This dissertation has been 69-11,646 j microfilmed exactly as received HARPER, Gandra Nacci, 1938- j THE DRAMATIC PRESENTATION OF LIBERTY j IN THE THEATER OF ALFONSO SASTRE. [Portions of Text in Spanish].
The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1968 Language and Literature, modern
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Sandra Nacci Harper THE DRAMATIC PRESENTATION OF LIBERTY IN THE THEATER OF ALFONSO SASTRE
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Sandra Nacci Harper, B.S., M.A,
******
The Ohio State University 1968
Approved by
Adviser Department of Romance Languages ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to Professor
Marta Frosch for her guidance and inspiration in the preparation of this dissertation. Grateful acknowledgment is due Professors Aristobulo Pardo and Margarita Levisi for their careful reading of the text and their helpful suggestions. VITA
June 28, 1938 Born--Fostoria, Ohio
1959 ...... B.S., Thu Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1959-1962 ... Teacher of Spanish, French, and English, The Columbus
Public Schools, Columbus, Ohio
1962-1965 ..• Teaching Assistant, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio
1965 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1965-1968 ... Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio
1968-1969 ••• Instructor, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Spanish Literature
Studies in the History of the Spanish Language. Professor Kenneth Scholberg
Studies in Medieval Spanish Literature. Professor Kenneth Scholberg
Studies in 16th Century Spanish Literature. Professor Elias Rivers
Studies in 17th Century Spanish Literature. Professors Elias Rivers and Juan Loveluck
Studies in 19th and 20th Century Spanish Literature. Professors Marta Frosch, Kenneth Scholberg, and Juan Loveluck
Studies in Spanish American Literature. Professors Marta Frosch and Juan Loveluck
iii CONTENTS
Page
Chapter
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii
VITA...... iii
I. THE THEATER OF ALFONSO SASTRE, A DRAMATIC STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY AND JUSTICE...... I
Alfonso Sastre, dramatist in search of liberty.... 1
Alfonso Sastre, man of the theater...... 4
Alfonso Sastre, "dramaturgo comprometido'1...... 20
II. THE DRAMATIC PRESENTATION OF LIBERTY IN THE THEATER OF ALFONSO SASTRE...... 28
War ...... 32
' Revolution...... 84
IV. CONCLUSION...... 156
BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 CHAPTER I
THE THEATER OF ALFONSO SASTRE, A DRAMATIC STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY AND JUSTICE
The purpose of this study is to analyze the dramatic presen tation of the theme of liberty in the theater of Alfonso Sastre.
Liberty has come to be a major theme of the life and works of
Alfonso Sastre, for just as the characters in his plays are rebels in search of liberty, so this playwright has also become known as a "rebel", a "revolutionary", or,_in other words, "Sastre ha representado generosamente al inconformismo dramatico— revolucionario o simplemente rebelde--mas consistente de nuestro pais."'*'
Alfonso Sastre. dramatist in search of liberty. Since the performance of Escuadra hacia la muerte on March 18, 1953, Alfonso
Sastre has been acclaimed one of the two most important dramatists o active in Spain today. Recognition of this dramatist has not been
limited to Spain, for several of Sastre's plays have been presented 3 in Paris, Hamburg, Lisbon, Athens, and Moscow. In addition, in
the introduction to the anthology The New Theater of Europe, which
^Jose Monleon, "Un testimonio apasionado," Primer Ac to, No. 3 (1964), p. 7. -
2Anthony Pasquariello, "Censorship in the Spanish theater and Alfonso Sastre's the Condemned Squad," Theater Annual, No. 19 (1962), p. 2..
^"Bibliografia," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), p. 130. includes Sastre's Ana Kleiber, Robert W. Corrigan recognizes this playwright as one of the most important dramatists writing today.
Sastre is one of the most talked-about, daring, and controversial playwrights to appear in Post-Civil-War theater. Domingo Perez
Minik has appropriately expressed Sastre's position in the follow ing manner,
En el ultimo deceniodel teatro espanol, Alfonso Sastre ha sido--y es--uno de los dramaturgos mas discutidos. Casi me atreverfa a decir que el mas.^
Part of the controversy surrounding this dramatist stems from the difficulty in finding an adequate characterization of him.
Sastre is a dramatist of many faces, for he may be characterized in varied ways. He is a dramatist in search of a stage, for although Alfonso Sastre has been very productive since 1953,^ and has gained more recognition as a playwright and critic, there have been many limitations and obstacles placed in his path. Domingo
Perez Minik has emphasized Sastre's growing importance, for he has said, "No hay ninguna historia de literatura contemporanea o libro crftico sobre nuestro escenario en que no aparezca el nombre de
Alfonso Sastre."^ Indeed, his name has become more familiar to the public, yet many of his works still remain virtually unknown. At times Alfonso Sastre seems to be a playwright in search of a stage,
4 Ricardo Domenech, - "Alfonso Sastre, un dramaturgo en marcha," Esta feta Literaria. No. 113 (1958), p. 4.
**See "Cronologia de Alfonso Sastre," Tres dramas espa'noles : teatro (Paris, 1965), pp. 13-21.
^Domingo Perez Minik, "Se trata de Alfonso Sastre, dramaturgo melancolico de la revolucion," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3 (Madrid, 1964), p. 13. a situation that Juan Emilio Aragones has lamented,
Quiza no exista en Espana un dramaturgo tan preocupado como el por dotar al teatro de autentica proyeccidn popular y acaso no haya otro que, con obra ya relativamente extensa y consistente, siga siendo practicamente desconocido para la "inmensa mayoria".^ O Sastre has also been described as "un hombre en la tierra de nadie", for he is playwright, sociologist, author, and man of the theater.
His theater has the pre-requisites of great drama, the conflict of wills, aesthetic appeal, and enlightenment. The themes of his plays are primarily social ones: liberty, responsibility, and authority, and this social preoccupation, as one critic remarks, "...puede calificarsele de profesional en cierta forma de sociologiTa— y resultar al mismo tiempo insolidario de quienes en otros terrenos Q distintos al suyo se preocupan de los problemas sociales."7 In addition, when viewed as a whole, his works represent a plea for liberty from injustice, a cry for change, yet these are not thesis plays; there are no solutions offered. Sastre is each of these characterizations and none in particular; he is still more, a
"revolutionary" seeking change in theater and society, and he is a "dramaturgo comprometido", for his theater is in part the expression of his concern with current social-political problems. He conceives
7Juan Emilio Aragones, "Alfonso Sastre y el 'realismo profundizado1," Punta Europa, No. 83 (1963), pp. 34-35.
^Eduardo Haro Tecglen, "Introduccion a Alfonso Sastre," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), p. 72.
9Ibid.» P. 72. of theater as an instrument of change, "una mision urgente y trascendente". Alfonso Sastre is also an "aguafiestas" in the theater as were Cervantes, Galdos, and Jacinto Grau.^ In view of all these descriptions, and considering both the life and dramatic works of this man, it is my opinion that the best way to characterize the total Sastre is as an individual involved in a struggle for liberty, liberty of the Spanish theater from conformity, liberty of expression, and liberty from social injustice. Liberty is the major theme in the dramatic works of Alfonso Sastre, and this same word may be used to characterize his dramatic career. In effect,
Sastre's plays and dramatic theory are the concrete manifestations of this struggle as revealed in the following discussion.
Alfonso Sastre, man of the theater. Alfonso Sastre is a man of the theater— critic, theorist, and playwright--for of this generation he has taken perhaps the greatest initiative to not only change the course of the theater, but also to re-educate the attitudes of the spectators. The influence of Sastre has been noted by many critics,
Almost singlehandedly he is striving to change the content of Spain's theater and the tastes of its audiences. With the possible exception of Buero Vallejo, no other post- Civil War playwright has had an impact upon his generation even remotely comparable.
Sastre's achievements include seventeen edited plays and numerous
*®Alfredo Marquerie, Veinte anos de teatro en Espana (Madrid, 1959), p. 205.
^^Perez Minik, "Se trata de," p. 11.
■^asquariello, "Censorship," p. 22. articles on dramatic theory and criticism. The latter may be found
in the following periodicals: Ia Hora, Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos,
Correo Literario. Revista Espanola, and Primer Acto. His books
include Drama y sociedad and Anatom fa del realismo (a third, Estetica como crxtica de la imaginacion is in preparation).
Alfonso Sastre was born in Madrid in 1926 and wrote his
first works for the theater in 1943. Since these first works were
lost, one may say that his career officially began in 1946 with the presentation of Ha sonado la muerte (written in conjunction with
Medardo Fraile) and Uranio 235. These are experimental one-act
plays which were presented as part of the movement Arte Nuevo, and
Sastre's theories had not yet been diaped. Sastre, in conjunction
with others, founded Arte Nuevo in 1945, and its significance in
terms of this dramatist lies in the fact that this movement is the
first concrete act of rebellion against the existing theater, the
first public cry for change. Sastre describes its beginnings thus,
Se trataba, desde luego, de una fundacion confusa; pero ya uno habfa oido hablar de los teatros de vanguardia, de los teatros de ensayo y de combate que, en otros parses, habfan sido y seguian siendo los nuicleos revolucionarios de la escena. dQue" traf&mosnosotros? Trafamos fuego, pasion, inocencia, audacia, amor al teatro.^
Arte Nuevo sponsored the presentation of avant-garde plays (compiled
in Teatro de Vanguardia) and provided a means of expression for
those dramatists like Sastre who opposed existing conformist theater,
and who hoped to raise Spanish theater to the level of universal
1 O JRicardo Domehech, "Tres obras de un autor revolucionario," Primer Acto. No. 3 (1964), p. 39. 6 theater. These ideas are expanded in the following quotation,
Arte Nuevo surgio" en 1945 como una forma--quizas tumultuosa y confusa--de decir "no" a lo que nos rodeaba; a nosotros que sentiamos la vocacion del teatro, era precisamente el teatro que se producia en nuestros escenarios. Si algo nos unia, a nosotros que eramos tan diferentes (Jose'' Gordon, Alfonso Paso, Medardo Fraile, Carlos Jose" Costas, Josd* Franco, y yo, entre otros), era precisamente eso: la nausea ante el teatro burgues de aquel momento: el Benavente postumo(en contradiccion con la persona viva de Benavente), el melodrama galaico-plorante de Torrado, las barbaridadesdel post-astracan y los espectaculos seudofolkloricos, por no contar las debiles supervivencias del teatro versificado (Marquina) y otras dolorosas pruebas del vacio.^
The decline in the quality of Spanish theater had begun some years before. The Civil War seemed to bring to a climax an already- existing crisis in the theater, a notable lack of outstanding authors and works.^ The theater whose most representative author was Benavente, had become commercial enterprise, for the purpose of financial gain, and with his followers, somewhat conformist.
The greatest hope for renovation of theater at that time seemed to be with Federico Garcia Lorca and Alejandro Casona,
...uno mas espanol y otro mas europeo, el primero trabajando sobre la realidad nacional y el segundo sobre sus suenos; uno haciendo de su poesfa un instrumento de conocimiento, el otro cuidando el despertar de un pueblo que se afana por salir de su aislamiento.
However, such hopes were crushed with the death of Lorca and the exile of Casona. During the same period, Jacinto Grau attempted to deviate from existing theater by restoring tradition. In works like
14Ricardo Domdnech, "Entrevista con Alfonso Sastre," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), p. 55-56.
■^Juan R. Castellano, "dEsta" en crisis el teatro espaffol?" Cuadernos Americanos, II, No. 17 (1950 ), p. 237.
^Domingo Perez Minik, Teatro europeo contemporaneo (Madrid, 1961, p. 292. Don Juan de Carillana, a traditional figure, don Juan, is given new perspective, "la grave melancolfa de la generacion de '98
However, Jacinto Grau met with little success. Unamuno had expressed ideas for a modern theater, but his plays were largely inapplicable to presentation; the reasons are these,
El era hombre de monologo y no de dialogo, servfa para predicar en el desierto, pero no para comunicarse dialecticamente con una sala de espectadores burgueses o proletarios, y lo mas importante de todo, ante las convenciones del teatro, indispensables, el no sabfa enfrentarse con ellas sino haciendo prevalecer sus personales contradicciones, sus agonfas y su hambre polemica.^®
A current of promising non-conformist theater had appeared with that of Miguel Mihura, "...dont l'humour noir et grincant annoncait deja le futur theatre d'Ionesco.Perhaps this tendency could have developed into a theater of the absurd, however, the trend levelled off and blended into the already-existent commercial theater.2® In general, the theater at this time was one which Ortega y Gasset characterized as false for its failure to confront the eternal problems of liberty and responsibility^*21 and which Sastre described as "le domaine du conformisme, de I 1inhibition et du 22 formalisme... Hence, when Arte Nuevo appeared, it was the first
17Ibid., 295.
18Ibid., p. 297.
^Alfonso Sastre, "Le th££tre espagnol contemporain," Preuves, No. 123, (1961), p. 28. 2d Domingo Perez Minik, "Itinerario de una generacion de dramaturgos espanoles," Insula Nos. 224-225 (July-August, 1965), p. 3.
^Perez Minik, Teatro, pp. 313-314.
22Sastre, "Le theatre espagnol," p. 27. strong current of non-conformist theater.
In 1947 and 1948, two more of Sastre's works were presented,
Comedia sonambula, a surrealistic fantasy, and Cargamento de suenos.
