco~d- chapter (Soviet Standard Normat ives and Rating System of Physical Culture-and Sport) explàlns the functioning of the sport rating c system which' il designed to enhance sport mastery and fitness. • ..--_.~ ~ ~ ___''''Io_'IiI~_' ..... _-,-_ .. ,.... _. __ ..... ""',~7"" ..... !ifIj. "". ...• ,""U~_Ml.~'\i..idt2;- z! +. ft - ._,-~~------.. 15 c It is also integrated into physical education programs and the training of physical education speclalists. The third chapter surveys the physical education ptograms of general schools whil~ the fQUrth pr~sents , Information relating to the preparation of physlcal education iRstructors 1 and coaches in universlties and other post secondary institutions. The last chapte~ shows how school programs and those preparing physical education speclallsts functlon withlh the sport movement. ( Jo -if.. , • 1 ~ , • \ ) / ( 1 / j, ~ • 1 .e. ,J t') e -:-:------~ \.-!._-_ »< ! ...... #t .- l.- I 16 , c CHAPTER 2 ~ SOVIET STANDARD NORMATIVES AND RATING SY~TEM Ot PHYSICAL CULTURE AND SPORT 1ntroduc t i on " The Sovi et sport moveme,nt i s one of the largest and one of the most successful in 'the world. The main reason why the Soviet sport sys tem is able to stay af the highest level (and improve) is~its centralized 1 • -.;:; i"P planning and control. ~uch of the accomplishment of Soviet sport should \ \ be attrlbuted to ~~ rating system. the AlI-Union Sport Classification system and the GTO (Ready for"Labour and Defen~e) system, which facilitate mass part;c;patlon and mast~rY ;0 'sport ln ail, areas of the sport mov.m.nt~ Il-Union Sort Classification l,) The AlI-Union Sport Classification system is a system of n and requirements according to which athletes are awarded ranks, and categories {classes} in dÎfferent sports. The system ~ intended to help • coaches" spot promislng athletes ~nd to stimulatJ the best athletes to attain superlor standards. The AIl-Union Sport Classification system was created to attract young people' to sport, 'but its main objective (in con- trast to "the GTO) ls to improve tille level of, at~letic performance. "The GT~is the basis for the horizontal d~elopment of' Soviet physical culture and mass athletics as weIl as an important means of Involvi~g youth in ~ ~ ( . athletlc training," as Shn~,idman (1978, p. 63). hotes, while "the Unified ~, AlI-Union Sport.Classlflcation •.. provides the substruc~ure on which(the vertical development of athletic perfection is bull1. ll The AlI-Union u , ' '---"~-'--'f 'j':"\ ' ( ! ~ 17 ~ ,...... -:../ \. 1J .'. , 1 ~ , Spo;t Classificat~ system was founded i!? \937 and initially lncluded only ten sports. Il 1977 the classification system covered 56 sports. Since 1965 the AIl-Union Sport"Classification system'has changed 4 years after the Olympie Games. - The 1977-80 AIl-Union Sport Classification system is into two levels with further subdivisions: 1. Juniors - Third, Second and Firstj and 2. Seniors - Third, Second, First, Candidate ,for Master of Master of Sport of the U.S.S.R., Master of Sport of the U.S.S.R. International Class, Grand Haster in Chess and Cheekers. The highest award in Soviet sport is the Merited Master of Sport of the u U.S.S.R. which is made ta outstanding athletes, Olympie and w~ld ,1 ( , champions, and world record holders. This and ~ther high award~ (Master of Sport ~f the U.S.S.R., Master of Sport of the U.S.S.R;' 'nte~ational Class, Grand Master in Chess and Checkers) are allocated by ~he Committee ~~f Physical Culture and Sport of the U.S.S.R. Cauncll of Mlnisters. To retsin luch awards, athletes must participate in major taurnaments, their opponents must have the same or higher titles and the judges have ,to be at the national or international level. An athlete cannet retain a tltle without defending it within two year~ varies with ea~ ~ ln track and field " and swimming, time requirements are set. In weight lifting it is aeeord "'-, Ing to the amount ef filograms lifted at tournaments. Standards are set ~ atcording to the top results .ln Olympie an~ world games. Rules for most sports are y very close to, or the same as international.rules. f - 1 .. / t1 d '0 - ----\::J--_._,4_,~"_A~_' ____ '_v _____ """_",,,~~ ~'!JI··IIII·_'..l'~'t_· ..t_, ..r._iil---!,-,,-, ft S ;ft • -« ... 1- 18 , l 1 Sport plays an important role in the 1 ives of the Soviet people. " Sport is widely televised, receives extensive coverage on radio and is ""• publicized daily in the newspapers (especially in the central daily sport néwspaperSovetskiy Spor.t and provincial sport newspapers). Good atKletes are respected and many young people wish to achleve titles such as Master of Sport of the U.S.S.R., and or at least a badge a~testing'-to their athletic competence. , i The Ail-Union Classification system, as previously noted, covers 56 different sporting events. Most are Olympie sports, as weIl-as sorne \ of th~ more popular;end recognized sports in the U.S.S.R. For example, a very popular sport in the U.S.S.R. is "Gorodki" which is practiced with a waoden club and skittles. This sport is played only in the ( U.S.S.R. At the present time it is cultivated in the Soviet Union with provincial and national championships being held yearly. It is rated under\the ~port Classification From 3rd level to Master of sport of the U.S.S.R. On the other hand, sorne sports are included that are very ; popular orlly in certain provinces. , The AIl-Union Sport Classification system has important functions within the Soviet sport system: 1. generating mass participation in sport; providing a standard for ,the evaluation of sport results enabling ~2. coaches to better evaluate the ability of an athlete; 3. improvi~g the quality of coaching; and 4. evaluating the quality of work among the sport organizations. The main purpose of the AlI-Union Sport Classification Î$ ta standardize 19 the rating of different sports. Sport classification also helps ln organizing and planning the sport movement; involving more people in sport by getting them interested in aChi~ng different levels of compe tence, and, obviously very important to the Soviet Union, in raising the masteryof the best athletes. The GTO Comp 1ex "GTO" are the Russian initiais for "Ready for labour and Defense", The GTO system h~s,a somewhat different role in Soviet sport. Its pur- poses are to encourage sport in the every-day 1 ife of the Soviet people, ta enhance mil itary preparedness, teach civil defense, and to improve personal hygiene. Most individuals associated with the Soviet sport movement, or involved in learning about it, have heard about the GTO system O'r "complex" . The Soviet press extensively publ ieizes it. Tne GTO cbmplex is a basic • rating system with standards, norms in running, long or high jumping, swimming, ski racing, rifle shooting, grenade throwing, and 50 on, used ta evaluate the fit~~30f Soviet people. GTO programs span the ages of 10 to 60 and a~e orga ized into five stages: (See Appendix B) First Stage: Brave and Adr 1 t (for boys and girls 10-11, and for 12-1) yea r 0 hls )ô; Second Stage: RisingJGeneration (for boys and girls 14-15 years old); Third Stage: Strong and Courageous" (for boys and girls 16-18 years old); K Fourth Stage: Physical,Perfe_c_t:lon (Men 19-39, divided into two groups 19-28 and 29-39; ~men 19-34. divided Into two groups 19-28 and 29-34); and 11d_-~-"'---' _ .... ------~- .- -,- --._ ... __.... _-, ..._-,_ .. _._-- - - - ...... \~ ·1 20 ... ( Fifth Stage: V-Igor and Health (Men 40-60, divided into two groups 40-49 and '50-60; women, divided into two groups 35-44 and 45-55). The GTO and AlI-Union Sport Classification systems are the found- ation of Soviet physical education. The goals of the GTO and AIl-Union Sport Classification systepl are similar in that they help to involve and encourage people to part ic~;~ate in the sport movement, but are different in other respects. .r GTO was created to increase mass involvement in sports, providing the requirements for physical education in the general school as weIl as physical exercise programs for the military and collectives in rural and urban areas. The main goal of the AlI-Union Sport Classification system, on the other hand, is raising the proficiency of the Soviet ( athletes to win major Soviet and international sport competitions. The GTO system can be consldered a fitness program that helps people improve their physical abilitles and their health., Th'"ts 15 the way the Soviet physical educators present the GTO. [n"'~the west, fitness has a different meaning. The ~oal of the fitness programs in Canada and elsewhere.is in being fit, nat fat, I.e. In good physlcal condition. People are exercising with no intention of competing in sport and are .. !{ not forced by anyone• to partake ln sport. They exercise for enjoyment. "'--- ~~" ~ Millions of North Americans follow Cooper1s fitness program, for instance. ~ i ln this system, aerobic points are given for various cardlovascular t 1 activities. The number of points allotted depends on the intensity and the duration of the activity. In conJunction wLth thisprogram there c is a self-administered exercise test. A cardiovascular fitness rating '. ... \ 1 • .Wlïj.l.d••• 1II1II.- .....----·· ---". " ------"" ~.-.