Cover Page The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/123115 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation. Author: Kohlberger, M. Title: A grammatical description of Shiwiar Issue Date: 2020-06-29 389 Summary in English A Grammatical Description of Shiwiar This dissertation is a grammar of Shiwiar, a Chicham (Jivaroan) language spoken by around 1,200 people in the Amazonian lowlands of eastern Ecuador and northern Peru. This work is the first grammatical description of the language, and it is based on a 30-hour audio-visual corpus of natural speech data, collected over 12 months of fieldwork between 2011 and 2016 in the Pastaza province of Ecuador. The main goal of this dissertation is to provide an analysis of all major areas of linguistic structure in Shiwiar, and also to engage with areal and typological literature to shed light on the diachronic development of those structures and their functions. In Chapter 1, the theoretical premises of this work are explained. This dissertation is the outcome of a data-driven, bottom-up approach to researching language. It is based on the assumption that formal linguistic structures are moulded over time by communicative, social, cognitive and anatomical pressures. Therefore, in this work, the Shiwiar language is considered within its social and cultural context, and it is studied by means of real data that were produced in an interactive and discursive environment. Furthermore, this work is committed to a high standard of data transparency: every example in the text is cited to its original source recording, so that the reader can evaluate the entire analytic process. In Chapter 2, the Shiwiar language is introduced. From a typological perspective, Shiwiar exhibits features that are typical of other Andean and western Amazonian languages, including a small phoneme inventory, highly synthetic morphology, predicate-final constituent order, a small class of numerals, complex tense-aspect-mood marking in verbs and extensive use of clause chaining. Shiwiar is a member of the Chicham language family, and it is closely related to its 4 sister languages. However, it has also had close contact with unrelated languages of the region, particularly Quechuan languages and Kandozi-Chapra, which has left clear traces in the Shiwiar lexicon, phonology, morphology and syntax. More recently, Shiwiar has come into contact with Spanish and, although Shiwiar is still spoken by virtually everyone in the Shiwiar community, there are initial indications that younger people may shift to preferentially using Spanish in the future. Chapter 3 is an ethnographic sketch of the Shiwiar people. The Shiwiar Nation is one of the fifteen officially recognised Indigenous nations in Ecuador, and the vast majority of Shiwiar people live in one of fourteen villages in the Pastaza province, within a territory that is approximately the size of Luxembourg. Traditionally, Shiwiar people have sustained themselves 390 through hunting, horticulture, fishing and gathering, but their lifestyle is currently undergoing rapid change through increasing contact to Ecuadorean mainstream culture. Ritual songs are an important part of Shiwiar oral tradition, and during celebrations they are often accompanied by flutes, drums and bow instruments. Most Shiwiar marriages are exogamous (i.e. they involve people from different ethnic groups), and children inherit ethnic identity from their fathers. Exogamous marriage traditions have resulted in long-term multilingualism in the entire region, which is reinforced in every new generation. It is not unusual for Shiwiar people to speak three or more languages. Chapter 4 is a detailed description of the methodology and sources that were used in this work. The data was collected through collaborative fieldwork with the Shiwiar community in three main sites: Juyuintsa, Puyo and Shell. Over six field trips, 110 recordings were made of diverse speech genres, including traditional narratives, personal anecdotes, village conversations, political speeches and media interviews. Over thirty Shiwiar collaborators were involved in the recording and annotation of the data. In the interest of scientific transparency, the entire corpus is being deposited into the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America (AILLA). Chapter 5 is an analysis of Shiwiar phonetics and phonology. The phonemic inventory of the language includes 14 consonants and 8 vowels. Additionally, there are loan phonemes that only occur in Spanish loanwords, and a marginal phoneme, namely the glottal stop, which only occurs in a small number of words. A subset of seven consonants – /p, t, k, m, n, h, w/ – are palatalised when they follow a high front vowel. Nasality spreads from nasal vowels in both directions until the nearest obstruent or up to the word boundary. Although syllables were historically made up of a single consonant and a vowel, the language currently allows syllables with complex onsets and codas, which were formed as a result of three historic elision processes: vowel apocope, consonant apocope and vowel syncope. Some elision processes are still at work in the language today: for example, word final nasal stops are optionally elided in fast speech. Phonological words in Shiwiar may not have fewer than two vowels; if an unbound morpheme only has one vowel, the vowel needs to be doubled when the morpheme is uttered in isolation. Finally, all Shiwiar words exhibit a single prosodic prominence that shares the characteristics of both stress (e.g. it is manifested by higher pitch, longer duration and increased amplitude) and tone (e.g. the prominence can spread over multiple syllables), but its placement is not predictable and it varies from word to word. Chapter 6 is an overview of Shiwiar morphology, syntax and information structure. There are six word classes in the language: nominals, verbs, adverbs, quantifiers, discourse particles and ideophones. These word classes can be differentiated by their semantic properties, their morphological 391 behaviour and their syntactic distribution. Shiwiar morphology is highly synthetic, and it tends towards agglutination although there are also some cases of fusion. Morphemes differ greatly in the degree of boundedness that they exhibit, ranging from unbound roots that can appear on their own to clitics and affixes that never appear unless they are combined with a root. The order of constituents in a Shiwiar clause is not fixed and it can be manipulated to express information structure, but there is a strong tendency towards SOV order. Shiwiar has strict nominative-accusative alignment, and grammatical relations in the language primarily revolve around the distinction between subject and object. This distinction is morphologically marked on both the predicate and its arguments: verbs have pronominal indexation and nominals are flagged by case. Shiwiar exhibits a typologically rare form of differential object marking, whereby the case marking of an object in a clause is determined by a property of the subject. A very prominent syntactic structure in the language is the so-called clause chain, whereby semantically dependent clauses combine with each other into a large chain, and the marking of tense, subject and mood is only found on the final verb. Finally, Shiwiar speakers can employ a rich array of strategies – prosodic, syntactic and/or morphological – to mark information structure, like focus and topic. Chapter 7 deals with nominal morphology and the noun phrase. Nominals can be subdivided into nouns, adjectives and pronouns. These can either appear on their own or they can combine to form compounds. Nominals can be modified by derivational morphology, such as a diminutive marker or negation. Possessed nouns are inflected for the person and number of the possessor. Nominals can also be inflected for six grammatical cases: object case, genitive case, locative case, ablative case, comitative case and temporal case. Some of the morphological marking on nominals, for example the vocative, the interrogative marker or topic and focus marking, have semantics that are rooted to discourse and interaction. Nominals can be used predicatively if they combine with a copula enclitic. Although there are no productive class-changing derivation processes for nominals in the current- day language, there are indications in the lexicon that nominals could be verbalised historically. In syntactic terms, when nominals function as arguments in a clause, they appear in noun phrases. A noun phrase is minimally made up of a single nominal, but it can also be complex. In complex noun phrases, nominals are modified by determiners (such as demonstrative pronouns), adjectives or relative clauses. Nominals can also be coordinated within a noun phrase by simple juxtaposition or by the use of comitative case. Chapter 8 deals with the most intricate morphological domain in the language: verbal morphology. Valency is lexically defined for Shiwiar verbs: every verb in the language is inherently intransitive, transitive or ditransitive. However, valency can be increased by applicative and causative morphology, or it can be decreased by reflexive and reciprocal morphology. Shiwiar verbs 392 are obligatorily marked for aspect in almost every grammatical context, and there are three aspectual categories: perfective, imperfective and durative. Perfective and imperfective aspect are contrastive in present and past tense finite clauses, and in some participant nominalisations. In all other contexts, the choice