The latter is of special significance, for presented under the auspices of Arte Nuevo, this play represents the first stage in Sastre's
individual struggle for liberty. His efforts to free theater now appear in artistic form, for, in Cargamento de suenos, he has created
a non-conformist drama as a protest against conformity. Sastre
explains this work thus, "Obra escrita a los veinte anos, es una
expresidn fiel de mi situacion espiritual de entonces, marcada por 23 el inconformismo y por la angustia."
There are several reasons why this play may be called non
conformist. It reflects and predicts some of the currents of
European theater. Some have called it "prebeckettiana"^ and indeed,
there are similarities to Becket's theater. The theme of boredom
is apparent as well as the presentation of disoriented beings in
agony before the reality of death. Yet, as Sastre reminds the
critics and the readers of his works, the similarities are coincidental.
Apart from the discrepancy in the chronological appearance of Sastre's
work and those of Becket, there are still other differences,
^Alfonso Sastre, "Teatro de vanguardia, regreso al realismo y experiencia epica," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), p. 139.
^Domenech, "Tres obras," p. 40. 9
Por lo demas, Cargamento de suenos es una obra sin el humor (negro) ni los aspavientos (esperpenticos) caracterfsticos de ese teatro. Mi nihilismo era una posicion no aceptada, no asumida. Mi negacion negaba tambieh la desesperacion; se manifestaba como horror a la nada y nunca como burla del ser...resignacion (de la nada) y esperanza (del ser trascendente) eran las claves de mi vacilante posicion...
. There are also semblances to the existential philosophy, "...que
nos enfrenta cruda y directamente con el misterio de la vida y de
la muerte a traves de unas formas dramaticas que el publico
benaventino no habia aceptado todavia, unas formas mitadsurrealistas,
mitad simbolistas... 26 In addition, the narrative qualities of
the work suggest experimentation with the epic theater of Bertolt
Brecht. In effect, Cargamento de suefios is just that, an experiment,
a taste of "los frutos prohibidos". However, in this experiment,
one can perceive the seeds of theme, style, and ideology that are
developed in Sastre's later works, and in this sense, Cargamento de
suenos may be called a prologue to his works. The basic situation,
an unsuccessful love affair and a crime of passion immersed in an
existence of disorientation, is later developed in Ana Kleiber. Also
inherent in the former work is a certain ambiguity which foreshadows
Sastre's resultant theater of "clave y contraclave", for there are
symbols and situations which suggest varied interpretations. For 27 exanqale, the protagonist Man may be a symbol of humanity, ' for he
25sastre, "Teatro de vanguardia," p. 140.
^^Domenech, "Tres obras," p. 40.
27Ibid., p. 38. 10 is caught in a "red" (existence) and faced with the task of finding meaning in a seemingly-chaotic existence. On the other hand, Man is 28 viewed as a symbol of Europe in crisis, that is, he could represent the instability and anguish of a people who have just suffered the throes of a world war, and who must now confront the real and agonizing possibility of nuclear warfare. Another character, Jeshoua, has been viewed as a symbol of the concience of Man or as a symbol of God, for there is a suggestion of this in the name Jeshoua and its similarity to Jehova and in the Biblical phrases that the former 29 utters. This dramatic ambiguity and contradiction, which has a long European tradition,8® is deliberate and characteristic of all of Sastre's theater; it forms the basis of his "teatro de agitacioh" whose purpose is to "agitate" the spectator to consider his position as existent and social-historic being and to act against injustice in his medium. In Cargamento de suenos, the seeds of this technique appear,
Todo induce a career, en resumen, que esta simbologia equfvoca es premeditada; que el autor, honda, unanimemente preocupado ante el misterio de la vida y de la muerte, ha tratado asi de abrir una serie de interrogantes en la conciencia del espectador.
Cargamento de suenos also hints at the ideological direction that Sastre's later works followed. The testimony of man in the world that is presented in this work is vague and atemporal; history has no meaning. However, unlike other avant-garde works, there is a
28Ibid., p. 38.
29Ibid., p. 38.
8®Perez Minik, "Se trata de," p. 18.
81Domenech, "Tres obras," p. 38. 11 noticeable absence of the pessimism of the absurd, "existir es ser para el naufragio" and of Sartre's 'lexistir es ser para la nada".32
The lack of these attitudes presupposes a certain idealism, if not expressed at least suggested by the lack of pessimism and strengthened by Sastre's statement about this work, "Debe haber una razon, decxa 33 al no advertir ninguna". In time a meaning, a reason, and a mission for both life and the theater appeared in his works, liberty, for, in my opinion, theater and life for Sastre can be expressed thus,
"existir es estar coraprometido a la libertad". These concepts will be treated in a later section.
From 1949 to 1953, Sastre wrote three works which center about the problem of "terrorism", and rebellion, EjL cubo de la basura, Prologo patetico, and Ett pan de todos, however, these were not produced. In 1953, Escuadra hacia la muerte was performed. This was a moment of success as well as disappointment for the playwright.
Drama critics saw in this work a solid step toward renovation of the theater and a solid step toward a universal, timely theater. In his article "El teatro profundizado de Alfonso Sastre," Juan Emilio
Aragones notes how the appearance of Sastre and of Escuadra hacia la muerte seemed to answer the urgent appeal for a theater that could give expression to our time and its problematics,
32Ibid., p. 39.
^^Sastre, "teatro de vanguardia," p. 140. 12
Ya Ramiro de Maetzu, en un artfculo sobre el porvenir del teatro publicado hace treinta anos e inclufclo recientemente entre los trabajos que constituyen el tomo XXIV de sus obras (Editora Nacional), decxa con extraordinaria clarividencia: "Para desgracia del arte dramatico, el mundo esta revue1to, y no solo el mundo, sino la sociedad en donde vive cada uno de nosotros. A la muy relativa estabilidad del siglo XIX ha sucedido la incertidumbre." Y anade: "Antes de preguntarnos adonde podemos y debemos ir, tenemos que saber en donde estamos. En cuanto podamos sentirnos en un remanso de las aguas, si es que no se ha hundido la civilizacion, volveremos al teatro para preguntarnos en donde esta' el centro del mundo, es decir, volveremos a crear un teatro espiritual." Y he aqux como, velnticinco affos despues de que Ramiro de Maetzu escribiera esto, y con las aguas mas revueltas si cabe y mas confusa y confundida la sociedad, Alfonso Sastre vendrxa al teatro para, desde el, preguntarse y preguntarnos que sentido tiene la vida del hombre en un tiempo, como el nuestro, de inestabilidad, desconcierto e incertidumbre."^1'
For the first time in many years a Spanish dramatist was confronting his time as a problem in such a way as to not merely k observe, make judgments, or form conclusions, but rather to act^ to probe, to awaken the spectator to his surroundings, and at times, to make him uncomfortable. Indeed, Escuadra hacia la muerte, like
Buero Vallejo's Historia de una escalera gave hope for development of a substantial current of realists and a revitalization of theater for,
Alfonso Sastre nos ha representado un drama tenso, ambivalente y hasta contradictorio, que no tenfa precedentes en nuestro teatro ni por el ambiente, ni por la dialectica desarrollada, ni por la realidad de los heroes y los acontecimientos. Mo era una obra de tesis ni una obra ideologica, entendida a la manera f ihsecular.
Q/ Aragones, "El teatro profundizado," p. 29.
^Perez Minik, "Se trata de," p. 16. However, this moment of success was also a moment of consternation and frustration for Alfonso Sastre; Escuadra hacia
la muerte was ordered closed after the third performance. There were discussions and controversy, for the themes and possible
ideology of this play suggested multiple interpretations. Some
viewed this work as the expression of the absurd incompatibility
of man and war, or as a plea for authority. This was the first
time since the Civil War that the theme of war had been subjected
to debate, and the military viewed it as an anti-military work.
Unfortunately the political structure was not ready to accept such
a seemingly-contradictory and non-conformist dramatist as Alfonso
Sastre who had set about to unmask immediate social problems as
is illustrated in the following quotation,
Per la prima volta, dopo tanti anni, lo spetattore aveva la possibility di mettersi di fronte a una problematics moderns referita a circostanze storiche concrete, con personaggi vieini a lui e contenuti che mettevano in discussione alcuni dei dogmi dominanti in una societa que viveva di apparenze. '
The end of the Civil War had brought a government lacking in
liberalism; avant-garde writers were prohibited, and the government,
for the most part, encouraged presentation of those works devoid
of problems or criticism of the social-political structure. In
view of such policies, one can understand why, of Sastre's fruitful
dramatic production, only thirteen plays have been presented in Spain
36Ibid., p. 15. 37 . Pedro Altares, "Dal teatro dell impero al teatro di consumo Sipario, No. 256-257 (agosto-settembre, 1967), p. 12. 38 . "Obras estrenadas en Espa'na," Primer Ac to, No. 3 (1964), pp. 134-136. 14 .
The career of the non-conformist, as is Alfonso Sastre, is a difficult one for, "...el autor espanol se ve impedido de expresar ciertos aspectos de la vida, el agobio o la angustia en que vive la sociedad moderna.39
As a result of the controversy that began with Escuadra hacia la muerte. and that has shrouded all of Sastre's plays, the basic situation of Sastre's struggle for liberty changed. It was no longer just a question of opposing conformist theater; there were other implications, a struggle for liberty of expression. The latter, according to Sastre, is both necessary and desirable, both in terms of theater and of society,
Sastre respondicf que...en todo caso la dignidad de la patria tendrfa alguna relacion con la dignidad de la cultura, dignidad esta ultima que solo podia,darse sobre la base de una libertad de :*£xpeesidn.
By liberty of expression, Sastre refers to the freedom of the dramatist to pursue new and different dramatic forms and to treat certain themes and problems that he considers critical for an under standing of the situation of modern man, even though they may question the structure of either society or government. The dramatist should not then be restricted by pre-established norms, dramatic or political, which suppress dissent or criticism. Alfonso Sastre affirms these ideas and his intent to pursue liberty of expression in the following words,
OQ ^ 7Juan R. Castellano, "Estado actual del teatro espanol," Hispania. No. Al (1958), p. 433.
^Domenech, "Tres obras," p. 37. 15
..,el dramaturgo tiene consigo mismo el deber de escribir lo que su espiritu le reclame. Uno debe decir todo lo que qulere decir en el drama, sin plantearse de antemano, por un criterio "posibilista", cuanto tiene que resbajar o que desviar...No hay teatro "imposible", en la medida en que no existen criterios de certeza de su imposibilidad...Hay, eso s£, un teatro momentaneamente "imposibilitado". Todo teatro debe ser considerado posible hasta que seaimposibilitado; y toda "imposibilitacion" debe ser acogida por nosotros como una sorpresa. 1
Liberty of expression from the point of view of dramatic
form and artistic technique will not be discussed in this project,
for such a discussion would result in too lengthy a study. Rather,
the author intends to pursue this subject in the future study in which an adequate investigation of Sastre's techniques in comparison to
those of other contemporary dramatists could be made. In this manner, the reader would be able to gain an adequate perspective
of this dramatist's skill and originality.
Two restrictions to liberty of expression (dramatic content)
that Alfonso Sastre has had to confront are political and economic
ones. For example, censorship has been one formidable barrier, and the following list reveals, in part, some of the effects of
the latter on this author's works.
1. 1947...Escribe con M. Fraile Comedia sonambula. Se prohibe la representacion.
2. 1950...Campana y Manifiesto del T.A.S. (Teatro de Agitaci6n Social). Prohibicidn del proyecto.
3. 1952.--Intenta estrenar Prologo patetico sin resultado en el Maria Guerrero y en la Cia. Lope de Vega.
^Vazquez Zamora, R., "Alfonso Sastre no acepta el posibilismo," Insula, Nos. 164-165 (1960), p. 27. 4. 1953...Escuadra hacia la muerte...La estrena en el Teatro Popular Universitario. Es prohibida a la tercera representacion.
5. 1954.— La censura prohibe Prologo patetico y J21 pan de todos.
6. 1955...Plantea un recurso a censura sobre Escuadra hacia la muerte...La Direccion General de Teatro envfa el texto al Estado Mayor Central del Eje*rcito que condena la obra en un informe. Escribe Muerte en el barrio; es prohibida. Escribe Guillermo Tell tiene los o.jos tristes; es prohibida.
7. 1961...Estrena En la red y se prohibe para las provincias.^2
At first, Alfonso Sastre approached the problem of censor
ship by means of letters and lectures. In 1953, at a conference
in Santander, he voiced a slight protest, and again in 1955, he asked that previous censorship of his works be rescinded. These
oral protests were to no avail. Therefore, the dramatist turned
to other means in an effort to liberate his works. In 1954, he wrote to the Direccion General asking for reasons for the barring
of his plays. No answer was received. Again in 1956 and 1960,
letters were sent to the Ministers of Information and Education;
the last letter was signed by 227 writers, intellectuals, and artists.
However, all of these efforts produced no results, and Sastre turned
to open acts of rebellion, that is, attacks within published documents. One of the most ambitious and most aggressive of these attacks is "Documento sobre el teatro espa'ftol" published in 1961
^Alfonso Sastre, "Cronologia de Alfonso Sastre," In Tres dramas espafffoles (Paris, 1965), pp. 13-19.