---- ."' . / 21 r 1 , is given depending on the distance covered in a 12-minute walk-run. n) The GTO test consists of two parts, the requirements of which Î !, must be satisfied in order ta obtain the GTO badge for a particular i age~roup. The first part, which is the mcst dtfficult and most I~or- 1 tant, involves a test of proficiency in various sports which is carried l J out in the context of c6mpetition. An ind[vidual is tested in ~unning, ! long or high jumping, swimming, grenade throwing, or shot put throwing, r and so on. At the end, according to the GTO Table, points for aIl 1. sports are added. The second part is theoretical and partic~nts are examined on persona! hygiene, civil defense and the organization of the Soviet physical education system (Shneidman, 1978). Depending on the points accumulated in the theoretical and p~actical tests, badges are awarded. ln Soviet literature there is so much attention given to the GTO system that one gets ~he impression that every second citizen of the U.S,.S.R. participates regularly on a year-round basis in the GTO program. However, there is a dJfference between jogging regularly a few times a week for fitness and partlcipating in the GTO tests once !l a y~once every few years. Very often people (laborers, students, ! and so on) who don't participate in sport are brought ta stadiums for " t tests. Many of them participate in the GTO activity reluctantly. As ~:~ in other areas of Soviet 1 ife, the state clrganizations p,lan how many " u people wi 11 participate in the GTO test.s and how many wi 11 pass the different GTO levels. And as often happens, by going after numbers, Soviet sport officiaIs miss What is essentfal to amateu~ sport and --~ J " / 1 \ , .' . -- 1 \" 1 ~ 22 ( recreation -- that the people have ta 1 ike the particular program, that it should be a popular event, and that the people understand the' necessity of the program, not only for their country but for themselves. The major Soviet sport newspaperSovetskly Sport CApril 21, 1977} reported that only 1.5 percent of aIl workers between thirty-five and sixt Y years of age "1 were awarded GTO badges in 1976. This means that the majority of the people involved in GTû are under 35 years of age. By analyting GTû participatipn, it can be seen that most of the people who pass the test are students of educatlonal institutions and military personnel who must pass the GTO test as a part of their physical education programs. Members of collectives of physical CU1~e in factories and farms also are obI i gated to sorne extent to participate in the tests. People over theC;O-35 year range are less active, and to keep fit they require much more en- couragement and avai lable instructors, facilities and equipment. The low percentage of the over-35 year olds passing the GTO standards is an indication of the poor development of fitness and recreation in the , U":'S.S.R. The main reason for this is the governmentls excessive atten- tion to International athletic results, as wi 1 1 be demonstrated later. ln sorne western countries such as Sweden and Canada, recreation and fitness have developed to a greater extent ~an in the U.S.S.R. ln Canada, for example, there are many different fitness programs avail- able through colleges, universities, YM-YWCA's, YM-YWHA's and other public recreational and health organizations. In the larger cities, many housing complexes have fitness clubs available for the tenants and many businesses have started fitness programs for their employees. In ,.1" ...... I --' -", _ ~ ",.~ .... ,..".~,~ ~ ~ f\ ( Canada, fitness has priority over, elite athletics.- ln 1974,50 mi 11 ion .soviets passed the GTO te.st, a fact .that was J publ icized a great deal. But nobody knows how many peo~le practice sport on a regular basis. Taking the GTO test once a year and practicing sport regularly are not the same thing. There was a time when GTO was very popular in the U.S.S.R. When founded in 1934, it was an honor for an individual ta obtain a GTO award. A persan who met GTO standards was respected by friends and colle.gues, and~he was proud ta wear the badge or pin on his jacket or shirt. Today, when sport throughout the world, and [n pa~~lar in the U.S.S.R., is at such a high level, when the Soviet Union ha hundreds of Olympie and World Champions, the prestige lessened and many no longer have the enthu~~asm or desire/~particiPating in GTO they had " several years ago. \\ v Partly in recognition of declining public enthusiasm, in 1973 sport.authorities came up with a new form of lnvolving people in the GTO ;) 1 program: the first national GTO championship. The GTO national tourna- ment begins with lbcal competitions in the sport clubs, factories, farms and physical culture collectives, and then on to the level of provincial / championships. In the finals of the lLS.S.R. GTO championship, the best athJetes who win the rep~blican provincial championship participate. The nationa'J championships are considered useful in selecting athletes for national teams whlch represent the Soviet Union at international tournaments . •••1•• -----·------...'_._- 24 , , 1 1}:' l, ( Gro and the AII~n[on Clas~iftcatton systems play a very impor- l:" ~ , tant role in the Soviet sport movement. The GTO system ts fitness t " ~ oriented and seeks to generate mass participation in sport. The AlI-Union ~. f Sport Classification system malnly serves to enhance mastery in partici- pants. Bot~ systems provide the sport movement with standards which are , used by the different sports organizations for planning, monitoring and improving their programs. They are i,nteractive and complementary - and, as 1 will show in the next chap~ers, provide a framework for physical education programs in general schools and the preparation of physica1 education specialists. In the larger context of the Soviet sports movement, the two rating systems help to identify a~d cultlvate athle~c talent and contribute significantly to the U.S.S.R.'s s~ccess in in~national sport. ,< ,.1Iai tWIll} "'FMet ,"" .. i- , 25 { CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN GENERAL SCHOOL AND POST" SECONDARY INSTlTUTIOHS '~ntroduct ion The purpose of this chapter is to describe and analyze the phys- • ical education programs of Soviet general schools and post secondary* institutions. The Soviet government places great importance on the physical education program espec!ally in the genera,1 schools as it is bel ieved that, through sport, students develop char~~ter, comradeshlp, collectivism, discipl ine, and many other desirable qualitles. The main objective of the physical education program 'in the post secondary insti- 1 tut ions is to raise the level of fitness of Soviet students. This chapter .~ illustrates~differences in the tasks of Soviet physical education programs in schools and post secondary institutions. Physical Education in Soviet General Schools 1 1 i The Ministry of Education of the U.S.S.R., in conJunction with the U.S.S.R. Committee of Physical Culture and Sport, the Central Committee of the Komsomol, and the U.S.S.R. Ministry of Health partlcl- pate ln planning and organizlng physical education programs for students in general schoals. Such programs seek to improve the health of the students by dèveloplng motor sk)lls which would be useful in their daily lives, encourage fitness, participation in sport, (aise the level of [) * ln thj~ chapter the term post secondary 15 used ta de~be unlversities. c ; -. , :lI 1 \ . f 26 ( , ~ 1 sport,aehievement, instill moral and fsthetic values consistent with .. Communist ideology, and prepare studJnts over 10 years of age to pass the GTO tests CKukushkin, 1975). From grade 1 onward, students are divided into three groups for ) physical education according to their health and physical abil Ities. 1. The Basic Group - aIl healthy students who exhibit normal or above normal motor develop~ent; 2. The Preparatory Group - pupils who are in poor physical condition (who are overweight, phfslcally underdeveloped, etc.); and 3. The Special Group - students with disabil ities and handicapped per- sons (a permit from a physician is required for these students). ln this thesis, my concern is with those physical education programs whieh are oriented to the needs of children without physical disabilities or handicaps. J Physical education is provided in various ways by the sehools: through regular physical education classes which are included in the 1, genera 1 educat ion curr, i cu 1um; recreat i ana 1 at t i v i b.i es he 1d du ri n9 sehoo 1 hours; after sehool reere~ional aetivities conducted within the schoolls ( general educat~nal program; and, through athletic competitions and special event{ supervised by the sehool in which participation is vol- untary. Physical education lessons are,based on the requirements of the curriculum of Physical Culture for each school grade. The curriculum inetudes eompulsory and, tn later grades, electlve material to be used c depending on the qualification of the teaehers, the schoolls geographl- \ ) ./ SlI - --- ~ ------...--,,--- 1- ~.. t • 1'" 27 ( r cal location, the availability of suitablè faciJities and equipment, etc. No elective materiaJ i~ given ln grades 1 to 4 whereas in the higher grades, electives comprise about 20% of physical education classes ) (Shneidman, 1978). P.hysical education in the Soviet general education schocls Is carried out through: ~ Gymnast ics (as a genera 1 exercise used in many sports, for example • . \warm-up exerc i ses) ; 2. Games (basketball, volleyball, soccer, recreational games, etc.); 3. Sports (sports which include many events, i.e. track and field. gymnastics. skiing, swimming); aed .~ 4. Hiking Ccalled tourism in the Soviet Union). Table 3.1 shows the percentage of time devoted to each of the activities according to the age of the students. t'n allocating time for differen( activities with~e curriculum, physiological and psychological diff~ en ces are taken into consideration among c~ildren of different ages. For example, Table 3.1 shows that during physical education classes for child~en betwee~ 8-9 years of ,age half of the instructional time is spent . 1 on games. This is because children of that age nave difficultles "concentrating and therefore the learnlng of\advanced motor skills is combined or included in games. Games (50%) and gymnastlcs (40%) take up the majori ty of teaching t ime at thi s age and .decrease ln importance as the chi 1dren get 01 der. ln the ftna 1 grades of sch.oo' the teacher can ~oncentrate more on the teaching of variou~ sports. Nevertheless games are a very important part of the physical education program as can'be .. 1 tI.------..~. -----\ -- 28 Seen by the fact that even at the 16-17 year old level. games are still 1 scheduled for 25% of the physical education curriculum in the general .' q schools. Table 3.1: Percentage of T~me Oevoted to Physical Education Activitles in flle General Schools. \ Age Gymn.stics Games Sports li i ki n9 Total % % % ;; % ( 8 - 9 40 50 5 5 100 - 10 - 11 40 40 10 10 100 12 - 13 30 35 20 20 100 14 - 15 30 25 25 25 100 16 - 17 20 25 35 35 100 (Kukushkin, 1975, p. 193) Considering that children spend 10 years in general schools, i t ~ is understandable that their exposure to physical education is seen to 1 affect their future involvement i,n sport. Physlcal education classes are compulsory from grades 1 through 10. with two 45 minute perlods of instruction required per week under the supervision of a teacher. Fo11owing language and mathematics. physical education requires the next hlghest number of hours in the curriculum over the 10 year period which' is an indication of its importance. Most schools begin thelr day wlth 8-12 gymnastlc exercises for about 10 minutes. These are usually conduéted in the school yard. auditorium, or in school corridors, dependlng on weat'her cortdl- tUf IIT'._ ._ ------, /1 __ ,""" ...... , "__ ~~_"" __,",""«1."'."''''''''''''''l**",~''''IIIIIJi:l'''b''''_""'H~"'Ii!I"O!\'Jl;",,,_,,,,,,, ___(j ___.OIl"'I''''''-"4 ... e... UA_____ ~ _ __.---- 29 , tians. Such e.xercises are al 50 urged dur i~~ breaks between other activ 1> ities to help reduce fatigue and refresh the students by ~iving them a .. f , ...;, ehange in routine. Classtime is usually spent playing games or on aetivities using' various sportsrequipment that is set up iD the senllol yard. Students participate voluntarlly in these activities. The games and exercises are of a simple nature Ce.g. soccer, basketbalJ),and the / students are weIl acquainted with them. Athletic competitions constitute an important part of the physical education program in Soviet sehools and are used ta improve the health and fitness of the students, and, significantly, to develop such qualities as comradship, collectivism, team, class and sohool spirit. Competitions are organized on various levels; these are: 1. Intra-class competitions; 2. Inter-class -competitions (from which the best athletes are selected for inter school competitions); 3. District competitions, in whlch as many as 20 all-school uteams pa rt1 c i pate; 4. City championships (for the best three school teams and selected \ , athletes, from aIl city districts); and, 5. National championshlps, involving those who have excelled at previous level s. Students are divided into four age groups (11-12; 13-1~; 15-16; and 17-18} for inter school competitions. Usually. students compete,in up to fourteen sports (ba~tball, volleyball, water polo, cycling, gym- c nasties, track and field, swimming, divlng. table tennis, lawn tennis, Hl -_v .... wFPII.n iW - : ~1 30 , 1. c soccer, shooting, canoeing, and chess} (ftowe1.1 and Va"n Vllet, 1965). , The sports and events vary for each age group. Research'lnstitutes of l~ • r' t physical culture establ ish the rules and' el igibll ity of competition ~ é. which also vary for children of the different ages. For example, the \, i weight of the shot put varies for each age group and sex. The 13-14 ! ) age group runs the 400 meter but are not allowed to compete in the 800 ! meter, and the discus event is not allowed for this group ~W~I and •\ Van Vliet, 1965). To parttcipate,students must have th;'permissiôn of a physicia~., , The competition site and sport equipment Is inspected to preve\t any ha~m or in jury to the ch!ldren. The results in eompetitions are often of a' high :;tandard, especially at the national level. Talen-, ted athletes are "discovered" at these competitions. The highest level of competition ,for the general school students t is the U.S.S.R. 'School Games wh.ich the pres.s refer ta as a hol iday of children's sport and a festi'Ï'al of friendship. U.S.S.R. School Game, finals are preceded by city, district, regional and republic tourna- ments in w~ich millions of school children compete (Shtukal0, 1976). During these competitions many boys and g,irls receive GTO badges and quaI if y for sport ratings. The b.est stadia, gymnasia and ~w'mmlng'pools ~ , are put at their disposaI. Tbe 1964 Olympic high jump champion V. Brume! '1 1 ~ " was first discovered at th.. ssian ~chool championship ahd VI. las~enko, 1 the world record holder in h~9h jumping, was :discovered at school compe- 1 ; J tltions along with many other top Soviet athletes. These competItions " / help deveJop team, SPi~it4 friendsh:ip in the chil',dren, and can a.r;o be 1- a means of judging the,~of the physical education teat~ers. . .' r -i ,~ ••••____ -----'-:,,~-----;;~----"''' __'''''''''trl'''.'''''''''::~N."'-""--_P""----·-""""''''''--~~'Xt:trei.f )14-" 1.t ( The curricula prescribed for physical education programs includes helpful suggestions for teachers. Teachers are advised ta pay close \ v 1 attention to the Dody construction of the children. They are shown how ;:" ta prevent injuries and given necessary first aid information. Emphasis is also placed in the physical education curricula in Soviet generaJ schools on preparation for the GTO tests. Beginning with grade 5 phys- ical education classes, children are'prepared for/the GTO and partici- -Qate in trial competitions. This is not the sole purpose of physical- education classes. But preparation for GTO makes up a large portion of the physical education program and teachers are he'ld accountable for the results of their students in the GTO tests. The provincial Ministries of Education constantly inspect the physical educat~programs of general schools. , These inspections are of great impor~nce. Each Ministry of Education maintains a st~ff of inspectors who 'sit schools in their assigned areas to ensure that "1 approved teachi~~dardS ~re bein. followed. Inspectors are present at examinations, lessons, analyzing IdeologicaJ aspects of instruction, , ' class discipl ine and the teaching abi 1 it}es of the staff. Inspectors monitor compl iance with the prescribed curricul.~ (Rii'rdan, 1975). By ! ~eeping a watchful eye on the teachers, universal standards are maintalned' and the Minlstry ls informed of problems at the séhool level and of the need for specifie changes in curricula, teaching techniques, etc. to . ' maintain a high teachtng standard. Provincial Inspections occur once L; or twice a year. CS,im[1ar class Inspections are frequently made by the director of the school.) f ,1 • 32 , '" c Lad. of adequate s.port fac il i t les and profess 10na Il Y qua 1 if ied , .. " teachers, especially in the rural areas, is a major source of cbncern to Soviet educators. While the nurnber of scnool sports facil ities is impress ive, accord lng to the newspaper Sovetskiy Seo rt (May Il, 1979) many physical education teachers From backward areas of the U.S.S.R. have complained about the paor facil tties and" very poor equipment. The C U.S.S.R, Ministry of Educat~ does not appear ta be very concerned 1 about the construction of ~tter school facil ities and production of sport equipment. The defieit I$-f su ch faeil lties and equipment in the schaolos is reported to be growing larger every year (Sovetskiy Sport, May 14, 1979). The large population and limited financial resources of the country mitigates against immediate amel ioration of this situation. However, the fi~ priorities of the Soviet Union in sport also focus on internat~1 athletic success. Physical education programs in schools are simply one means through which this may be achieved. Physical education specialists who have completed co)l~ge are" quite often sent to the rural areas. But many physical educatIon teachers 1 in rural schools have little or nb formaI training in tfeir fjeld. Because conditions in rural areas are of a much lower standard than in cities it is difficult to get university graduates ta 1 ive and work in small towns. The sports facilities in many schools in the rural areas are lin poor condition. In facto many schools do not have a\ gymnasium and tnus must make use of a c1assroom in lieu of a gym. Soviet Deputy Hinister of Education. H. 1. Kondakov (Riordan, 1975) stated that. in 1968.50% of the schools didn1t have the appropriate sport equipment to , l 2q 33 r- i,- 1 conduct compulsory phy~ical education lessons, and 40% of the physièal education instructors were unqual ified. Of/the 85,000 primary schools (grades 1-4),80,000 were understaffed and uhderequipped for physical education. Until recently, physical education in the first grades of the general school was carried out by reguJar teachers because of the shortage of physical education specialists. ln the U.S.S.R. the best sport facilities are built for sport societies and clubs where the majority of professional coaches work and the best athletes are produced. Athletie talent is cultivated by these societies and clubs whi le in North America ~his oceurs through the sehool system, partieularly the high sehooJs and univers~ty. These institutions in North America have the best facilities. Children who wish to be rated and to partiGipate in higher level competitions, are able to join children's sport schooJs. The local Board of Education and Sport societies usually operate sueh schools free of charge, and in these schooJs the children are coache9 by professionally quaI ified instructors; At the present time there are more than 4,~OO ehildren's sport schools' in the U.S.5.R. with over 1.6 million children aged 9 ta 14 years attending. Many of these schools cover 23 sport events including track and field, gymnastics, etc. (Novosti Press Agency Pub 1 i shing House, 1974). Physical Education in Post Sétoôdàty Institutions ln thé Sôvlét Union Post secondary institutions.r.'the tratninggrC!lurids fbr.-"t'dghly qualified specialists ln every field of national economy and cultural edifi~ " ••I11I __•• __ m__ -~·~-~" -- ---~~-_.. - ...... 