43Ibid., pp. 15-17. 17
In which Sastre condemns the present system of censorship,
La existencia de la censura de teatro, y especlalmente en la forma en que se vlene ejerclendo entre nosotros (se trata de una actlvldad conceptualmente arbltrarla, admlnlstratlvamente irregular, eticamente irresponsable y legalmente amorfa, sin que ni siquiera tenga autoridad para mantener sus pjropios dictamenes), es una verguenza ptfblica y privada. Publicamente (objetivamente) lo es porque tiene el caracter de una calamidad cultural. Privadamente (subjetivamente) porque es el signo de nuestro conformismo--el de los autores, directores, actores, empresarios...y de nuestra propia corrupcion. Es urgente la absoluta liquidacion, que puede irse desarrollando en etapas, de este mecanismo. No se trata de que desaparezca toda vigilancia social— debe haberla, desde luego, para la pornografia— , sino de que £sta toma un caracter regular y legitimo, a traves del aparato judicial ordinario. Por referirnos a lo concreto, decimos que--por ejemplo--es urgente, para la nivelacion del panorama teatral espanol a la medida de los paises cultos, que puedan ser representados en Espana autores como Brecht y Sartre, cuya ausencia da a nuestro panorama un caracter aldeano y precario.^f
In effect, until 1967, the works of avant-garde writers like Bertolt Brecht were not produced in Spain.^ There has been some slackening of restrictions, however, complete liberty of expression is still a distant goal. An Italian drama review has summarized the current situation in the following manner,
L'attuale governo spagnolo segue una politica anticulturale exclusivamente rivolta alio sport. Si puo.dire apertamente che l'attuale governo e contro il teatro. °
Much of Alfonso Sastre's efforts and those of other play wrights have been devoted to a struggle for liberty from political
^Alfonso Sastre and Jose Maria de Quinto, "Documento sobre el teatro espanol," Primer Acto. No. 3 (1964), p. 121. 45 Pedro Altares, p. 9.
^Jose Maria Rodriguez Mendez, Una politica anticulturale interamente rivolta alio sport," Sipario, No. 256-257 (agosto- settembre, 1967), p. 9. 18 barriers (censor). However, this generation of playwrights has had the stamina to persist, and, as he reveals in many of his works,
Sastre emphasizes the need to pursue the goal of liberty (social or personal) although it may, at times, seem impossible to attain,
Malheureusement, le probleme de la communication, deja difficile en soi-meme dans les milieux de libre expression— est encore plus ardu pour nous, Espagnols d'aujourd'hui. II est source d 'equivoques et de malentendus. Je preconise done une sorte de "liberte” ironique". "La liberte n'existe pas, ecrivais je dans la revue Primer Acto, mais agissons corarae si elle existait afin d'en connaltre les limites pour la mieux conquerir.4?
Inextricably tied to political limitations are economic ones. This is seen in the fact that the impresario, to achieve public and profit, must often limit himself to presentation of works that pose no censure problems.4® Of course, such a policy restricts the non-conformist playwright often depriving him of a public. Recently, Alfonso Sastre tried to make these difficulties known in an article entitled "23 difficolta per essere un autore 49 teatrale anticonformista". The principal difficulties listed were,
1. censorship,
2. necessity for agreement between the author, impresario, and censor,
3. influence of the critics on the public,
4^Sastre, "Le th^tre espagnol," p. 29.
4®Alfonso Sastre, "23 difficolta per essere un autore teatrale anti-conformista," Sipario, No. 256-257 (agosto-settembre, 1967), p. 36.
49Ibid., p. 36. 19
4. small public (there seems to be a lack of interest for new and unfamiliar works, and the public is reluctant to attend the performance of non-conformist works),
5. the proprietors of commercial theaters choose works that involve a small cast, simple scenery, little expense, and a plot that doesn't disturb.
The problems are complex and not easy to clearly distinguish.
Contemporary Spanish theater is a commercial business that centers primarily around Madrid and Barcelona. Because of the political situation and the lack of financial support from the state, the impresario is forced to present works which he feels are popular enough to attract large crowds. Hence, one can understand the risk involved in presenting an unknown work or those of a controversial playwright. Indeed, Alfonso Sastre has recognized the problems in trying to appeal to a people who have been rigidly controlled. In addition, he acknowledges that many of the basic problems have their basis outside the theater. Therefore, Sastre has directed his struggle for liberty along a path which tends toward revelation of the basic problems and a proposal for a separate theatrical enterprise.
For example, in an article entitled "Lo viejo y lo nuevo en el teatro espanol" Sastre attempts to analyze the reasons for the current
"crisis" in the theater,
Porque el teatro es una superestructura, dependiente— a traves de mas o menos mediaeiones--de una base socio- economica y funciona en un contexto politico. La transformacion profunda y racional de esa base y de ese contexto haria desaparecer unos problemas y aparecer otros que quiza" si pudieran resolverse en el nivel propiamente teatral.^O
■^Alfonso Sastre, "Lo nuevo y lo viejo en el teatro espanol," Primer Acto. No. 51 (1964), p . 14. 20
In the event that the socio-economic-political situation should change, then Sastre proposes formation of an independent association created by those with a common interest, like authors, directors, and actors.
This discussion shows that Alfonso Sastre is indeed a dramatist engaged in a struggle for liberty, a struggle which has still more implications as revealed in the following discussion.
Alfonso Sastre, ndramaturgo comprometido". In spite of the previously mentioned restrictions, Sastre's production, drama and theory, have continued. A review of this dramatist's history reveals that Sastre is a "dramaturgo comprometido". If one considers a general definition of "commitment" or "engagement" as "writing for one's time, directly or indirectly about one's time with man's freedom as an ultimate goal",*^ then indeed Sastre has all of these pre-requisites. In effect, Sastre is "comprometido a la
libertad" and this commitment is expressed in two ways. Alfonso
Sastre is involved in what he calls liberation of Spanish theater from conformity. His acts directed toward this goal appear in the form of theory and projects, for what began as an act of protest in Arte
Nuevo and Cargamento de suenos developed into a course of action whose initial inspiration was voiced in La Hora,
■^Jacques Guicharnaud, "Man and His Acts," in Sartre: A Collection of Critical Essays, (Englewood Cliffs, 1962), p. 71. 21
La revista la Hora (1948-1950) es, para mi, la fase crftica en que se produce, a traves de una reflexion que va al galope precipitado de los acontecimientos, mas que surgir del estudio reposado y de la investigacion de laboratorio, un embrion de toma de conciencia del teatro como funcion social-polikica.52
These dramatic concepts progressed to a blueprint for a ’’teatro de agitacion social,"
...en torno a un teatro de agitacion como posibilidad purificadora y revolucionaria de poner el teatro espanol a la altura de los tiempos, desmontando radicalmente la escena espanola actual y dando a nuestro teatro una dimension fuerteraente espaffola y en definitiva universal. Para conseguirlo, proponia para nuestro teatro--el teatro espa'nol--un moderno contenido social y politico. En suma, el teatro de agitacion tal como lo formulaba podia ser el instrumento eficaz de machacamiento de todo un orden teatral retardatario, materialista y burgues v de su situacion por un teatro moderno de gran altura. 3
The significance of T.A.S. is multiple. This project aspired to mould and create a theater of social and political content, of the problems of modern man in an age of "subversion".
With original works supplemented by those of foreign authors,
Sastre and others from Arte Nuevo would assume the responsibility
"de traer el drama a los escenarios espanoles, de los que esta"
5 4 ausente desde hace tanto tiempo..." The ultimate goal of T.A.S. was liberty, liberty of expression and liberty of the theater, for
Sastre believed that the consequences of T.A.S. would be the real ization of a universal theater and a new attraction for a public that had been driven away,
"’^Domenech, "Entrevista," Primer Ac to. No. 3 (1964), p. 56. e o Alfonso Sastre, "El T.A.S. por ultima vez," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), 84. * ■^Alfonso Sastre and Jose Maria de Quinto, "Manifiesto del T.A.S.," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), p. 101. 22
...hemos asistido al lamentable espectaculo del desplazamiento de las grandes masas de espectadores, al impresionante exodo del publico desde el teatro al "cine", desde el drama al espectaculo frivolo, desde la angustia al enmascaramiento, desde la realidad a la evasion, al olvido culpable y al parafso artificial. £1 teatro en torpes manos ha sido insuficiente para contener ese £xodo.
The ideas of T.A.S. were not entirely new, for foreign
dramatists like Bertolt Brecht had expressed the need for a theater
that would involve the spectator and stimulate him intellectually,
We need a type of theatre which not only releases the feelings, insights, and impulses possible within the particular historical field of human relations in which the action takes place, but employs and encourages those thoughts and feelings which help transform the field itself.56
Unfortunately, Teatro de Agitacion Social did not go beyond
the status of project, however, this project did gain recognition
as a significant movement and act of rebellion analogous to those
of other countries like Italy and France, and the importance of
T.A.S. has not been overlooked,
No hay que olvidar que era la primera vez que se hablaba en Espana, de spue's de la guerra civil, de un arte social y comprometido, que por vez primera se le,-da a carta de naturaleza, dentro del arte, a lo social. 7
Ten years later, the same group that had formed Teatro de
Agitacion Social was still active. This time Sastre and his followers
had developed an even more ambitious project, the Grupo del Teatro
55Ibid., p. 100.
"^Bertolt Brecht, "Kleines Organon fur das Theater," in Playwrights on Playwrighting. trans. John Willet (New York, 1960), p . 85. 57 Jose Marfa de Quinto, "Breve historia de una lucha," Primer Acto, No. 3 (1964), p. 49. 23
Realista. The primary purpose of this group was to openly intervene in the process of Spanish theater by means of expression of their own works or by presenting those of noted foreign authors. During the years that included the creation of Arte Nuevo, T.A.S., and
G.T.R., Sastre continued writing plays, many of which adequately represented the theories he had expressed. In 1953, he wrote El pan de todos, in 1954, La mordaza; in 1955, Muerte en el barrio and
Guillermo Tell tiene los o.jos tristes; in 1959, Asalto nocturno, En la red, and La cornada.
The plays of Sastre are another form of expression of his commitment to liberty, for his works deal with social and political problems, with the forms of injustice that exist in contemporary reality, with the purpose of enlightening and agitating the spectator to act on injustice. The principal themes of his theater are
timeless; n ...la libertad, la responsabilidad, la convivencia, la autoridad y la lealtad brotan en todas sus obras como las vemos 58 en los teatros de Francia, Italia, y los Estados Unidos," yet
they are timely, for the circumstances are unmistakably contemporary.
Sastre attempts to describe the man of today and to write for the man of today; the latter is presented as specific and universal.
This is achieved by presenting not only the universal situation of man, a being condemned to death, but also the particular social- political-historical circumstances.
*^Perez Minik, "Se trata de," p. 20. 24
The theater of commitment is not new in Spain. In effect,
Sastre may be situated within a long line of traditional Spanish 59 theater, for the best of the latter has been "comprometido". Yet,
Sastre and other contemporary playwrights differ from earlier theater of commitment in that, "...el teatro moderno de postguerra no se contenta solamente con resistir, observar o enjuiciar, sino que se hace beligerante.. In Sastre's theater, this "belligerance" takes the form of investigation and direct expression, for he attempts to delve beneath reality, beneath the unjust situations, in order to discover the causes and the source of guilt. The evidence which Sastre uncovers is devoid of propaganda and does not suggest pre-conceived solutions. Rather, these are left to the discretion of the spectator.
Art and theater for Sastre have a mission beyond that of the artistic,
La misidn del dramaturgo, en este mundo, parece que esta' en conectar con las grandes realidades dramaticas y denunciarlas, en hacerse eco de la angustia social y expresarla eficazamente, en dar testimonio de su mundo. Para ello no hay que pertenecer a un partido politico ni estar enrolado en una fuerza politica determinada.^
For Sastre, theater is "revelation", "illumination", an "hilo conductor" between the spectator and the anguish of others, and
this illumination process includes implicit denunciation of injustice.
In this manner, the theater also has "una funcion justiciera",
59 > Perez Minik, Teatro. p. 69.
60Ibid., p. 115.
^Alfonso Sastre, "Sobre las formas 'sociales1 del drama," Primer Ac to, No. 3 (1964), pp. 92*-93. 25
Precisamente, la principal mision del arte, en el mundo injusto en que vivimos, consiste en transformarlo. £1 estimulo de esta transformacion, en el orden social, corresponde a un arte que desde ahora podriamos llamar "de urgencia". Queda dicho que todo arte vivo, en un sentido amplio, es justiciero; este arte que llamamos "de urgencia" es una reclamacion acuciante de justicia, con pretension de resonancia en el orden jurlTdico.®^
Sastre's works are acts of liberty, for each contains a protest against injustice and a plea for action. These plays then form part of Sastre's multi-facet struggle for liberty. This dramatist pursues this goal by means of the "dramatic" presentation of liberty, that is, presentation of concepts by means of dramatic action. Indeed, liberty is a recurrent theme throughout all of theater and it remains in the forefront of contemporary theater as emphasized by Domingo Perez Minik in Teatro contempora*neo.
La libertad continua siendo la piedra esencial de toda la construccion dramatica de estos dias, como si vivieramos en los anos cuarenta.^3
One dramatist who has been often studied in relation to the theme of liberty is Jean Paul Sartre. Based primarily on the principal postulates of his philosophy of existentialism, many of Sartre's works are excellent investigations of liberty and its problematics presented by means of lived situations. Sartre has tried to establish through his characters a certain fundamental liberty and responsibility which they all possess and to reveal
CJ* the varied relations of man to his acts (the exercise of freedom),w
C. A '‘Alfonso Sastre, "Arte como construccion," Primer Ac to, No. 3 (1964), p. 111. go Perez Minik, Teatro, p. 521. 64 Claude-Edmonde Magny, "The Duplicity of Being," in Sartre: A Collection of Critical Essays (New Jersey, 1962), p. 22. 26
so that even without an understanding of Sartre's philosophy, one can still enjoy his works for their dramatic value, for the living act of man in crisis.