1 l J' l ( ( The formation of qual[fied special ists i~ a responsibtl ity assumed i by universities, training colleges, academies and other equivalent ~ ~ institutions. Admission to ins.titutions ts open to every Soviet f , \ i citizeh with a general education up ta the age of 3~ years. Older ,~ students undertake post secondary studies at night or throu9h corres- \ h J~ t pondence. As of January l, 1975, there were 4.8 million students ,i, , registered in post secondary institutions. '. Physical education progràms in post secondary institutions are 1 ", ';~, an integral part of the curricula and play an important role in the 1 ives ,1 ;t of students., Universities and specialized scheols have physical educa- ,.; 'r " < tion departments. In 1974, in the U.S.S.R., 15,000 qualified physical ~ \ education instructors were working such institutions.CNovosti Press ;,~ Agency.Publlshing House, 1974). i Physical fitness program is a typically compulsory subject time- tabled in the student's schedule. At' un,iversity, fot instance, students ~ f must attend 140 hours of physical education classes during their first '" , and second year, after which phys/cal education becomes optional. Classes / are held once a week for 2 hour periods. Compulsory studies ln physical education are organized according to a curricula approved by the Minlstry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education. In post secondary insti tutions, physical education programs are seen ta contrlbute to better health, to enhance study abilities, to develop the student's physical abilftles in his or her favorite sport, and, especial1y to lnculcate 1 1 appropriate attitudes regarding fitness and the necessity for regular i ( exercise. Studies conducted by Soviet sociologists to ffnd the correl- "R!! .... -~---- ... ____"''"_l'~ "'--'-rl""",..,;...q,~ ,j1'"~W.... . ---"'-"-;0 2 - - .. - -- , 1f 35 t ( ation between level of education and involvement in sport indicate that the preparation of those with some post secondary education involved in regular physical exercise in later years was greater (79.4%) com pared to individuals with elementary education 05.1%) (feygin, Malova and Aleksandrova, 1971). Preparation for achieving the 4th level of the GTO rating con- stitutes the core of the students l compulsory studies. The physical education program taken by aIl students includes instructlon in: 1. The sociological and hygenic basis of physical education; 2. General physical training (i.e. participation in gymnastics, track and field, athleties, skiing, swimming); and, 3. Training in a specifie sport discipline chosen by the student. Before applying to a university or'other post secondary institute students submit to a medical examination. Students are then classified according to the"ir medical cohdition as being IInormalll, in need of pre paratory~raining or as requiring special instruction as a result of a • physical disability. Students are thus instructed differently on the basis of their physi~al preparedness. The preparedness of students who are in poor physical condition (but not disabled) is quite high, espec- ially among women. For example, at the Moscow State University in 1970, J- the proportion of female students participating in the preparatory classes t- is even greater - 65 percent (Kolesnikava and Dmitriev, 1970). In phy- " l sical education classes, men and women are separated and students are divided into groups of 6 up ta 25 depending on the physical condition 1\~~ ~ of the students end their need for more ;ndividual attention. ! t ! ;, l l l r "I~ -" ' , • c .....1( ot 1, J 36 ( Participation in sports is emphasized for aIl groups of students. Sports require students to use different physical sktlls Ci .e. gymnastics requires coordination and strength: swimming, especially, r~qulres endurance), develops the physical abil ities of students at a faster pace. The amount of time scheduJed for any one sport depends in part on the quaI ity and size of the facII ity, number of students, and the quaI ifications of the staff~ At the Moscow State University the first year program is divided in the following manner: track and field 36 hours; skiing 32 hours; sport games 28 hours; gymnastics 12 hours; skating and swimming 10 hours each. In the second year 32 hours are devoted to track and field; 28 to ski ing; 28 to sport games; lB to gymnastics; 18 ta skating; and •. 6 hours to appl ied labor and professional gymnastics (Nivikov and Matveev, 1968. p. 152) . At the end of each term students must pass a test or examination in physicaJ education. These results are thén submitted by the teacher to the administration, an'(j also recorded in the student's "book" or transcripts. Those who have a degree from a higher institution in physical education or a candidate or doctor of science (physicaJ education) are' entitled ,to teach in the colleges and post secondary institutions. Extra curricular recreational activities are organized by sport fi / li clubs with the assistance of departments of physical education. Parti- cipation in these athletic activities lS on a voluntary basis. c 1- , , 37 Many higher education institutions have their own specially organ- ized sport camps, located in picturesque places near towns, seas, rivers or lakes, where students and employees can spend their free days or summer or winter vacations. Instructors, teachers from the physical education departments and athletes usually work at these camps organizing' various sporting activities. A great many students attend these camps primarily because of their location and the,fact that the cost is quite reasonable as the major portion of the expense is paid for by the trade union. Membership to these clubs is open to aIl students, employees of the institution and their families, and post graduates. The clubs are managed by an elected council which reports regularly to the membership at general meetings. According to Soviet sources (Kukushkin, 1975, p. 538~ 1.6 million students at the post secondary level are members of these club~. Many students are members of the Student Sport Soc i et y "Burevest- nik,1I a national society that includes students from universities through- 1 { out Russia (except provinces such as Moldavia, Estonia) and holds a national championship. In 1974, the Burevestnik Society had a membership of approximate'y one-and-a-half million and in the period 1970-74 more than 5,000 earned the tltle Master of Sport of the U.S.S.R. Soviet students have performed weIl in international events. At the World Student Games in Moscow, in 1973, the Soviet team won 68 gold medals, almost half of the total. Members of the Soviet student clubs"usually i i l 1- "r . ( , ,)" -::: 1 ,r ... 38 , ( ; , achievetop results at the Olympie Games also. "In Munich, in 1972, they won 67 of the 99 medals awarded to the Soviet team and 38 of these were gold (Novosti Press Agency Publ ishing House, 1974, p. 19). Each university differs with regard to its facilities, number and level of training of coaches and types of sports practiced. For example, the Moscow University has several modern stadia, an indoor 1 track, many well-equipped gymnasia and sports grounds, and swimming pools. fnstructors provide coaching in 41 sports and students and others , associated with the institution have the opportunit~ ta raise their level of fitness or their level of performance to international calibre (Gramenitskl, 1975). On the other extreme, there is the Polytechnlcal fnstitute of Kishinev in the Province of Moldavia which doesn't even have its own stadium, the gymnasia are small and theÎnstitution has onlya 25-metre swimming pool. ft has developed sports such as wrestling, swimming, gymnastlcs, badminton - aIl together 10-12 sports. The Soviet media frequently criticizes post secondary institutions for the poor physical abilities of their students. In a recent article in the newspaper Sovetskiy Sport (January 25. 1979) "From mass sport par- ticipation towards mastery, proflciencyll, S. P. Pavlov, U.S.S.R. Minister of Sport, crlticlzed the physical education employees of sorne of the Soviet Republic's hlgher education institutions for their poor work in prepara- tlon of students for the GTO tests. With aIl its achievements the Soviet 1 system of physical education at;.the post secondary level still needs " further Improvement. There is stilL a fairly low level of fitness IIi 1 • s -- -.. - 1- , ': " 39 ( among students entering u~iversity. St~~ies condu~ted by G. A. Volkov (Pravosudov, 1979) showed that 70% of the student~ put into preparatory physical education classes were evaluated as either IIbad ll or "very bad" in general fitness ~t the end of their studies. At the same medical school ~here Volkov conducted his experiment, studies show that for the , ~- \ past 10 years there has been no improvement in the stand~rd of physical conditioning among females (specifically, no improvement in their strength or endurance). And while aIl first and second year university stude~ts are involved in physical education not aIl students are able to pass the-GTO fitness test. By the time students return for the ~econd year of university (after examinations and summer vacations) the fitness level achieved during the first year has in many instances been reduced to its original level. Sy the end of their second year the majority of students have managed to regain this physical conditioning and in sorne cases improve. However after second year, physical education is no longer compulsory and studles have shawn that 90% of the fifth year students are poorly condltioned and in need of preparatory physical training (Pravosudov, 1979). The main reason for such a significant decrease in physical fitness is the lack of regular actlvity. ln surnmary, physical education in post secondary institutions in ~he U.S.S.R. has many positive points - it involves a compulsory l ptogram with specifie requlrements and dlfferent programs for students 1 1 i' of different abilitles. Athletlcs in Soviet post secondary education l institutions are not organized 11ke those ln the U.S.A., Canada, or ! Japan, for example. In these countries, the university is the founda- \ '•• 11.1----"----- >H_ -- -.- - '-'-' 1-, '~ __""_;"'I_'_.""t_[J."lIIIl""J; •• j"'. __ "'1lII"1I'IIIIII'';1~""2 __."". __...... ,.... ~ ... *,,.. ______------Iii, 40 0' (iOn of the elite athletics program. Educational institutions are for' \:tudies. and through physical education sport is an important part of the student's life. Universities are not appropriate for training at the highest level. The top Soviet coaches work full time in sport clubs and societies. Unlversltles, usually, do not have the best experJ- enced practical ~oaches and Instructors. Soviet universities have very high academic standards and study requlrements leave them little tlme for sport or exerclse. .. ( (" 't - , • ; : ' .: : ~ ... 7 ::; b; ; : 41 r ( CHAPTER 4 PREPARATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION SPECIALISTS , 1ntroduct i on 1f. The following chapter describes the system of preparing physical 1 1 education specialists in the Soviet Union. The preparation of teachers. instructors and other specialists in the field of physlcal education is the responsibility initially of technlcums of physlcal culture and coach- ing schools. and at higher levels ~f institutes of physical culture and faculties of physical education. At the flrst level, Soviet educators place more emphasis on the practical training, and courses'such as statis- tics, tests and measurement, biophysics, etc., are not considered of much importance. More theoretical. scientific based preparation is given to students who attend university programs in physical education in the 1 U.S.S.R. Training in Technicums and Coaching Schools There has been an increasing demand for physlcal education special- ists in the U.S.S.R. because of the growing public involvement ln sport. Between .1966 and 1972 the number of graduates of technicums in physical culture and coachlng schools has increased more than two and one-half times, from 10.3 thousand to 21.7 thous.nd graduates annually (Kukushkin. 1975, p. 551). Huch importance has also been given to upgrading the qualifications of physlcal education te.chers. For severa! years, many ~ Individuals working in physlcal education and sport were, and to some extent still are, poorly qualifl~d or unquallfled, I.e. they possess no -----*~-. ___ -....e.. __ ...... R..., ...... _ ....._. ---- __.... __ ..... _ ...Ut~~ .II_--~·"-:-----· -., .. ---- ..~- l, 42 , ( post secondary* training in physical education. For example, in 1972, in the Russian Republic, 36 per cent of those working in physical education had no special ist traininq (Andreeva and Nikiforov, 1972). Efforts are being made to remediate this situation. Throughout the country various types of sports schools are being founded to prepare high level athletes. In 1975 there were 4,079 chi Id- ren1s sport schools which included 486 speciaTized sport schools (spec!~I ized in certain sports). In addition to the children1s sport schooJs, there were 200 youth sport schools and 62 schools designated as higher sport schools which the very best athletes attend. These schools differ in size, demography, f~cilities and level of mastery of the athletes and in terms of the qualification of the coaching staff. In 1975,the total number of students attending such schools was \.5 mill ion, and there were 43 thou- sand coaches, the majority of which have physical education degrees. Olympie centers were started in 1970, and by 1973 1,000 of these centers were in operation (Kukushkin, 1975, p. 551). Working in each of these institutions, besides coaches, are masseurs, coordinators and other ad- " ministrative personnel, most of whom have,physical education qualifications. Whaf with the educational system, military forces, sports clubs and i,> societies all requiring teachers, the U.S.S.R. needs many" quallfied specialists. To accomplish this the Soviet governmentJhas opened a great many institutions which train physlcal education instructors af the semi- \ professional level. ln 1971 fifty-three thousand, or 40 per cent of aIl speclali~ts wlth diplomas in the country were graduates of technlcums of physlcal .. *In this chapter post secondary refers to unlgersitles and col1eges. _-, ( ••• __ ... _.,----~- _-----_. • « .. ---.---- & ( , . , 43 E "• ( culture or coaching schools (Solov'eva, 1971). Hierarchially these insti- tutions are above the general schools and be10w universities in the educa- tional system. There are twenty-one technicums of physical culture and sport and 10 coaching schools in the country. AlI are under the juris- diction of the republican Ministries of Education and the republ iean Committees of Physical Culture and Sport. Students graduating From these institutions are qualified as teachers of physical education and work in schools, collectives of physical culture and other sport organizations {Sovetskiy Sport, May 17, 1979}. The,academic year in the Soviet Union is from September 1 ta the end of June with classes held six day~ a week. More than thirty hours of theoretical and practical instruction is 'required per ~eek. Students do not pay for their education, and those receiving high grades in their studies receive a stipen~ of 20-30 rubles a month to help cover a part of their living expènses. Technicums of physlcal culture will admit any citizen of the 1 U.S.S.R. for full time study who has incomplete seconda'ry education (8 years), or complete secondary education (10 years) and who is under the age of 30. Persans working in physic~l culture and sport who have a sport ratlng and completed lower or hlgher secondary education, can be admitted for correspondence studies without any age restr'iction. The length of study in technicums of physl~al culture for those entering with incomplete general secondary school Is 2years 10 months (full tlme) or 3 years 10 months (part time). For students with complete general secon- dary school education (la years) it is 1 year 10 months (full time) or •••1_---·-'-- s • • 1 1 i -- 1'- , t 44 ' r ~,: ~ ! (;~ ( , / ~ " , 2 years 10 months of part time studies. ,/ Students applying to a technicum must pas! an entrance examination (administered, or.lly for the most part) which, for t~ose completing 8 years of general education includes Russian language and mathematics, and for those completing la years of general education school Histor~ of the , t U.S.S.R., and Russian language and literature. In additlôn, applJcants are required to be physically fit and pass examinatlons in a chosen sport ~.". -, , ,, with the exception of those who hold the titles of Kaster o~ Sport, Herited , , --- :; ' .. l Hast~r of Sport or Kaster-of Sport Internationa~, Class. Appllcants hold- i~g/these titles usually have priority over others because of their proficie~cy in sport. AlI applicant! mu~t have passed GTO tests appro- , priate to their age group.' , The technicums of physical culture differ in the subjects of '< o " speicalizatf'on they offer. For example Blagoveshenskiy Technicum, in thJ , \ t\mur Region" offers specialization in skiing, speed skating, gymnastics, 1t track and field, sport games (vol 1eyba 11 and basketbi:IIJ)., The Shadrinsky' Tec,hnièum in Snadrlnsk offers skling, speed skating,' track and field, s'port ' garnes and greco-roman wrestl ing, the Krasnoyarskly Technlcum offers skling, 1 track and field, freestyle wrestllng, etc. (SovetsklY Sport, Hay 17, 1979). Since the technicums pr'lmarlly prepare teachers for schools the curricu- '1 lum of general sthools prescrlbes Instruction ln severa' sports. However, i students do specialize in one sport. Each sport is st'udied during a min l1_ imum of two-2 hour classes per week.'. Students are tawght the methods of teaching and coachlng a particular sport and prepare for the prattical '1 A .(Ir l test (2nd level of the ~l-unlon Sport ct~ssiflcation rating system). l Spej:lal ization ln a partlcular; sport does not excuse the studen,ts from 1 ...... ~.z .... ~ 45 c regul'ar classes deal i ng wi th that sport where the sport Is taught on a more general basis and" where the level of mastery required is lower. " The technicums give their studepts the'necessary theoretieal and practieal--- preparation in their speclalization.· Students must also practice-teach in schools, sport collectives and at Pioneer Camps. Sub- jects studied are planned according to teachlng programs of the institu- tions the student wi Il enter. The subjects stud ied for those preparing to teach in the 8 year general school include history, sociolbgy, liter- ature, physics, foreign language, foundations of seientific atheism, economic geograpny, mathematics and chemistry. Students seeking positions i~ , a 10 year school follow a more comprehensive program and will study Q anatomy, physiology, sports medicine, the treatmentof injuries, psychology, hyglene, pedadagogic, the history and organization of physieal culture, • sports and recreational games, the theory and methods of teaching sports, , and the construction of sport facilities. Coaching schools are normally attached either to an institute of physical culture or to a technicum of physical culture. Although coach- f Ing s~hools enrol full time students at the age of 15 or 16, theyare chiefly concerned with evening and èorrespohdenee courses for experienced athletes who wish ta obtain a coaching certificate. Courses last two years for full time students and three years for correspondence studies. r. l' AlI entrants for full time and part time studies must take an examination o ' in Russian, chemlstry, physics, track andlfield, gymnastics and swlmming, 1 \ and must hold, not less than a Second.. Ranking in the AlI-Union Sport Cl~? " ificatlon system and have at least eight years of general schooling. e " -~ .~~- ...... '-, -:- ..."'"''' ...~'F>:.....-::r.,.. \) t ,,,, nicums of physical culture but with more hours being spent on the area of spec'ial ization and more study of coaching theories. The curricula is •1 1, dlvided into four areas: ~ 1. General subjects comprising History of the U.S.S.R., Social Studies, Economie Geography, Literature, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and a foreign language. 2. Educational subjects comprising Theory of Education, Psyehology, Theory and Methodology of Physieal Education, and History and Organiza- tion of Physical Culture. 