Sartre's theater of commitment and his presentation of
liberty differ from those of Sastre who presents man as restricted and imprisoned by real and concrete limitations, for if man is
to achieve liberty, he must first be aware of the forms of oppression,
Si queremos ayudar a los hombres, hay que hacerles ver ante todo como son las cosas realmente, y quizas con armas a la medida del enemigo podran veneer.^
In effect, Sastre's theater more closely approximates the epic theater of Brecht in the image of man presented, for the latter
is viewed as a historical being. That is, in the theater of Sartre and others (Camus and avant-garde theater) critical problems like war or revolution are presented as "...la guerra...todas las
guerras", or as one more absurdity.^ Sastre's works endeavor
to uncover the "realidad profunda" that is responsible for the
situation. In his work La tragedia del hombre, Jose Maria de Quinto has elaborated on some of these differences,
No obstante, ese supremo planteamiento de libertad tiene mas bien un caracter especulativo. Al existencialismo, no sin razoh, se le ha reprochado su proximidad con el liberalismo. Su desentendimiento de los condicionamientos historicos no parece en efecto, sino esconder una negacioh total de la realidad concreta y causal. Que duda cabe de que, con independencia de los condicionamientos generales--
^Jean-Paul Borel, 121 teatro de JLo imposible (Madrid, 1966), p. 239.
^Ricardo Domenech, "Para una vision dialectica del teatro contemporaneo," Primer Acto. No. 48 (December, 1963), p. 19. 27
estar en el mundo y ser finito--existen otras determinantes que sofocan en el hombre esa pretendlda libertad. El individuo no aparece en el mundo configurado por situaciones abstractas sino, por el contrario, en un mundo en el que dlchas situaciones estan perfectamente delimitadas. Su libre eleccion viene determlnada por toda una serle de condicionamientos de distinto caracter. Lo economico, lo social son, por ejemplo, factores decisivos en este sentido.^
The following chapters will deal with Sastre's concept of the relationship between man and liberty and the presentation of these concepts embodied in living acts.
^Jose Maria de Quinto, La tragedia y; e_l hombre (Barcelona, 1962), p. 98. CHAPTER II
THE DRAMATIC PRESENTATION OF LIBERTY IN THE THEATER OF ALFONSO SASTRE
Introduction. When I speak of a "dramatic" presentation of the theme, I refer to two concepts. One is dramatic in the sense of action; this includes the dramatist's technique of investigation by presenting "man" in the living act of probing the extent of his liberty in relation to various aspects of his medium as well as responses to oppression or limitation and the problematics of these responses. The other is the use of the word "dramatic" as the means by which Sastre characterizes his theater. Unlike "epic" theater, Sastre's works give the impression of actuality and allow the spectator to respond emotionally; yet they also permit observation with a "critical eye". The development of the in vestigation of the theme of liberty is dependent upon this purpose: to reveal the relationship between man and liberty within the perspec tive of social-political-historic reality in a manner which has aesthetic appeal, enlightens, and evokes a sense of urgency to act upon injustice. In this sense, the theater is not only a form of entertainment but also a tool to aid the spectator in comprehending and dealing with his own situation. In this respect, Sastre's dramatic theories are similar to those of Bertolt Brecht who states,
28 29
En lo sucesivo, el teatro no alimentara" al espectador de ilustones, no le hara olVridar el mundo, no le hara reconciliarse con su destino. El teatro le presentara el mundo para que pueda comprenderlo y transformarlo.^
Alfonso Sastre's theater does not present conclusions or solutions, rather, it presents a testimony of "nuestro ser-en-el mundo" based on the dramatist's concepts. Man is presented as "pour- 2 sol," as a changing element related to andforming part of changing situations in a changing world. The world is presented as a trap, a conglomerate of tragic situations, for "...la existencia humana es— aun si llegaran a ser eliminadas las tragedias sociales— una gran tragedia metaffsica". These ideas are explained in Drama
Z sociedad,
Entiendo-~veo— que la existencia humana es, en los pocos momentos en que la charlataner^a de la vida cotidiana se desvanece:
a. una situacion cerrada b. en la que se encuentran existiendo (facticidad) c. unos seres condenados a morir d. que desean--en realidad, es una exigencia previa, no deliberada, anterior a todo deseo, biologica, constitutive— una felicidad e. que, al menos como estado de plenitud, les es negada f. y, a veces, se interrogan sobre su destino (mundano y ultramundano) g. y sobre el pecado desconocido o la culpa por la que son castigados. h. Es una lucha i. en la que la vida humana es siempre derrotada en momentos que provocan horror (ante la magnitud de la catastrofe) y piedad (ante la nihilidad del ser humano) en el espectador de esta derrota, en la que ve, anticipada su propia y natural derrota, a la
•kjose Monleon, Rev. of En JLa red, from Triunfo, reprinted in Teatro espanbl 1960-61 (Madrid: Aguilar, 1962), p. 256.
^Edith Kern, "Introduction," Sartre: A Collection of Critical Essays, (Englewood Cliffs, 1962), pp. 10-12.
3Alfonso Sastre, Drama y sociedad (Madrid: Editorial Taurus, 1956, p. 138. 30
que esta* abocado por el simple hecho de existir. j. Esta situacion general, que nos es revelada a traves de una concreta situacion tragica es la sustancia metaffsica de la tragedia.^
Indeed, existence is a tragedy, and many studies have dealt with the tragic condition of man. However, while Sastre frequently calls attention to the closed metaphysical tragedy, man condemned to death, his attention is most frequently turned to those with possibilities of change, the “concrete" tragic situations, the crimes against liberty in our times. In the course of investigation of these tragedies, drama serves as a form of denunciation, of forms of injustice, slavery, and oppression, and as a source of knowledge, for the spectator gains an understanding of his possibilities within a limited situation and about his relationship to the world “...de la situacion social, historica, en la que participa, o ha de participar, como agente..."^ Hence, dramatic theater can accomplish the goals of entertainment and elightenment for Sastre remarks, “Para mif, en el teatro'Hramatico," hay lo que le pide Brecht al teatro: distanciacion, critica, y todo lo demas."^
Alfonso Sastre investigates the theme of liberty by recreat
ing some of the forms of oppression, that exist in reality, and probing the relationships that exist between the individual and
these forms of oppression— war, revolution, and society. The forms,
^Ibid., p. 23.
^Alfonso Sastre, Anatomia del realismo (Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1965), p. 129.
6Ibid., p. 51. 31 once recreated within the realm of imagination as invented plots, recreation of the myths of Orestes and Cronos-Saturnus, and recreation of the legend of William Tell, represent a synthesis of man and his medium. Hence, imagination serves a dual purpose in presentation of the theme, that of "distanciacion" and "comunicacion" as illustrated in this quotation,
dComo actua o interviene el escritor literario sobre (en) la realidad? iComo se comunica--o sea— , como comunica su mundo? No, desde luego, por "acciones directas" ni tampoco por medio de "noticias" o "reproducciones" de lo real concreto desconocido o ignorado o deficientemente conocido por el lector o el espectador y que el ha hallado y fotografiado para s£ y para ellos; sino, precisamente, por medio de los mitos resultantes de su trabajo. £1 mito es un "hilo conductor" entre el "mundo" (del escritor) y su lector, o espectador, pero tambien es una "resistencia" (con terminologxa prestada de la f£sica): une y, separa los terminos que comunica; y esta contradiccion se pre- senta en el modo de lo "incandescente", una "ilumina- cion" de lo real (conocimiento) que apunta a una "toma de conciencia" (polftica).^
Hence, drama may interpret and organize those aspects of existence which often appear to us in our daily experience as an
Q unintelligible chaos of happenings.
Based on the dramatic situation which forms the core of each work, the material pertinent to the theme of liberty is presented
in three waystdiich 1 shall designate as artistic, experiential, and choric commentary. The artistic presentation of material
involves techniques of sight and sound which communicate in a
7Ibid., p. 255. Q George Bernard Shaw, "How to Write a Popular Play," in Playwrights on Playwrighting (New York, 1960), pp. 55-56. 32 condensed poetic manner the situation (man and his medium), create an atmosphere, or underlie the theme. Dramatic experience allows
the spectator to witness and respond emotionally to an investigation
of the theme, and to formulate conclusions about the evidence presented. Choric commentary gives the spectator additional in
formation which helps him to further analyze what he sees and hears,
reveals a reality beneath that of the artistic and experiential,
or is designed to incite the spectator, draw him into the drama, q and perhaps lead him to intervention in reality.
My analysis of the theme of liberty will procede by means
of an investigation of three basic situations upon which Sastre's
works are based and an analysis of their development in relation
to the theme.
War. One situation which the dramatist uses to probe the
question of liberty is that of war. A clue as to the reason lies
in some of Sastre's earliest works, for the war motif was treated
schematically in Ha sonado la muerte and Uranio 235. Both works
present observations on the horrors of war, however, in Ha sonado
la muerte, war is presented as a formidable force which envelops
and suffocates man. This is evident in the words of Arturo,
La guerra es algo superior. Estif por encima de nuestras vidas y de nuestras muertes. Y, lo que es peor, de nuestros amores. Es necesario marchar al combate; no hay otra salida.*0
^Sastre, "Sobre las formas sociales," p. 92.
^Alfonso Sastre, Ha sonado la muerte, in Teatro de Vanguardia (Madrid: Ediciones Herman, 1949), p. 182. 33
War, then, may be designated as a form of fatality, as one of the aspects of existence (medium) which restricts liberty and which can enslave and defeat man in his struggle for happiness or fulfillment of life. In effect, war in varying aspects is brought to trial in three plays, Escuadra hacia la muerte. La mordaza, and Ana Kleiber.
Escuarda hacia la muerte provides a dramatic investigation of liberty within the imaginary situation of a third world war.
Essentially the situation in this work is one of six men who are isolated in the midst of a forest and condemned to wait for an offensive which will, by all indications lead to their death.
Hence, the subject of war is set at a distance in a strange setting to allow the spectator to observe certain aspects somewhat objectively.
The material for an investigation of "man", liberty, and war is then presented in three ways, artistically, experientially
(Sastre has described these as, "El logos operante para ello es un logos poetico--existencial"),^ and by means of choric commentary.
The artistic presentation of material--arising out of the situation— gives the spectator precise and condensed concepts about
"man" (represented as characters) and "medium". For example, Sastre seems to construct an artistic representation of "nuestro ser-en- el mundo," a concept of the characters as existents and social-
■^Sastre, Ana tom fa, p. 199. 34 historical beings, by means of physical setting, atmosphere, and language. For example, the characters are physically imprisoned in a maze of concentric circles. The heart of the maze is a small one-room house where most of the action occurs. This is surrounded by a forest which, in turn, is surrounded by an "invisible" enemy.
Remarks by the characters reveal these barriers to be not only restrictive of freedom but also a source of terror and antagonism.
In effect, the house seems to symbolize the barriers set up by r social circumstances, for, it is like a small isolated microcosm, where men are cut off from all other humanity and obliged to live together and wait together for death. In this sense the house represents the concrete, limited situation of these men. Javier summarizes the situation thus,
Esto dxas me he dado cuenta de la verdad. Parece que estamos quietos, encerrados en una casa; pero, en realidad, marchamos, andamos d£a tras dia. Somos una 'escuadra hacia la muerte. ^
Following this same logic, the outer barrier, the forest, seems to represent the metaphysical barrier to man, death, for the forest appears as an unknown element, a source of anguish and terror whose presence is always felt. This is revealed by
Javier, "De un momento a otro parece que el bosque puede animarse...
Es posible que a estas horas este' yo solo, rodeado...Tengo miedo...1^
12 Alfonso Sastre, Escuadra hacia la muerte (Madrid: Ediciones Alfil, 1964), p. 25.
l3Ibid., p. 32. 35
The forest combined with references to weather--the effect of cold on the characters--creates an idea of man in a hostile and restricted medium.
Beyond the forest waits an "invisible11 enemy. He is described by Javier as a terrifying element, "armados hasta los dientes y dispuestos a saltar sobre nosotros". Indeed, the "enemy" for
Javier seems to be inevitable and a source of terror and despair.
For the others, the enemy remains an abstract faceless reference for whom the characters continually wait with anxiety. In effect the "invisible" enemy seems to represent, as does Godot,^ man's destiny, the future that remains to be defined. In this manner, the dramatist expresses the immediate oppression of the characters and the concept of the future as something to be shaped. Indeed, this "invisible" enemy seems to serve as a means of completing the "dialectical" relationship of man and medium; to limitation is added the possibility of man to define his future as friend or enemy, whether it be a general situation or a specific one between two men.
Hence, setting serves as a visual testimony of man and medium.
This same testimony is suggested throughout the work by means of metaphors and images as though serving as constant reminder to the spectator of this double condition of man, oppressed and agent.
14William R. Mueller and Josephine Jacobsen, "Samuel Beckett's Long Saturday: To Wait or Not to Wait?" in Man in the Modern Theatre, (Richmond, 1965) , pp. 84-88. 36
These result from the characters' concept of the dramatic situation.