3. Medical and Biological subjects comprising Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Hygiene, Medical Supervision, Sports Injuries and Massage. ( 4. Sports Subjects comprising specialization in one main sport and in an auxiliary sport. ln addition to the above subjects, students receive instruction in the Russian language, refereelng, photography. Final internaI examinations are taken in Physiology, Social Studies and a chosen sport. Sinee part of the entrance requirements is for students to hold a high sports ranking, \ no additional demands are made durlng. the course of studies regarding the attainment of proficiency in a given sport. Upon complet ion of the program, however, the student must reconfirm his rating in a sport which is achieved by competing in this sport and by meeting the requirements of the GTO rating system. Graduates must a1so pass three staté~oral examlnatÎons, one in the sports area of concentration and the other two / ln physiology and the theory of physical education • •MIil •• IIlII •• ".. wIlNiIIIlW .. waoo'------"---- . i 47 ,; t Because of the shortage of physical education speclalists in rural areas, the Ministry of Education directs graduates of technicums and coach- ing schools to varlous jobs, primarily ta the rural areas. Graduates must remain in their appointed position for a minimum of 2 years, after which they are free to leave. Exceptions are made to the two year require- ment in the case of top athletes and coaches who have graduated and are needed in a particular city where better sport facilities are located. ln such instances, the local provincial Committee of Physical Culture and Sport Intercedes with the Hinistry of Education whlch then issues a "free diploma" (svobodnÎy diplom) giving the student permission to find a job on hi s own. Th i s "free di p 10ma" i saI sol ssued in the case of mar~r i ed women graduates when, for example, thei r husband has a full time job. 1 It should be pointed out that potential employers of these graduates are not allowed to hire them without this special permission from the Hinistry of Education. Graduates of technicums must work for two years before applying to enter university except those who wish to take eve~ing or corre6pondence programs or those who graduate with honors. ln summary,the system of semi-professional training of physical education specialists in the U.S.S.R. includes such institutions as colleges of physical education (technlcums) which train physical education teachers and personnel for various jobs within the Soviet sport movement; 1 and coaching schools that prepare and upgrade ~he qualifications of ~ches. ,. t Usually the technicums of physical cultur'e and coaching schools have good facilities and the training provided is of a high level. .~ , J 48 { Preparation at the University Level At the university level, the responsibility for preparation of specialists in physical education is assigned to the institutes of physi- cal culture and the faculties of physical education of various pedagogie institutes (and universities). The curricula in both ki~ds of institutions are similar. However, the institutes of physical culture offer two pro- grams of study: one leading to a degree which quaI ifies teachers of phy- sical education which is also conferred by faculties of physical education ;; as weIl as one which quaI ifies teachers of physical education to become a coach of a certain sport. Another difference is that institutes of physical culture have more dcmanding practice requirements. For example graduates from the institutes must have attained first class rank in the \ ( AlI-Union Sport Classification system in a sport while graduates of Faculties are required to possess a second class rank. There is also a difference in facillties. The institutes usually have better sport ..y facil ities and quite often better qualified teaching staff including candidates of science and doctors of science. But there is no advantage with regard to where you get your degree, from the institute or a faculty, • when it comes to getting a job. In most cases, graduates of aIl institu- tions of higher education can work in any area of sport ln the Soviet sport movement as coaches of sport schools, sport clubs, sport societies and 50 on. Graduates can also teach in the general schools withoût having , 1 to enrol in a teaching certification program. The major teaching and administrative unit of a Sovie institution, of higher education is the' faculty which is composed of in the same field or discipl ine. AlI Soviet institutions of higher ,earn / - l' <",>.~>, " ---- ~ ---- 49 ( ing offer correspondence courses and a number of them also offer evening courses. This method of study extends the 4 year physical education Iprogram to 5 years. Twice a year for 20 days, correspondence program \students attend classes and write examinations. G~aduates of the corres ~pondence programs are not consldered as highly trained as those From time programs. Entrance requirements for both the institutes of physical cul jure a~he faculties of physicaJ education are quite similar. Ali Lltizens undcr the age of 35 arc eligible to apply for full time study 4 years) if they have either a complete secondary education (10 year rogram), or a certificate from'a physical culture collcge (technicum) r coaching school. Citizens of any age meeting the above educational equirements working in the area of physical culture and sport may pply ta the correspondence program (5 ye~~'i). Appl icants for the sports egree program must have a second class ratiJg in the Ail-Union Sport lassification system in their chosen sport, whereas the program offered in the pedagog i ca 1 ,facul t i es and through correspondence requ i re a th i rd ~Iass rating~ Also al1 applicants to programs must possess a certificate attesting to the fact that the candidate has passed the GTO test for their age groupr< ']' The institutes of physical culture come under the authority of the national and republic Committees on Physical Culture and Sport, and the republ iean Ministries of Education and, as noted previously, offer degree programs qualifying students to teach in the general school. Program requirements include instruction in: ,/ 50 (, 1. Compulsory subjects involving ideological training (in the History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Marxist-Leninist Philoso- phy, Political Economy, Scientific Communism and Foundations of Seientific Atheism); 2. Medical and Biological subjeets which provide students with infor- matinn indispensable ta understanding the hu~an body and its funetional possibilities (Anatomy and Biomechanics. Human Physiology, Hygiene, Biochemistry and Sport Medicine); 3. Pedagogie subjects which familiarilc students with sehool physical education programs and with learning theories and their appl ication to sport (Organization and Administration of Physical Culture 'and Sport, Pedagogies and History of Pedagogies, Psychology, Theory and Hethods of Physieal Education, History of Physical Culture);and 4. Sport - Pedagogie subjects requiring the mastery of coaching tech- niques. During the course of study students are also obi iged to spend 30 weeks in' practice teachiog at a school, a factory or farm sports collective, and ,~ " in childrens ' summer camps. Undergraduates who have passed their term tests and sessional examinations, fulfilled the practice-teaehing require- ) ments, are then admitted to the State examination in the following three subjects: Scientific Communism, Physiology, and the Theory and Method- ology of Physical Education. The course of study is more or less uniform for aIl (20) Institutes of physical culture with the exception of the country·s two major institutes - the State Central Order of lenin lnsti- tute of Physical Culture (GTsOLIFK) ln Moscow, and the Lesgaft lnstitutej - - - < 51 ( of Physical Culture in Leningrad. These accept only first rank Ail-Union Sport Classification athletes and the students undergo a more intensive and more comprehensive program comprising 5tudies in: 1. Mass Sport: gymnasties, modern gymnasties; rowing, kayaking, canoeing; track and field; sWÎmming, and water polo; 2. Winter and Technical Sport .. ki inq activities (i .e. downhi Il, cross country, jumping, etc.); speed skatinq, figure skating; oieyel ing; and motorcyeling; 3. Sport Games: soceer; hoc~cy; basketball; vol1eyball; tennis; table tennis; European handball; and chess; and 4. Contact and Combat Sport: wrestling (freestyle, greco-roman, samho); judo; hoxing; weight 1 ifting; various shooting cvents; fencing; and ( the modern pentathlon, The sport degree program, which unofficial1y carries higher status, requires students t,o specialize in a particular sport for which they wq,1 be qualified as a "1 ns tructor-Coach",' This progrilm is basically " the samc as that for studcnt teachers, the primary difference being the inclusion of coaching in the education subjects and the greater emphasis given the sport the student has chosen as his speciality. As in the teacher certification program, student teaching i5 spent in a secondary 5chool, sport club or sport s~iety and in summer camp. Students in ,1 the degree program must retake the examination for Stage 4 of the GTO system with the student obtaining first ranking in his chosen sport, a minimum of third rank in two other sports, and a referee's certificate , ( in his sport) • State examinations for the sport degree program comprise ;;,.. " î' ;;', . , -~t, ti' 1'~ ; l . "' ~/ .. ~",,~A'4'> *'"~ ~ œ - ~. c •• - eq 1- .... 52 Scientific Communism, General Physiology. and Physiology of Sport, and Theory of Specialized Sport and the M~thods of teaching this sport. If a student taking this program in an lnstitute of physical culture has written an excellent dissertation (diplomnaya rabota) on his chosen \port, he is excused examination in his special subject. Faculties of physical education in universities are supervised by the U.S.S.R. Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education and the various' republican Ministries of Edu,cation. The program of study in physical educatio~ at the universities is fashioned on the program at the institutes and geared taward preparing students ta teach in the 9th and IOth grades of the general school. Graduates are qualified as teachers of physical education. ( Compared to the pedagogic faculties and institutes of physical culture, university programs differ ln that statistics, wrestllng, • boxing,-,. weight lifting, and secondary sports are not taught and more courses and seminars are offered which are directed towards expanding the student1s knowledge of physJc'a1 education for children. In other respects, the curricula, the amount of required teaching pradice, and the list of subjects which form part of the state examinations are similar to what is offered at the institutes. Usually no optional courses are given. The only options are in the sport that the student wishes ta specialize in. Students are required ta achieve a 2nd class Ali-Union Sports Classification ranking in their chosen sport, 3rd level " in two others sports, referee 3rd category in two sports. and retake their 4th Stage GTO test upon the compfetlon of their. studies. .,, \ • - ft • = • f ft 53 Gradu'ates of university, like thosQo h;ve finished their train ing at institutes, are assigned jobs .nYWh~ithin the U.S.S.R. However they are. usually sent to remota places within the province where the institution is located. Most graduates seek to return to cities but in sorne cities it is even difficult to find a job in physical education. (ThL~ is unusual for the U.S.S.R. because, officialJy, unemployment does no~xist.)" Placement of graduates is done by the local Ministry of , , Education in cooperation with the administration of the university. The Ministry of Education pays travelling expenses for the graduate plus a stipend to cover sorne of the other additional expenses. Students are obligated to work at their assigned jobs for two years before they are allowed to aceept another job or to continue their education. As with , ( students of the institutes of pedagogieal faculties, the two year job assignment applies only to full time students and does not concern students enroled in the evening or correspondence courses. Also, students who have graduated with honors are exempt and are issued a "free diploma" which gives them permission to continue their education rather than fulfil 1 ing the work requirements immediately upon graduation. The preparation of physical education special ists is an important part of the Soviet phy5ic~1 education. Specialists are trained in various 'kinds of institutions:coaching schools, technlcums of physical culture; institutes of physical culture, pedagogical faculties and university. f 1 Irrespective of their'progr~m of,studies, students seeking to become teaehers of physlcal education or coaches are expected to demonstrate mastery in a sport and to possess a h19h level of fitness. 1hey receive • ------~ - -, , ... "If"".""f ~ .. ~ __ ,_.... ______...... ___ ", _. __ .... 1""'.!"'" ... "" __ .I\!II"""UJ~"'.ltolI."_JIiI!IIIi"" __ .JL.N",,lJ(""4"''' ...... _"'__ '__ ~""'''';{''''''I'''''I.'''",_ ..... ___ ~ ______ 54 __ J~- ;( L/ training not only in methods of physical education and coachlng but also in subjects pertinent to an understanding of the human body (anatomy, ph1siology, etc.) and to the roTe of sport in society. Huch emphasis is placed on the practlcal aspects of physlcal education and students are requlred to practice teach in settings where they instruct children, adolescents and aduTts. In this way. physical education specialists have a wide exposure to the Soviet sport movement and are better able to contribute to its Improve~ent. " ( \ ,\ .. { 1 . =id i : il III - t 1 S - , S5 1 CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSI.oN This thesis has characterized the Soviet sport movement as a weIl organized system, and an important part of every day life of the Soviet peop·le. Sport provides mass entertainment. It is also the subject of -,, many movies, books and television. and radio programs. More importantly organi~ed sporting activitles involve a large segment of the Soviet popu- lation. Schools, universities, agricultural and industrial collectives, youth organizations, etc. aIl offer sport and recreational programs . ' generating mass participation in the sport movement. Sport is used by the Soviet government as a tool for developing quaI ities 1 ike comradeship, patriotism, discipli'ne, essential to the process, creating a "new man," ( , builder of Communist society. Through sport, Soviet officiais combat smoking, drinking, absenteeism, etc. and other behaviors detrimental to the health ~nd weil being of indlvlduals and the interests of the State. Education and sport are consldered essential ta "all·round" development. f 1 Ideologically, physlcal education and sport are presented in policy statements as mechanisms for abolishing the distinction between manual and Intellectual labor which preo~eupled Marx and Lenin. And, the organ .izatlon of sport it.;;elf isseen to replieate the eollectivistie organiza tion of other institutions in society and in this sense to lnstill and reinforee a Communist social ethic • ... The Soviet sport mQvement is described in the thesis as'a central- ized system that i5 planned, dtrected, monltored and financed by the state agencres. The highest authority in the sport movement is the U:S.S.R. ----:-----;---.~----L- « --- 1- 1,; , 56 ; Conmittee of Physical Culture and Sport that functions as a "Ministry" of sport. Authority then flows to the republican, city, district commlttee of physicàl culture and sport. At each of these levels there are paraI leI committees established by the Party whicn offer sport 'programs for its organizations. Sport programs in the U.S.S.R. are of two types: state and public. The former comprise programs offered in schools, univer- sities and the armed forces where participation is obligatory. Public' '~ sport programs are the responsibillty of trade unions, the Party and of , ~ an extensive network of sport socleties and clubs. t, '., A high degree of planning and control contributes to the success of the Soviet sport system at the international level. Targets are set ". ~ -~--~~""\ for publ le involvement and uniform sport rating systems are used to 1\ l~ 'rf ( ~sure the level of public fitness and to enhance mastery in aIl sport ~ . ! pr0gr'~ The AlI-Union Classification and GTO ratlng systems, it has Î been noted~ ay a critlcal raIe in this connection; one serves to • promote fitness nd the other to raise standards of sport achievements. Both systems are mployed in planning sport program. In particular, they provide physical educatipn in the general schools and for the traini instructors and coaches in spec~àl ized instl- tutions. ~/ physical education curricula of che gener~.~cho01S is deter min by the U.S.S.R. Mlnistry of Education and is in mo'st respects uniform '\ ,1 throughout the various republics. Physlcal education, 1 have shown, \ 1, occuples a central place in the school currlcula .. The time devoted to it equals that asslgned to such academic subjects as mathematlcs and lahgu_ge."" c 57 This contrasts sharply with the practices of North American schools where physical education is treated as sub~idiary subject of study. /Physical ~ducation programs in the general schools seek to develop fitness, better personal hygiene and, more signiflcantly, ta instill a love of sport that will continue throughout the students' 1 ife time. The schools prepare students to take and pass the GTO tests ·which are designed ta stimulate a lasting interest in fitness. Sport mastery is not emphasized as much as fitness, despite the extensive provision for athletic competitions~ on the local, regional and national levels . . The best sport instruction and faci 1 itles in the Soviet Union are ta be found in sport clubs anq··societies. While North American schools and universities provide the locus for developfng athletic talent on ( 1 an international level, this is not the case in the U.S.S.R, Physical education specialists are trained in several different kinds of institutions which were described in the prevlous chapter. toaching schools, technicums of phYsic~l culture, institutes of physical culture, pedag?gical facultie~ and universities have the resp~nslbJl}ty for tr~lning physlcal education instructors and coach~s. Irrespective of the institution they attend, students are expected to achi~ve a high degree of mastery in a sport (which is assessed by their performance in t, the tests required to obt.in an AlI-Union Classification rating) and to 1 1 . become familiar with the scientific and political content of sport. They are also exposed to a varlet y of instructional and coaching contexts so that the1"acquire an understanding of the development of mator ski Ils from chlldhood to adulthood. \ ~ ...... ------"' , l S8 \ While mass participation in the Soviet sport movement IS sought, it i~ used largely as a means for identlfying athletic talent for the Il purpose of fielding national teams in international athletic competitions, the most important of whlch are the Olympie Games and the World and European championships. The Soviet' elite athlefics program, lobserved, • consumes a disproportionately large share of the resources ••. human, physl~al and financial ... committed to p~ysical culture. Soviet athletes are expected to be the "best ' , and only victories are"accepted. Athleles who, for sorne n~as0t:', lose at the major tournaments have ta wait a long time (and perhaps never) for another opportunity to represent the U.S.S~R. International sport competitions are used as a means of de~on- .., i strating the superiority of "the Soviet pol itical system outside the i 1 ï '( , • U.S.S.R. The main goal Is ta 'iin as mariy goJd medals as possible and to defeat western athletes. International sport has become a very impor- .1 ,tant ideological tool for the Soviet Union. The 1979~hockey "Challenge eup," for example, was considered a success because of the number of ri '. spectators," the fact that it was hosted in the U.S.A., and the final ... re~\Jlt which showed the s'uperiority' of a collectivistic, tentCtl Y , , planned approa~h to sport over the more flexible, 'individùal istic and \ profit motivated practices,of sporting organizations in western societies. The political 'conclusions to be drawn from the, Soviet victory are pain- fully obvious. ·Although the U.S.S.R. has excelled in, International sport, such l' success has not been achleved in 'attainlng a high level Ç)f fitness among J, 1 the Sov 1~ t popu 1a t Ion. Recr~atiori'al and fitness programs for Soviet , \ . .. ~------"'--'-~_f~~~f.o",~~ii.til<~~..