For example, there is frequent reference to two ideas of condemnation, that with which Javier is constantly preoccupied, "Somos una escuadra de condenados a muerte," and that suggested by Pedro, "...la larga condena que te queda por cumplir: tu vida".'*''* These concepts remind, yet they also suggest that one may choose to declare himself condemned to annihilation or look forward to completion of a destiny in which he plays a part. At the same time, the idea of being in a "ratonera" is frequently voiced. This is a metaphor for existence. It refers to the concrete situation of the five men and their superior, to the situation of man and circumstances, and to the metaphysical situation. All of the above ideas are connected to the subject of war and to the theme of liberty by the metaphor
"infierno" as expressed in this conversation,
Cabo.--Sf, vuestras agradables biografias, ...Soldado Javier Godda. Procedente del Regimiento de In- fanterfa numero 15. Operaciones al sur del lago Onega, d no es verdad?
Javier.--(Asiente) SiT, de alljf vengo. Era un infierno de metralla, algo...horrible. 1 £% Cabo.— No te preocupes. Esto es otro infierno.
Here, the idea of war is equated with the particular situation between men that is shown. This equation leads the spectator toward consideration of the parallels that exist between the two
■^Sastre, Escuadra, p. 62.
16Ibid., p. 16. 37 situations and to consider connections that may be drawn. Hence, in this manner, the dramatist tries to direct the spectator toward the discovery of certain relationships.
However, the artistic plane is a static one; it establishes concepts and calls attention to universal ideas. This plane also serves to limit the material to be conveyed, and to situate the theme in time and space, in our epoch so that the spectator may apply what he learns to his own situation. However, it is by the action, the experiences, that one comes to know how the general situation expressed by "ratonera", and other concepts may be applied to the more specific situation of man, war, and liberty, and its multiplicity of aspects. In a series of "cuadros", the playwright seems to collectively portray the concept of man by means of the five soldiers who represent a composite of attitudes apart from those of el cabo Goban. On the other hand, Sastre seems to represent also an aspect of the situation--medium— by means of a character: el cabo Goban. As with the artistic portrayal of "man" and "medium", the same relationship of oppression, torment, and antagonism exists between el cabo Goban and the others. In effect, as the action progresses, it becomes clear that the five men exist in a type of
"infierno" created by the tyrannical Gob^n. That man is oppressed by man is revealed by Gob^n for he treats the others as though they were objects. They are submitted to a rigid schedule which, in reality, is absurd, for It has no purpose in this isolated locale as explained by Javier, Nos levantamos a las sels de la manana, no se para que. Seguimos un horario r£gido de comldas y de servicio. Nos obliga a limpiar los equlpos y la casa. Tenemos que afeitarnos diariamente y sacarle brillo a las armas y a las botas. Todo esto es estupido en cualquier caso y mas en el nuestro.
In effect, existence is not shaped by the needs and desires of the 18 individuals, rather by a set of rules that views man as Man, a generic being, and which Goban applies to all. Andres explains,
"No conoce otra norma de conducts que las Ordenanzas militares.
Vete tu a hablarle de compasion al projimo".^ Hence, exception has no place in a set "order", and Goban illustrates this when he refuses to make exception for the illness of Luis, "Yo no puedo admitir que un soldado se ponga enfermo como una palida muchachita.1
Goban rules the others with brutality. It seems that to the commander, humanity divides itself into two species, the "weak" and the "strong". The "strong"— the commander puts himself in this category--were born to rule the "weak", the "inferior", as revealed
in Goban1s attitude expressed in these words,
No sois soldados. Sois el desecho, la basura, yo lo se...hombres que solo quieren vivir y no se someten a una disciplina. j. Indisc ip linados y cobardes! Bien. Vais a tragar la disciplina del cabo Goban, la disciplina de un viejo legionario. Necesito una escuadra de soldados para la muerte. Los tendre. Los harex de vosotros. Los superiores saben lo que han hecho poniendo esta escuadra bajo mi mando.
17Ibid., p. 25. 18 Peter L. Berger, Invitation to Sociology (Garden City, 1963), p. 146. 19 Sastre, Escuadra. p. 18.
20Ibid., p. 12.
21Ibid., p. 14. 39
Goban's oppression of these five reflects his general attitude toward men; he regards them as inferior. The "weak" were born to be ruled by the "strong", and Goban could not tolerate the weak, for he had murdered "dos cobardes" and the pale boy of "la mirada triste",22
En instruccion, explicando el cuerpo a cuerpo, haciendo asalto a la bayoneta...Tuvo el la culpa...Era torpe, se puso nervioso..., no sabfa ponerse en guardia...El cbico temblaba y estaba palido. Me did- rabia. Lo tire-*al suelo de un golpe, y ya no se lo que me paso. Tuve un ataque. Lo rematd- yo mismo.. .allf*. Lo cosi* a bayonetazos. Me habfa enfurecido. Era torpe...un muchacho palido, con pecas...y ahora que lo recuerdo me parece que tenfa ...una mirada triste...
"La mirada triste" is to become almost a symbol in Alfonso
Sastre's plays, for each of his rebels, Oscar, David Harko, Isafas, and Guillermo Tell possess this "mirada triste".
Goban treats each of the five men with disrespect and bru tality as though he considered all of them cowards. This behavior suggests that the former actually possesses a universal disregard for men. One concludes as a result of the experiences that show the relationship between Gob^n and the others, that men are tortured and oppressed by other men, especially the type represented by
Goban who enjoys brutality and who exceeds power to the point of oppression. The personal relationship is related to the collective one, man and war, for the tyranny of Goban serves as a catalyst to reveal attitudes. In effect, what comes to light is a parallel between the general and the particular situation, between the
22Ibid., p. 17. "infierno" of men and the "infierno de metralla", for the personal seems to reflect the collective. War as it is described in dialogue, emerges as a tyrant similar to Goban, for the former is an institution, a set of rules, and it restricts individual liberty by seeking to make men part of a collective whole and there fore anonymous. Under war, man marches ",..disciplinadamente, obedeciendo a la voz de un loco," that of el cabo Goban or that of the war machine. For example, war dictates, to an extent, man's form of existence. It submits him to an absurd regimen of meaningless behavior and seeks to make him an object that must obey the commands of a superior as revealed in the words of Pedro,
El campamento. La instruccion. Seis, siete horas marchando bajo el sol, cuando el sargento no tiene compasion de tlT, iunlidos.Yunhdos.1, y tu s£lo pides tumbarte boca arriba como una bestia reventada. Pero no hay piedad. Izquierda, derecha, desplegarse,iun! |dos!1 Paso ligero, mnjf&os/funifdos! Lo peor es eso. Largas marchas sin sentido. Caminos que no van a ninguna parte.^3
War creates a medium in which individuality is sacrificed for conformity and where humanity is replaced by oppression and restriction, for war seeks to make man a useful object, at times, an emotionless machine whose own will is replaced by that of "those in command". In addition, it attempts to impose on him a morality contrary to that taught by his society, and religion, hence, he is often a victim of contradiction, punished for killing in "peacetime
23Ibid., p. 20. and punished for not killing in war. Luis appears as a victim of this contradiction,
A m C no me importa decir por que* me trajeron a esta escuadra. Me negue" a formar en un piquete de ejecucion. Eso es todo. Yo no sirvo para matar a 24 sangre frfa. Lo llama "insubordinacidft" o no se' que*.
Still another aspect of war's grip on man is revealed, for it seeks to mould his emotions, from love and humanitarianbehavior to hate: it conditions him to form a priori concepts, to regard even those he has never seen as enemies. This is revealed in the conversation between Adolfo and Pedro,
Adolfo.--Odias a esa gente,dno?, al enemigo...al misterioso enemigo. Almas orientales...Refinados y crueles. £Los odias?
Pedro.— Con toda mi alma. 25
In a war situation, man is not free to live according to his desires, and neither is he free in death, for he cannot choose a form of death and he dies not as an individual, as a free being, rather as a part of the general category of soldier. Thus, when he dons the uniform, in a sense, he becomes everybody and nobody, for he is a "soldier", similar to the others. Goban illustrates this as he seeks to negate the individual identity of the other five by having them don the same uniform he wears, "Este es mi verdadero traje y vuestro 'verdadero traje,' ya para siempre. El
24Ibid., p. 18.
2^Ibid., p. 11. 42 traje con el que vais a morir." Hence, death, which is usually regarded as a time of liberation becomes submission to anonymity.
The artistic and experiential planes in Escuadra hacia la muerte reveal that individual liberty is restricted by the two culprits of war and tyranny. However, modern theater is like a trial, for it presents evidence and we, the spectators, are to draw a verdict. New relationships and additional information are communicated to the spectator by means of choric commentary, which, rather than being a disrruptive device, is an integral part of the action. This information seems to concern primarily the need to-discover the causes and solutions related to the situations, the crimes against liberty that are presented, and to determine those responsible for such situations. For example, new relation ships are brought to light as a result of additional clues in the characters' conversations, relationships that, in fact, seem to contradict what is being shown. For this reason Sastre's theater has been characterized thus,
Es teatro que desde la primera escena quiere decir claramente una cosa...y luego resulta que ademas, quiere decir otra. Dirfase teatro con clave y contraclave, teatro que requiere cierto linaje de perspicacia policiaca en el espectador.^7
Two new contradictory relationships are revealed; one presents the individual as responsible for his particular situation and
^ Ibid., p. 13. 0 V -. F. Garcfa Pavon, El teatro social en Espana (Madrid: Editorial Taurus, 1962), p. 174. 43 that of the others; the other views the individual as responsible for the general situation of war. Hence, another attitude toward war is presented.
The unbearable situation of which all six, in reality are victims, provokes a verbal confrontation of individuals. The remarks that ensue reveal that each is partly responsible for his particular situation of isolation and imprisonment. Five had committed social crimes for which they are being punished. Pedro mistreated prisoners; Goban and Adolfo were murderers; Andres had robbed, and .
Javier was guilty of neglect. The significance of their acts is, in part, revealed by their present physical situation of isolation, for each had acted with the attitude and belief that there was no relationship between himself and other, his acts and society. For example, Javier comes to realize this when he says,
A la hora del resumen me extrana el infame egofsmo que me hizo pensar en sobrevivir cuando estalld*la guerra. Si esta lucha es, como creo, un conflicto infame, yo tarn- bien lo he sido tratando de evadirme, aferrandome grotescamente a la vida, como si yo fuera el unico digno de vivir...2®
Andres also had failed to assume any responsibility for his act or recognize his guilt because the sargent he murdered was to him a tyrant rather than a man. Hence, in a sense, Andre's viewed him as an object,
Me emborrache”en la cantina y volvf” a la compa'ni'a despues de silencio. El idiota del sargento me provoco** y le metf* una punalada sin sentirlo. Yo no tuve la culpa.29
2®Sastre, Escuadra, p. 27.
29Ibid., p. 31. 44
By r.he same token, Adolfo could not recognize that he personally had any connection with the men from whom he had robbed,
No soy un buen companero...ni me importa.. .Deje'*a la unidad sin pan y me quede** tan tranquilo.. .Le di salida a la harina. ®
It becomes apparent then that each is responsible for his
own isolation and punishment, and the connection between the social crime and the personal situation is established. Each had failed
to see any connection between himself and others, between his acts and the consequences for others. In reality, each is guilty of
tyranny and lack of compassion for others, and the individual act is related to the social situation and made social again by
the recognition that each is responsible for the particular
situation of others as well. This is also illustrated when Pedro accuses Andres, "Tu* eres uno de los responsables de que estemos
( j 1 aquf", tu...con tus negocios". In this manner, by means of the characters, the spectator is led toward a realization that man plays a part in a whole, and what he does has consequences for that whole.
This aspect of Escuadra hacia la muerte is similar to the action of Miller's All My Sons in which,
The action of the play is that the social crime is made personal (by the fact of the death of Keller's own pilot son), and from this realization made socialagain, in a new understanding of what society is.^
30lbid., p. 36.
^Ibid., p. 36. 32 Raymond Williams, Modern Tragedy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966), p. 103. 45
As a result of the conversation, still other connections are shown. The dramatist sheds light on the universal situation of man and war by viewing individual behavior in relation to the
total process. As a result, man is presented as an agent who creates and maintains war by what he does or fails to do.
For example, war is made by those who possess a general disregard for men. This type is suggested by Pedro for he remarks,
"Entre* en la guerra para matar. No me importa nada una idea ni 33 ^ otra...Matar..." In a sense, Goban and Pedro are similar; both were and are soldiers; both enjoyed mistreatment of others. How ever, these qualities are accentuated and developed in Goban, from
tyrant to hero, for Goban is heroic in the sense of power and
strength. In effect, war is often created and maintained by heroes, for the purpose of greatness and power, "la folie des
grandeurd '.^ Goban represents this type for he enjoys war as re
vealed by Adolfo,
Ya se* que* clase de tipo es usted. Usted es de los que creen que la guerra es hermosa...^5
The commander sees war as an expression of strength, power,
courage, and the expression of manhood, for it seems to him that
the soldier is the only real man,
Este es el traje de los hombres; un uniforme de soldado. Los hombres hemos vestido siempre asf*, asperas camisas y ropas que dan frxo en el invierno y calor en el verano,..Correajes...El fusil al hombro..,Lo demds son ropas afeminadas.. ., la verguenza de la especie.^
■^Sastre, Escuadra, p. 34.
^Oreste F. Pucciani, "Les Sequestres d'Altona," in Sartre: A Collection of Critical Essays, (Englewood Cliffs, 1962), p. 102. 35 36 Sastre, Escuadra, p. 14. Ibid., p. 13-14. 46
Hence, one can see the connection between Goban's attitudes, other
men (society), the universal situation, and history, for tyranny
spreads into personal relationships and teaches tyranny, and out
of this process, although it often seems sudden, springs war, the
product of the heroes, for it was attitudes like those of Goban
that created Hitler, the Second World War, the black moments of
history. All of this is adequately suggested in the following
conversation,
Andres.--En la guerra, a miT me parece que es muy dificil hacer amigos. Nos volvemos demadiado egofstas,Averdad? Solo pensamos en nosotros mismos, en salvar el pellejo, aunque sea a costa de los demas. Me refiero a la gente normal, quitando a los heroes,
Javier.--(Sonrfe) Eso debiamos hacer, quitar a los heroes y no habrxa guerras.^
With this information, Sastre suggests that man's tragic situation,
war, is due to circumstances, and he also suggests that if these
circumstances were to change, man's situation would also change.