-4~'" a" • al - -- '" -- 59 ., ...... ~ -..... citizens suffer from a lack of weIl qualified staff and poor facilities : and equipment. Most of the people involved in sport are under the age of 35 and are in school or in the mil itary forces. In theory, mass participation is important to the Soviet Union, 9S important as inter:~ national athletic success. In practice, this does not seem to be the pr~~ent reality. Educational institutions and collectives of physical - 1 ~~ culture are, according to Soviet sources, in need of better coaches, facilities and equipment. In the U.S.S.R. the elite athletic programs .) d~minate the sport movement. Moreover, within the mass sport programs, the best coaches, facilities, eqûlpment and finances are concentrated ih the cit~s. Living conditions in rural areas are of a lower standard. Physical education specialists ~re not att~acted to the rural areas and prefer to work in the cities. In part because of the sfortage of quali- \ . fied specialists, sport facilties and equipment in ruraft areas are sub- < '1 '\ '/., standar~. " "., .1 For aIl its faults, the Soviet sport system is a weIl functioning system. Its programs for preparing physical education special ists (coaches, ~ teachers, adminlstrators. support personnel, e,tc.) are among the world's !r best. The close coordination of different,components of the sport mov~- ment has a very positive influence on the development of sport. The importance assigned ta biolagical and medical aspects of sport has alsd proQduced beneflcial result~.... Sport facllities in the U.S.S.R., for / instance, are, as a rule, kept·very clean for hygenic purposes. a practice ! worthy of emulatlon here. And no one is allowed ta partake in'sport î without a doctor's written consent. 1 .~ '1: , Il,2 Ir " ------.... f 1 1 li 60 ! r Insofar as elite athletics is concerned the professional ization of sport has eliminated much of the hypocrisy and hardships character- istic of amateur sport in western countries. The needs of the be5t athletes are tompletely provided for. This includes transportation to and from tournaments, accommodation, mea15 and usually uniforms. The Soviet Unionls best athletes are weIl "known and respected. A good (,1 athlete is supposed to set an example'for modesty, pol iteness, hard work and studiousness. Most neither smoke nor drink. The Soviet athlete 15 presented as an exemplar to be followed especially by the -< .'1 , '\ young, and sport seen as cultivating the quaI ities of good citizenship. Subsidies are also provided for public participation in what are considered llelite" sports in the west. Ta be a member of any sport N, t; ~ society,, a Soviet citizen must paya fee of 30 kopeks per year (approxi- ,r " mately 30 cents). Soviet sport authorities take special pride in the "r, j ,l fact that sports such as yachting, equestrian events, car racing, etc., > i are open and available to the general publ ic. f t Most of what has been written about the Soviet sport movement in 1 the west has appeared in newspapers and popular journal5 and'presented the Soviet sport system either as deserving of wholesale emulation or as meriting righteous indignation. The appraisal of the Soviet sport movement presented in this thesis suggests that an effort be made to better understand i ts strengths a's weIl as i t5 weaknesses, for the, two are. closely related. The strengths of the Soviet system evldent for example in suceess at international athletie competitions produce \ -----...... , correspond;ng .oakness.s in ;ts programs wh;ch attempt t~fPster mass • tiIIU...... llllfiI •If-----:------,-- - 61 participation ln sports. In short, the size, scope and multiple purposes of the Soviet sport system require analysis rather than categorlcal jlJdgement. \ 1 ! 1 \ \ I~ / " .; ,.. - ...... -- .. -"."" ... 'V_~"1'-~lf' \ '; 61. J-~ , , ,~' , j ( BIBL 1OGRAPHY ,r J f \ " "' J ~ 1 1 1 \ • n-.... 1••• ------.....---- ) 63 BIBL 1OGRAPHY Andreeva, N. A., and Nikiforov, 1. 1. "Fizkul'turnic uchcbnie zavedeniya Rossii." Teoriya i pri'lktil<-a fizicheskoy kul'tury.no. Il. 1972. Belorusova. V. V. Pedagogiki'l. Vol. Ill. Hoscow: 1972. Botterhill. Cal. "Kids and Prodllction Line Sport in th" GDR." Coac~ Revi",,". Vol. 2, no. 9, t1."Jy/June, 1979. Otti1W;'J: CO.1ching A<;sociiltion OTCan.'>dil in conjunction wilh Hnrmé\c Puhlishing Inc. Fcygin, S. L., t1i'lloVil, F. A., and Alcks ~()I..,om, tL R. Education in the \J.S.S.R. Il. S. lîl')pilrtrncnt of flc;'Jlth. Educéltion, ,lnd Wclf.ïrl', Offi,c of f:.dw.iltion. ~f;)shinqton: Il. S. Govcrnr.l':nt Printing Offir.c. 1')51. Gil7ette New,p<1pcr. t1ontrr>,,1. fr:bru;'Jry (-. 1971. Gr;lm~nitc;Jçj, B. C. ([{r;Adcr-) "Phy;Îcoll Edur.<1t ion ln c,upr:rior [ducation Institutions of the Soviet Union." Informi1tion These,> for Cflnùdiflfl Oc 1c'1i1 ti on. /1oscow. Fch nUl ry 6. 1975. Gri1nt, Nigel. Soviet Educi'ltion. (3rd cd.) Baltimore: Pcnguin Books. 1972. Howell, H. L., And Van Vliet, H. L. f.b.y<;ic;\l Educiftion élnd Recreation in Europe. Ottawa: Fi tness and Amo1tcur sport Di rcctoriltc, Dep "K 110 lctiu 50 dnia rojdcnia N. K. Krupskoi." Fiziche<;kay;'J -----kul 'tura v shkole izdatelstvo. Hoscow: P~dagogi~ù. 1979. Kolesnikovn, K. 'V., and Dmitriev, A. B. "Fizichcskoe vospiti'lnie v podgotovitcl'nykh gruppakh Moskovs.kogo gosudarstvennogo universite,ta im. M. V. Lomonosova." Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury, no. 8. 1970. Korolcv, A. "Rounded development of the human persona1 ity." Soviet Education. Vol. 1. NeI'l York: International I\rts and Science Prec.s. 1960. Krasovitskiy, H. U. "Formirovl\nic nravstvennih otnoshcr~iy v uchcnichcskom kollcctive." Fizichcskaya kul' tura v shkolc. n. II. Hoscow:' Pcdùgogika. 1978. 1 _... _... _------''""''------~ ~- 64 Krenina, E. "Lvov jdet gosteiy." Fizicheska a kul'tura v n. 5. Moscow: Pedagogika. 1976. Kukushkin, G.I. Sovetskaya sistema fizicheskogo vospitaniya. Moscow: Fizkul 'tura i sport. 1975. Novikov, A. D. and Hatveev, L. P. cd. ~T~e~o~r~iy~a~~m~e~t~o~d~i~ka~f~i~z~i~c~h~e~s~k~oÂg~o vospitaniya. Moscow. 1968. Pravda. Hoscow. August 22, 1969. Pravosudov, V. "Kajdoe zveno vajno.\' Sovetskiy Sport. Hoscow. May 22, 1972- . Riordan, James. "Sport and Physical Education in the Soviet Union." An Outl ine 1975. Society for Cultural Relations with the U.S.S.R. University of Bradford. 1975. Shneidman, N. N. The Soviet Raad to 0lympus. Toronto: The bntario Institute for Studies in Education. 1978. Shtukalo, F. "School Games: A Test of Maturity." Sport in the U.S.S.R.~ no. 9. Moscow: Physical Culture and Sport Publishing House. 197~ l • So 1ov 1 eva, l. H. "p rodgo tovka spc ts i al i s tov--na sovremen nom un rovne." Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul l tury. no. 9.1971. Sovetskiy'Sport. Hoscow. April 18, 1978;April 21, 1977;May 11,1979; May 14, 1979; Hay 12, 1979; June 13, 1979; May 8,11979; January 2.5, 1979. __ Soviet Sport, Questions and Answers. Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Pub 1 i sh i ng House. 1974. Tomiak, J. J. The Soviet Union. Great 8ritain: David and Charles (PublishersJ Limited. 1972. Wesson, Rohert C. The Soviet Russian State. New York: Wiley & Sons Publ ishing Co. 1972 . r 11; __f, ______APPEtIf)!X /1 St,,.;~('; Or tlv'lt (-''lrry r,' ~ r.! ri il ~ ! 1 r r f. :, r c' '" t Cl f in tl,<, pp",,].-' ion r Th i1' ....dl CClliit4 il Oî• l1inî:,!rr<; __ =~_~~,'_L_=" ~::-_-:: =~- l' ')', [t rI 1 fl i . t l ' Conn; t 1 rr Phy-.. j (_-"' 1 --Aiî -:::ïi;;r;~~ \In ll-,r~ i-.,;-;:;-----i "r l ,ill' ,li i 01\ r,lI]t'I\'( r. '",>rf r;; "';n( r r î ; .. ~ 1 tlr,- c ~rlJhl :r,-n ("Ii" Il rr,'idr ILi j('il - irll i r: 11il1i',~ ry '), 1) f l': tl i c, t r :-. li n,l nif; ~ r ~ t' L~ 1 ; I!iqh--I f , 1 nL(.';',l! il: [\'11' \,r' ln i, l C,r, (ln-I;n V (()'lnï~1r(' (\( f'hyr-lir"'l , Of"J'f"\ r 1 fl"~" ~1 t - il 1 n.:11:" -}; f r(~(- i .' l i ;rd ( Il li '1 " f- < [',) t' t " f Î 1 -d'"r J'r',"f 'Ir r clllr i: i 0il rI," f~'1;n,lîl. Ojr,lt ,rt, ! C(/In l i~ of t;ini ....,~r'r .. i nrpilld i, .-I1'1rt r ilr;, 1" Il C,', r; :1 i '1 i' : 1 Vollln1.-Q '/ "1(V i, .... f tr" "1 I~"',' II Il (""",llll,r (,( rhy' il - l ! r \,.,,1,' lIn i ,'n', Lill! l'Ir', 1 i'f 'lj 1 n! ::,,1;'11 TI ."rI", l'Ir l,rl"'1 i' ."; ! J'/\f; ~1 il) i'; î 1 ,Ii" r il Î r, ·1 f;lIf'nl (rY'JI"r.'! Î vr-: nI Lilllllrr 1 fr,mll]i:!.r nI f'hy',ir',l ! "P/)1 1 r 1 \1 il', li',', r~ tn Il l' • r y C,j,llr (nmlllÎ 1 t rr. r Il 1 t! n- ,.., f. 'PCl r t n f of rk fr::n',(' Il( 1 ho" w,',n t b" ( ,t y, f) j r; t r Î r_ t c, • 1 Counr. i 1 of r. r>lJ!'lIrb~ c,pnrt A~-:n~i~~irn-: ni t1 j ni'; 1 (~r', ('il r;"nr::r,ll l:dll(';."l ~ i "Il \1 or;)! i ,'n;l1 [nll'cl ive''; f)f rhy,;;'-;'.] ~r.h('J() l ',t wl"n t" l'I'chn i c,11 Clllll'I'''', )I)<),-t r:ll/h'- ,,[ Ldll( ,., t ion Iliffpt'r-n( 111';1 ltut jrn--; Vn 111n t "r if ;. 1',0 1 1 f\ v; nc i!1 t ion', in [,("'r)l"': r;> t ion ------~---,...I W,c,p, tUn i q ry Hi t Il /lrmy :'Inti r'~'f'i of Dr:fl"n-;c n.C,II.a.il. (J')SR t1ini'itry of Int0rn:1I ;' 1\ f f;) i r::-, rnrnmitt r " of th" St,lt-' C,r-(;Urilyof th~ W,;P. ("Ime il of IlinÎ'itcrr; (KU VU3hYin. 197~, p. 77) ( ~ ~ A??::~lJ L'< 3 GTO Stage 7 :or Boys a,d Girls ~;ej 15-13 1- To have a knowledge of 'Phy5\::al Cul:Àre ara S;:;ort te; Cl:! IJ.S.:S.:<,'. 2. To kncw and carry out rules f:::lr oersot131 and ?u:::ll le i"P(grene. "- 3 . To be able ta carry out tf-Je inItIal i[li~ary trainÎnJ :::>(-::>:jr=n"""e. ::> -,aa:- ; ~3')-r,ùsk for one hour, ta ~now the basic rules of civil defen:e ...1, To be able to exoldln the ~~?OrtJ1~è oF ard ta ~er~o-~ 3 3=~ Q~ -o~~iIJ e(3;ci~~3. 5. Ta perform the fo: lawin;] e'>(~rêr53S o,Jltht1 th~ give~ s~3il'::a-j5~ '~'-~'~~ 1 ~~ > ~ T------<> Bo" s j G [ ;- l s ,3 yi;; l 'J ; ri;; Tvpe of Exercise Silver Gold ISll'ier ::;01:: T't')e ,= '::- E 2 G iiIIllilhC!iii&iiiL l1iIiIii!:'iîi_"'~$* ,.... L '%' '" cA' t. .. !ID j