Just as the others are in part responsible for the particular
situation, so they also play a part in the process of war. Adolfo
had exploited others for the sake of personal, material gain and,
in effect, wars are also created by men as enterprise. Pedro brings
this out when he reveals the social significance of Adolfo's robbery,
Pedro.--Toma. Emborra'chate. Eres de la raza de los que especulan con el hambre del pueblo, miserable. .^A que"*te dedicabas antes de estallar la guerra? INegocios! dices tu. dA que llamas negocios? Tu* eres uno de los responsables de que estemos aqur, tu...con tus negocios...
37Ibid., p. 21-22.
33Ibid., p. 36. 47
Still new relationships are brought out. War can be a process of liberation arising out of recognition of one's condition
of oppression, for, as men become more aware of their "limited"
situation, they become aware of the incompatibility of restriction and the desire to live, the pursuit of happiness. Man cannot exist
indefinitely in a condition of slavery or oppression as expressed by Adolfo,
Nos espia...Vigila hasta nuestros mas pequenos movimientos. Asi* no se puede vivir.. .Estoy har- to. Ouiero vivir en paz, hacer lo que me de" la
Under tyranny, men will join forces and seek to overthrow the
tyrant; this occurs in Escuadra hacia la muerte. In effect,
denunciation of the situation and inability to live under the
tyranny of el oabo Goban is given expression in a plea for liberty,
in the brutal act of murder,
La escuadra de castigo habfa puesto en practica un acto total de liberacion y con el se acusaba la injusticia de la guerra, su absurdidad manifiesta y su incompatibilidad con el destino trascendente del hombre. ®
In effect, this one act of liberty is the concrete expression
of many concepts. The act reveals one solution, that an individual
or group to find liberty or dignity must rebel.^ Also, liberty
is not that which is uncaused, but rather something which results
from action. This act of liberty also serves as an act of justice,
39Ibid., p. 24.
^Perez Minik, Teatro, pp. 399-400. 41 Leonard C. Pronko, "The 'Revolutionary Theater' of Alfonso Sastre," Tulane Drama Review, V, (December, 1960), p. 113. 48 for it represents denunciation of a concrete criminal, the tyrant of war as reflected by el Cabo Goban. Still other relationships come to light, another parallel of the particular and the general, for Goban is an enemy, and men will unite before an enemy; in this case, war is not oppression but the means of liberation.
Javier had been guilty of neglect, of failing to aid his companion as he lay dying. Those who neglect their companions, their fellow citizens, and their fellow human beings are also responsible for wars. Indeed one connot simply be apathetic and leave everything up to the other person. One must realize that he plays a part in the world; he is responsible for maintaining constant vigilance, for being aware, lest he suddenly wake up and find himself a slave. Javier neglected to heed the danger signals, and one cannot help but draw another parallel between the suggestions of this play and history. Indeed, I think this is what
Sastre would have us do. There were many like Javier in Germany who failed to see in the rise of the Nazi Party the shadows of a coming war, or heed the warnings of other men,
No. No me daba cuenta. Yo estaba en la biblioteca. Allf no habfa tiempo. Las alarmas de los perioclicos me parecfan eso, periodismo. En el fondo, estaba convencido de que el mundo estaba solidamente or- ganizado, de que no iba a ocurrir nada y de que hab£a que luchar por la vida.^
^Sastre, Escuadra, p. 23. 4 9 In effect, Javier represents the intellectual who, in the pursuit of knowledge, created the illusion of an ordered world that could be predicted and calculated by laws and theories. By means of
Javier, Sastre criticizes the intellectual who isolates himself in a world of ideas, uninvolved in the immediate social-political reality, and in doing so, he suggests that it is the responsibility of the intellectual to actively participate in the shaping of social and political circumstances.
Andre's also must be pointed out as partly "responsible" for he suggests the individual who sees the danger signals, regards the future as inevitable, and thus paves the way for that inevitability,
Yo no tenfa esa impresion de solidez. A mif me parecfa que vivfamos en un mundo que podxa desvanecerse a cada instante. Me daba cuenta de que estabamos en un bar- co que se iba a pique.43
Hence, the relationships brought out in this work reveal
the structure of war and tyranny as forms of oppression created and maintained by man. Thus, the dramatist suggests a collective guilt for the situation, a collective responsibility for shaping our lives and our history. Indeed, this work illustrates that,
Ni la debilidad, ni el egofsmo, ni el destino ni la verdad, ni la polftica, ni la guerra son asunto "de los demas". Son siempre mi problema, y depende de mi en primer lugar el que haya guerra o que reine la bondad.
43Ibid., p. 23. 44 Borel, Teatro, p. 276. 50
Illustration and elaboration of the relationship between man, war, and liberty is viewed from other aspects in Sastre's work La mordaza. for his works seem to explain one anotherThe account of the Lurs episode, the brutal slaying of Sir Jack
Drummond and his family, and the description of the "medieval severity" with which the assassin ruled his family seemed to provide a photograph in which Sastre could discern inspiration for Ia mordaza. This document provided the motive; the rest is imagination,
Este drama esta* vagamente fundado en los sucesos de Lurs-- de los que dio**noticia la Frensa de todo el mundo--. El autor del drama no ha tratado de informarse detalladamente sobre este asunto ni sobre la personalidad y caracter de Gaston Dominici y su familia, pues su intencion no ha sido dramatizar escrupulosamente unos hechos. Lo de Lurs ha sido un simple "motivo" para este drama, cuyos personajes no pretenden ser el traslado de los personajes reales. Los hechos estan libremente fabulados por el autor, que no pretende dar informacitSn o noticia de unos sucesos cuya investigacion corresponde— o correspondio* a la Folicfa francesa, y concretamente al comisario M. Sabeille. La disposition y los motivos del crimen, asi* como la personalidad de las vfctimas, pertenecen al dominio de la invencion dramatica. La "realidad" de este drama hay que buscarla por otros caminos.
The basic situation in this work is that of a family beneath the tyrannical rule of its head Isaxas Krappo. Each of the members are restricted and oppressed, for IsaiTas supervises their movements to and from the house and their actions within the
^Alfonso Sastre, "Prefacio," Cuatro dramas de la revolucion (Madrid: Editorial Bullon, 1963), p. 14.
46Newsweek, XXXXII, N©i.3Q; (1953)/,. p ,47 . 47 Alfonso Sastre, "Introduction," La mordaza (Madrid: Ediciones Alfil, 1959). 51 house. As a result of his treatment, the characters exist in a
form of servitude. In effect, the situation of tyranny represents a synthesis of man and medium, for man, like the characters, is
subject to tyranny. This situation is communicated artistically by means of references to climate, either verbally or by sound
effects, and by the experiences of the characters. The references
to climate seem to have three primary functions, to suggest a medium in which the characters are oppressed and tormented by
hostile forces, introduce a point of view different than that
shown by the experiential plane, and underline or emphasize
certain aspects of the action.
The first cuadro is noticeably full of references to
the hot oppressive summer atmosphere. These references may be
interpreted on a metaphysical plane, for the relationship of
the heat to the characters, oppression, seems to aptly express
the relationship that exists within the family situation. The
dominance of Isaias, like the heat, stifles and torments the other
characters. In effect, the social climate of the characters is
given concrete expression by means of the physical climate. Hence,
it seems ironic that Isafas, the source of the immediate oppres
sion should so aptly describe it in physical terms, "Esta casa sigue
siendo un horno en el verano. No he conseguido nada rodeandola de
arboles".^-®
48Ibid., p. 17. 52
Periodic references to heat as fate are like a leit motif designed to constantly prod the spectator into a consideration of whether or not man is controlled and restricted by forces out side himself. The varied attitudes are revealed by the characters.
For example, Antonia regards climate as a fatalistic element which controls man against his will and even forces him to commit crimes.
She frequently explains behavior in these terms,
.. .es malo el verano. Es cuando se cometen los crjmienes. Cuando los hombres sacan las navajas por nada y corre la sangre. Todos los crfmenes ocurren en verano. La sangre de los hombres arde y no pueden pensar. El calor los ciega y no les importa matar a un hombre. Luego, en el invierno, cuando piensan en lo que hicieron, no lo comprenden. No se explican como pudieron hacerlo. Y es que ellos no tuvieron la culpa...Fue el calor que los ahogaba, que no los dejaba respirar.
Climate, in the form of a storm, represents for Teo the wrath of
God, an outside authority which determines man's existence and punishes him as well. For Isafas, the storm represents a source of relief, for he recognizes no outside authority and considers himself completely free.
Hence, the artistic plane communicates concepts and comments on the theme in a large vivid manner so that the spectator's attention may be directed accordingly.
However, it is the experiential plane that brings to light the dialectical relationship between man and the forces of oppression.
In this work, Sastre investigates tyranny and its relationship to man,
49Ibid., p. 17. 53 society, and other processes. Tyranny may be that of an institution
like war, that of social injustice, or that of an individual like
Isaias. In effect, the family situation provides a good means to view the problem,for the family is a social group, and its members provide a variety of attitudes, reactions, and possibilities
for drawing general conclusions.
Isaias seems to be, in part, a development of Goban, for he is egotistical and overbearing. However, Isaias1 tyranny is not so much the result of extravagant hopes or heroic aspirations, rather, Isaias1 behavior and treatment of others is the symptom of his attitude toward life.
To understand Isaias1 tyranny as it is revealed in the
experiences, one must first consider the comments of Luisa and
Juan, for they explain the action. In this sense the comments
are choric. For example, Luisa and Juan both condense the raison
d'etre of Isaias,
Luisa.--Ha creido en la vida. Todo el carino que los demas repartimos entre la vida y muestras creencias..., o nuestras supersticiones..., el lo ha puesto en la vida. No cuenta con otra cosa para vivir..., solo con la vida.
Juan.--A mi padre la vida le es suficiente...para vivir ...Nosotros necesitamos de otras cosas que estan mas alia..., de los misterios del catecismo..., de creer en cosas que no vemos...Porque, sino, la vida serfa para nosotros demasiado amarga...Pero mi padre es tan fuerte que no necesita de nada...Cuando se muera, no habra nada en el mundo que el no haya hecho..., ni un solo placer que no conozca, ni una emocion, ni una verguenza...El habra'pasado por todo...Lo habra* gozado y sufrido todo...-^
50 J Ibid., p. 53. 54
The experiences in mordaza provide testimony of the consequences for a man like Isaias, for whom life has no meaning outside itself and who must exist in a society of other men. The outward expression of Isaias1 sense of life is that of tyranny, for one cannot live only for life in a world where he must deal with individuals, groups, and institutions. Isaias1 life may be viewed in terms of the struggle to dominate life, for all of his existence is presented in terms of struggle, his past, present, and final moments. In effect, Isaias confirms this idea when he tells the Comisario, "A mC siempre me ha divertido luchar. Nunca me he dado por vencido,"-^ and the struggle for life is imagined in its climax in the description of Isaias1 death, for the end of the fierce humping life-struggle is consummated at last in relapse,
Trato'de escapar. Daba gritos por las noches en la celda. No podia estar encerrado alii*. Me han dicho que daba miedo escucharle. Se escapo'*’y empezo^a dar gritos como un loco. Se pusieron a disparar contra el. Ya le habian alcanzado y aun seguia corriendo. Le dispararon m£s y cayo al suelo. Todavia se levanto't Le cos to trabajo morir.52
Indeed, the struggle to dominate life has parallels in the relationship with others, for one form of outward expression is tyranny, and this is presented in the relationship of Isaias and his family. He is presented as a dominant God-like figure intent
Sllbid., p. 66.
52Ibid., p. 75. 55 upon the oppression of the members of the family. For example, there is a decisive restriction of movement and restriction of choice, for Isafas has set down a series of commandments, and those who transgress must confront the rage of the venerate Isaias. Indeed, this is revealed in the father's reaction to Teo's late arrival,
Me repugna que todavia trates de disculparlo. Lo que hace con nosotros no tiene perdon. Estabamos aqui* todos reunidos a la mesa. Es un desprecio que hace a la familia......
Sabes la importancia que tiene para nosotros esto... Lo sabes porque esa es la educacion que te he dado ...Pero tu, a esa hora, a esa hora que es sagrada para nosotros, estabas en la taberna emborrachandote..
At times, Isaias* desire for domination manifests itself
through a form of physical torment. With Juan, he attempts to provoke physical conflict so that he may derive the satisfaction
of subduing him. Sexual domination is also implied, for Isaias
frequently tries to make love to Luisa. In effect, Isaias'
struggle to dominate the family reflects his general feeling toward
life in this sense,
Hay que ser duros y fuertes. Saber castigar y saber soportar un castigo. Ese es el modo de salir adelante en la vida.^4-
Isa£as' treatment of others reflects the struggle to
dominate and perpetuate domination. For example, Isafas
perpetuates his control by means of the encouragement of certain
■^Ibid., pp. 8 and 14.
54Ibid., p. 45. 56 attitudes and feelings on the part of the individuals. He tries to instill a sense of loyalty so that any act of opposition would be regarded as disloyalty. Hence when Juan tries to question his father's accusations, he is made to feel disloyal,
Un hijo mio no tiene de que*avergonzarse. Si te hablo de esto es para que no te olvides nunca de lo que en esta casa se ha hecho por tf..., de que a fuerza de sacrificios y de preocupaciones hemos conseguido sacarte adelante y hacer de tf* un hombre del que no se ria la gente en el pueblo...Es que...results muy doloroso ver que os olvidais de todo lo que se ha hecho por vosotros...
The effectiveness of this indoctrination is revealed after
the murder of the stranger, for Juan cannot denounce his father out of fear and loyalty,
Yo no hablo porque tengo piedad de mi padre, porque me da lastima de el, porque no puedo olvidar que es mi padre...Estoy amordazado por mi compasion...
Isaias also controls through fear which he nourishes by a periodic show of physical strength explained thus, "He tenido que hacer lo para que ellos no sientan en mf ninguna debilidad,""*7
Or, Isaias makes threats against the characters' lives.
Isaias* attitude toward life is also reflected in, and,
in part, determines his attitude toward others. That is, to dominate
life one must be strong, powerful, strongwilled, and self-sufficient.
Hence, these qualities are most important for Isaias, and he uses
-*-*Ibid.} p . 9.
56Ibid., p. 55.
57Ibid., p. 15. 57 them as criteria for judging others. That is, for Isaias, humanity seems to divide itself into two species. They are the strong who struggle for life and are consequently regarded as men. The weak are those who do not struggle, and they are cowards. Isaias seems to deal with each member of the family in terms of this attitude.
Juan is humilliated and treated more as an animal than a man, for he cannot dominate his wife or struggle with his father. This is revealed in Isaias1 remarks to Luisa, "Si Juan fuera un hombre,
CO no hablarias como hablas, Luisa" and to Juan,
Tu eres un muchacho de muy poco talento, Juan. De pequefio llegaste a preocuparnos a tu madre y a mi'. Eras como un animalillo torpe.^
Antonia is reduced to servitude and ignored by Isaias, for she represents a lack of vitality. Almost symbolically, she remains in the shadows away from the life-giving-sun, in fear of the vital Isaias for whom she has no value. Hence, Isaias views his wife with disgust, as a useless object,
Me gusta que suenes...No puedes hacer otra cosa ya..., y hay que disculparte esas pequenas debilidades...
y tu xnisma deberias ayudarme a educar a los hijos..., si todavia sirvieras para algo...Pero no puedo contar contigo para nada...desde hacetiempo... ^
Teo is also treated with little or no respect, for he lacks a strong will, and to Isaias, this is intolerable,
58Ibid., p. 8.
^Ibid., p. 9.
60Ibid., p. 10. 58
|Eso es lo malo! Que no queria ofendernos. |Eso es lo maloj Que haceis las peores cosas sin querer. SI lo que hubieras querido es ofendernos y lo hubieras he cho por fastidiarnos, para que no dieramos cuenta de tu desprecio, serfa otra cosa...Esto serfa una lucha y no una reprimenda paternal. Sabriamos a que**atener- nos...Me da asco que se^fis asi\61
In effect, Isaias also deals with problems in view of this same attitude, for in this quotation one notices that Isaias does not know how to handle "reprimands". If the problem were a matter of struggle, then the solution would be apparent, domination. The experiences with the Comisario offer another example of how Isaias' sense of life is reflected in his treatment of problems. That is, the investigation constitutes a contest and for that reason
Isaias could plan his strategy. Indeed, struggle was and is same- thing which Isaias understands and enjoys,
Esta era una partida que me divertia jugar porque era una partida dificil. Y, ademas, durante este tiempo de lucha, he gozado terriblemente de la vida. He vivido dia a dia como si cada moraento fuera a ser el / fiO ultimo. Ha sido maravilloso. ^
The only ones whom Isaias treats with some respect are those who struggle, the Comisario, Luisa, for her vitality which provides a challenge, and Jandro because "...tiene lo que a otros to les falta. Tiene voluntad". Apart from them, the rest of humanity seems thus,
61Ibid., p. 14.
^ I b i d ., p. 66. ^Ibid. t p. 12. 59
Es un poco triste mi situacion rodeado de todos vosotros, debiles y enfermos. El mas viejo tiene aun que daros lecciones de fuerza y de coraje... Una pandilla de inservibles, eso es lo que le ha tocado en suerte al viejo Isaias Krappo para con- suelo de sus ultimos anos... 4
Hence, tyranny and its aspects of brutality and inhumanity are seen as symptoms of man's attitudes. Indeed, excessive love of life, a desire for domination, unbridled vigor can only lead to violence, torture, and violation of the freedom of others and to the destruction of relationships. The experiences of La mordaza reveal that Isaias, in pursuit of his own life without due regard for the happiness of others, by necessity violates the freedom of others.
Tyranny submits millions of people to bondage in multiple forms in our world today. There is the tyranny of war, the tyranny of enterprise in which man must work long hours for little pay and without spiritual incentive, the tyranny of society which submits some men to a base existence in squalid conditions, or political tyranny. Each-.of these is in some way reflected in
Isaias, in his egotism and his attempt to dominate by blinding man to his true condition. Where Isaias instills a feeling of loyalty, others indoctrinate with a "myth of happiness" or a "myth of progress". Still other forms of tyranny, like Isaias, rule through fear.
64Ibid., p. 11. 60
Tyranny leads to the destruction of freedom and to the destruction of relationships. This is revealed in la mordaza in several ways. For example, instead of the existence of love and companionship between Isaias and Teo, there is only hate. This was brought about by Isaias1 refusal to treat Teo as a man and his prevention of any possibility for Teo to prove his manhood, for he had been late in coming home for just this reason,
Teo.--Y yo me he quedado con ellos para que vieran...
Isaias.--Para que vieran Teo.--Para que vieran que yo soy un hombre...^ Hence, Isaias' intolerance of Teo's weakness destroyed possibilities for a normal relationship between father and son, and they had, in reality, become enemies, Vas a escucharme. Te odio. Eso es lo que queria decirte. Pero no te odio desde ahora. Te odio desde antes de que mataras a ese pobre hombre. Mi odio no tiene nada que vercon tu crimen.^ However, not only did Isaias* tyranny lead to the destruction of primary relationships, for tyranny is like a disease which spreads, but also to relationships involving persons outside the family. Indeed, this desire to dominate life, unbridled by a concern for consequences, also engulfed the girl with whom Teo was in love, 65lbid., p. 14. 66Ibid., p. 50 61 No he podido olvidar lo que me hizo cuando yo queria a Julia...Me puso en ridiculo delante de ella. Se divirtid' conmigo. Cuando qulse replicarle, me pego'l.. No me atrevf a verla nunca mas. Me trato^muy cruelmente, recreandose en torturame... Hence, Isaias' sense of life is reflected in behavior which results in oppression of others. There is still another aspect of tyranny as represented by Isaias. His attitude toward life as a goal, with no meaning outside itself, embodiedIsaias with a powerful belief in his own omnipotence. Indeed, he feared nothing except restriction of his own liberty. Isaias recognized no out side authority, social or divine, hence, he mocked Antonia's reliance on religion, Los que luchamos por el pais durante la ocupacion, los que fuimos capaces de ametrallar a los soldados extranjeros y a los traidores que los protegian, no nos ocupabamos por tu Senor Jesucristo. Tenfamos otras cosas en que*'pensar.68 This concept of oneself as powerful, unrestricted, and beyond the bounds of authority is one of the most dangerous threats to the liberty of others, for man, as did Isaias, comes to regard himself as a "sequestre", that is, he does not see any relationship between himself and others. Hence, he behaves as though his acts were solitary elements in a vacuum. The consequences of this attitude are revealed in the confrontation of Isaias and the stranger. The latter represented a threat to life, and Isaias killed out of 67Ibid., p. 40 68Ibid., p. 13. 62 an impulse conditioned by a desire for survival and liberty from the threat of death, without consideration of moral consequences. Isafas could murder and feel no remorse, for to him, this act was not a crime, merely an act of self-defense, hence justifiable. When Teo attempts to suggest guilt or punishment, Isaias merely responds with anger, Isajfas.--No digas tonterjfas. dQuien nos va a castigar? - « ^ Teo.(Estremecido.)— No hable asi, padre. dQue quien nos va a castigar? Dios. Dios existe. ANo lo esta' viendo? No hay que blasfemar, padre. No hay que blasfemar. Isaias.(Se levanta. Enfurecido.)- Therefore, the experiential plane of La mordaza reveals that tyranny as a form of oppression is the outward expression of man's attitudes, and, as revealed in family relationships, results in restriction of freedom, brutality, and suffering. The possibilities for liberty in this type of situation are suggested by the actions and dialogues of the oppressed. The murder of the stranger served as a catalyst to tighten the circle of the Krappo family. Bound closer together, they unite in secret to discuss the possibilities of action. Only two alternatives seem possible, that of indefinite bondage or a sort of living death as suggested by Lufsa, 69Ibid., p. 49. Hay silencio en la casa. Parece como si no ocurriera nada por dentro, como si todos estuvieramos tranquilos y fudramos felices. Esta es una casa sin disgustos, sin voces de desesperacion, sin gritos de angustia o de furia...Entonces, des que no ocurre nada? £Nada? Pero nosotros palidecemos dfa a dia..., estamos tristes cada dia..., tranquilos y tristes..., porque no podemos vivir.70 This maintenance of the status quo cannot lead to change or freedom from oppression. The only means to liberty seems to be a form of direct action against the source of tyranny, denunciation of Isafas, Esta mordaza nos ahoga y algun dfa va a ser preciso hablar, gritar..., si es que ese dfa nos quedan fuerzas...Y ese dfa va a ser un dfa de ira y de sangre,71- In effect, Lufsa makes a plea for liberty by breaking through the muzzle of silence and revealing the identity of Isaias as the asassin. This act of liberty has a double significance. It serves as a denunciation of tyranny and illustrates "la Infidelidad 72 de una sociedad amordazada". At the same time, the act represents the accusation of Isafas as guilty of tyranny and crimes against man's liberty. However, choric commentary reveals other relationships, those of collective responsibility for the situation. In effect, the secret conversations between Lufsa, Juan, and Teo serve to re veal a reality beneath that shown by the behavior of Isafas with 7QIbid., p. 56. 71Ibid., p. 56. 72 Alfonso Sastre, "El teatro de Alfonso Sastre visto por Alfonso Sastre," Primer Acto, No. 5 (November-December, 1957), 7. 64 I his family, a reality that makes Isafas1 behavior possible. The existence of tyranny is not only the responsibility of Isafas or of a few men, rather, it is created and maintained by men, by the other members of the family or of a society. For example, regarding the family as a collective concept of society, one may conclude that society perpetuates tyranny by means of attitudes. The moral heritage of the Krappo family is that of the extreme existential attitude of Isafas and a form of Christian acceptance exemplified by Antonia. Both by necessity justify and perpetuate tyranny, for the first lacks humanism, and the second accepts the situation as inevitable. Isafas1 attitude is reflected in Jandro, for he seems to echo the "eye for an eye and tooth for a tooth" philosophy of his father when he expresses his attitude toward the "criminal", ...deberxan colgarlo en la plaza del pueblo para dar ejemplo y que nadie se atreviera ya a hacer un crimen como e"ste,73 Like his father, Jandro is "justiciero" but "poco misericordioso", and one somehow senses that with this attitude of struggle rather than brotherhood with men, tyranny will continue to thrive perhaps in Jandro. The second attitude presupposes that the situation is inevitable, hence, unchangeable. Thus, man has no alternative but to accept tyranny, to allow its continuation, and suffer as does Antonia, 73 Sastre, Ia mordaza, p. 43. 65 Yo pienso que hay que ser...tiernos..., mansos y humildes de corazoh...No creo que en este ntundo se pueda ser muy feliz.74 Antonia's acceptance of a fate beyond man's control is inherited by Juan, for he accepts and justifies his father's behavior, Hac^a calor— mi madre siempre lo dice: que los dies de calor son malos...--y mi padre estaba nervioso.75 Associated to an attitude of pessimism is the feeling of fear, and each of the characters is incapacitated by fear. The corollary of fear is impotence, and this is illustrated by Teo, ...nada mas verlo, estoy temblando como una mujer. Porque se que si il se enterara de que lo habxa delatado y pudiera tenerme un solo momento a su alcance, me estrangularfa. Tengo mucho miedo a nuestro padre... Hence, Teo, and the others who are incapacitated by fear and who merely obey, give silent consent to Isaias' tyranny. Hence, one becomes aware that although tyranny exists, it is the decision of each member of society as to whether it shall or shall not continue. Additional information for ah investigation of the theme of liberty is intertwined with that necessary for illumination of the relationship between tyranny and society, for there is a series of references to war. In effect, what comes to light as a 74Ibid., p. 45. 75Ibid., p. 37. 76Ibid., p. 40-41. 66 result of these references is the relationship between war and tyranny. For example, outsiders--the stranger and the inspector— supplement the comments by Isafas about his wartime activities, information heretofore known only outside the Krappo house. From the account of numerous acts of brutality, it becomes apparent that war perpetuates tyranny by providing a medium in which it can thrive. For example, war provides the opportunities for struggle and domination, those aspects of existence which Isafas so enjoys, for war was and is enjoyable to Isafas, "Aquellos fueron unos buenos dfas que ninguno podremos olvidar".77 Tyranny in wartime as well as peacetime is a symptom of man's attitudes, for there is a striking similarity between Isafas1 wartime behavior and family behavior. Both are symptoms of his sense of life. However, the accounts of his war atrocities, like those related by the stranger,7** show an excessive abuse of power and mistreatment of others. Indeed, the abuse of power and tyranny can easily flourish in war when certain urgencies become set above man, for war sanctions the justification of violence for the sake of liberty, and as Isafas justifies his behavior as the means to dominate life, so he justified his war atrocities as the means to liberty, 7 7 Ibid., p. 17. 78Ibid., p. 21 67 AQue’ mas te han dicho? Que durante la guerra fuf cruel y que hicimos barbaridades en los pueblos de la comarca... Que asaltamos trenes y pusimos bombas...Que matamos a mucha gente...^Y qui£n te ha dicho eso? Algun cobarde que estaba en su casa mientras ocurrlan todas estas cosas..., mientras los demas luchabamos por su libertad y por la dignidad que el no tenfa.^9 Thus, tyranny is seen as a part of the same process of liberation. As a result of this relationship between war and tyranny, new connections come to light, the relationship of war and tyranny to society. War, with its justification of torture and its a priori attitudes sanctions feelings and shapes the ideas of man. Hence, he carries with him into society and into relationships with others, the teachings of history. Isaias serves as an example of one conditioned by war, for the feelings taught by war are reflected in his attitude toward others. For example, Isa£as arbitrarily divides those outside his family into two groups, those who fought for liberty and those who didn't. The former are viewed as strong and men, the latter are designated as cowards, "...una raza de reptiles blandos y pegajosos, una raza de cobardes.,l8® In addition, Isaias views the stranger in terms of attitudes taught by war, for he feels justified in his act of murder because the stranger had been a collaborator, an "enemy". Hence his murder could be justified as part of the process of liberation. Viewed thus, in its collective connotations, war sanctions ?9lbid.t p. 16. 80Ibid., p. 17. 68 feelings and perpetuates attitudes which in turn spread into society forming a code of morals, a conduct that had been designated as heroic. However, with the coming of peace, new attitudes are formed and history is reassessed. The result is a society of contradictions, of ambiguous morals. The relationship between man and an ambiguous society is investigated by means of a "criminal" investigation. In effect, the double standards of society seem to be represented by the Inspector, for he represents the combination of attitudes and contradictions. Now an Inspector, he had once fought side by side with Isaias. The conversation between the two serves to enlighten the spectator about the relationship between man, shaped by history, and society, for the latter is seen to be another form of oppression. Society, its justice, becomes a form of fatality or controlling power for it arbitrarily defines the role of man. This is revealed when the Inspector explains how the stranger had been redefined, Habia pasado por la carcel. Habia sido torturado. Tenia derecho a volver a vivir entre las gentes honradas Also, Isafas is arbitrarily redefined from hero to assassin against his will and condemned for past crimes, for the Inspector explains, "No lo mataste cuando el era un a s e s i n o " . ^ What has occurred then is a series of reversals, from hero 8-^Ibid., p. 68. 82Ibid., p. 68. 69 to victim, from acts of liberation to crimes. Hence, Isafas comes to the realization that he is not a "s^questre", rather he is rooted into the epoch and subject to its contradictions, Que si a ese hombre lo hubiera matado hace cuatro anos, tu te hubieras puesto muy contento. Y que yo, por lo mismo que ahora soy un criminal, entonces hubiera sido un heroe...(jNo te hace gracia? Uno es un heroe o un criminal, segun las circunstancias, aunque el muerto sea el mismo...83 As a result of he relationships investigated in La mordaza, the spectator becomes aware of the mechanics of tyranny— attitudes— and its effects on society. However, by exposing the spectator to the process of tyranny and its moving relations with war, men, society, and justice, we come to the recognition that each of these forms of restriction are not transcendent and hence, negotiable. In addition, by seeing Isaias as changing in relation to society, war, and history, one becomes aware that man is indeed connected to his world, his society, and his universe. War as a form of oppression is investigated in Ana Kleiber. The basic situation in this work is that of an imaginary love affair viewed within the actualization of history. The basic situation is communicated artistically and reveals that the characters are condemned to an existence of chaos and insecurity. This sensation is communicated by the arrangement of scenes and special lighting effects. For example, the dramatist creates the sensation of a 83Ibid., p. 67. disrrupted world, an almost unreal world by the deliberate chaotic arrangement of episodes which appear as a composite of illuminated moments in space, without apparent order or logic, at times repetitious.®^ This presentation of scenes and chance appearance and disappearance of characters suggests an absurd world where characters are carried along as though by a giant force, "Des personnages apparaissant et disapparaissant sans bruit, sans porte, comme dans le souvenir .®-* In addition, the characters seem trapped and restricted, drawn by a mysterious fatality, for they are often presented as though confined in tunnels created by the effect of spotlights which capture and illuminate them at will, Sinistrement actualisee, une fajon de fatalite qui p&se sur les personnages. Les ddcors tubulaires et lineaires ajoutent aux angoisses qui naissent a l'evocation d'un monde devore par ses heroes et ses mythes.®® The world of war in which the characters exist is an inferno of anguish and gloom. In effect, the characters frequently refer to their surroundings as an "infierno" from which there is no escape. It weighs upon the two, Alfredo and Ana, like a strange form of fatalism, a "demonio" dragging Ana against her will, "...El demonio de que te hablo me hace volver a la porquerxa"®7 It is a world antagonistic to those who try to build a stable and ®^The arrival of Ana Kleiber, as presented in the first act, is repeated in the third act. 85 Yves Lorelle, "Le Miller Espagnol: Alfonso Sastre," Combat, April 22, 1961, p. 9. 86 Jean Paget, "Irkoutsk, la kabbale et autres mystiques," Combat, May 2, 1961, p. 8, 87Alfonso Sastre, Ana Kleiber (Madrid: Ediciones Alfil, 1967) 71 happy life,for Alfredo says, 'Tasaremos el miedo juntos, cogidos de la mano, en este mundo sombrio y amenazador..,"88 Anguish and gloom are also communicated by means of weather, for the spectator is made constantly aware of the existence of rain as though it were the materialization of gooom in a world on the doorstep of war. In effect, Ana Kleiber seems to be the development of a statement made in one of Sastre's earliest plays, Cargamento de suenos, "El infierno es...largas tardes de lluvia, Q Q y a veces no saber a donde ir..." for the former reveals how war, by its creation of insecurity and an absurd existence, results in a society of individuals seeking some stability, purpose, or mean ing for existence. By means of experiences the dramatist sheds light on the relationship of man and war. This collective relationship is suggested by means of personal relationships, for the experiences of Ana and Alfredo suffering, and, in part, destroyed in their relationship seem to reflect the collective situation of men destroying and being destroyed by war. The parallel between the experiences shown and the collective is suggested by Alfredo, Durante estos ultimos aftos, ha habido muchas historias parecidas a la nuestra...las historias de amor... un hombre y una mujer que se encuentran un dxa...que que tratan de comprenderse...que se hacen sufrir... que se separan con angustia...que hasta piensan en 88Ibid., p. 33. O Q Alfonso Sastre, Cargamento de sueflos. in Primer Acto. No. 3 (1964), p. 156. 72 matarse...que se reencuentran...que llegan a ser felices o agotan todas las posibllidades de sufrimiento y aun llegan msfs allat^O One may say that the relationship of Ana and Alfredo could not and did not succeed, that it was indeed impossible because of the circumstances in which they found themselves. Happiness was impossible because each was infected with the attitudes and feelings of a world in the process of war, C'est que, pas plus que leur amour, reel, brdlant, ils ne sont l'un et 1 'autre a 1'hauteur des sit uations ou ils se trouvent. Que la mort vienne frapper Anna au moment ou elle croft le bonheur possible, c'est la seule solution, car le bon heur ne l' War is presented by means of historical references. These references are an integral part of dialogue and experience, and they appear at progressive intervals in the form of a character, the fanatic prompter, as a date, "Era el oto?fo de 1939,"^ as an event, "Ha empezado el ataque a Polonia,"^ as a song "Lilf Marleem" or as the birth of a hero" as noted by Alfredo,"Hitler empezaba a ser popular".^ Unlike La mordaza or Escuadra hacia la muerte which present selected aspects of war, this work presents the latter as a process, 90 Sastre, Ana Kleiber, p. 55. ^Marcelle Capron, "Ana Kleiber," Combat, April 26, 1961, 9. 92 Sastre, Ana Kleiber, p. 54. 93Ibid., p. 55. 9^Ibid., p. 36. 73 a disorder, and as the living actions o£ real men. Sastre presents this process by reminding us of how a holocaust grew step by step from the aspirations to liberate Germany from economic crisis to the rise of Hitler and the Nazi party. The episode of Alfredo and the prompter dramatizes and emphasizes particular aspects of this process, for the prompter reveals how men, dedicated at first to humanistic ideals lost sight of these for the sake of Power. Indeed, the extravagant hopes and hatred of men spread to others engulfing a nation in their web as the prompter drew Alfredo into his, Hasta hacernos con el Poder, fy entonces pueden teniblar esos malditos judfos que nos odian! Usted vendra conmigo. No tiene nada que temer. Ya somos fuertes.9-* Many like Alfredo were drawn into an ideology they either did not understand or agree with for, "son los dxas". That is, one of the dangers of war is that, like Alfredo, we cannot see it happening, for the times appear as mere politics until, and it appears as a sudden event, war breaks out. Then it spreads like a disease until it reaches epidemic proportions, and then, it runs rampant, devouring the innocent and the guilty. War, arising out of a process of liberation becomes a process of oppression as Alfredo suggests, "Ha empezado el ataque a PoIonia. Esto ya no puede parar."9^ 95Ibid.» p. 42. 96Ibid., p. 55. 74 The dramatic presentation of war as history has several purposes. The spectator becomes aware that war is the total action of real men, and that man is an agent in the shaping of monumental history. In addition, the choice of recent history is significant, for the effects of the Second World War are still very much with us, and "...when the suffering is remembered, it is at once either honoured or justified."" There is also a learning process in the dramatization of war, for by viewing the disorder itself, the spectator gains an understanding of what it is, and perhaps may be able to recognize the danger signals in his own medium. Immersed in this process are Alfredo and Ana for whom war is a restriction and a devouring force, for war is not paid for only in political coin; it teaches ways of feeling, and in turn is taught by them, which find their way into the most personal experience.98 Hence, a disintegrating society extends its process into individual lives. "It is not something external, towards which an attitude would suffice, but is directly lived, go in the fibres of body and mind."” A positive relationship between Ana and Alfredo was virtually impossible because the circumstances simply were not conducive "williams, Tragedy. p. 64. 98Ibid., p. 131. " ibid., p. 145. 75 to the development of positive attitudes and the fulfillment of positive aspirations. An awareness of the crumbling social and economic structure produced varied negative responses among the German people, Millions of Germans in industry, commerce, and agriculture as well, saw the apparently solid framework of their existence cracking and crum bling. In such circumstances men are no longer amenable to the argument of reason. In such circumstances men entertain fantastic fears, extravagant hatreds, and extravagant hopes. Ana responded to an awareness of the situation with an attitude that all was inevitable, "Se sab fa que la guerra era inevitable." Ana felt herself to be completely alone in a terrifying world on an incessant march toward inevitable destruction and suffering. The only solution to her seemed to be escape, liberation from a hostile world. The consequences of this nihilistic attitude, the product of an absurd world, are misdirection, suffering, and the destruction of relationships, for nihilism produced a version of fate which pulled Ana toward evil and destruction. For example, although Ana aspired to normal relationships of marriage and motherhood, all of her efforts are directed toward suffering and self-destruction, Elle veut "toucher le fond," savoir "jusqu'ou elle pourra aller" se tuer de la facon la plus sordide. Et, contradictoirement, l 1ideal de cette comedienne ^^Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (New York, 1958), p. 65. "^^Sastre, Ana Kleiber, p. 55. 76 (car Anna est actrice, attachee a une compagnie) est un ideal de midinette: rendre un homme heureux, n'appartenir qu'a lui, avoir un enfant de lui...Nous avons tous connu des jeunes filles ainsi desaxees, fren^tiques, produit des grands bouleversements qu'amenent les conflits armes qui eussent peut-etre nourri, en d'autres temps des r&ves bourgeois et mene des vies sages.102 However, the consequences of this psychological desequilibrium do not affect only Ana, rather, they spread into her relationship with others. When Ana and Alfredo first met, she was on the verge of suicide, for, she explained, "Me encontraba muy sola". How ever, Ana follows Alfredo because he represents a possibility for love, hence liberation from anguish and the mysterious fate that compels her, Alfredo...Estoy bien contigo, Alfredo...Veo que voy a quererte mucho. Aqux* me encuentro segura, libre de todos los peligros...Te quiero..,No. No te vayas. No te vayas ya nunca. Te necesito. Sin ti, £hasta donde caerfa la pobre Ana?^^ However, liberation becomes oppression, and possibility becomes impossibility. The possibilities for love are gradually diminished and destroyed, for Ana views love in the sameway that she views life. Life in any form but the suffering of frustration and loss is impossible. Hence, by necessity, Ana causes Alfredo suffering. For example, she imposes physical separation, for the idea of love is then intensified by loss, 102(japron^ "Ana Kleiber," p. 9. l^Sastre, Ana Kleiber, p. 34. 77 Te esperaba. Desde que nos separaxnos no he hecho otra cosa que esperarte. Pero yo ere fa que no ibas a llegar nunca. No me importaba. Eso era lo de menos, que llegaras o no. Lo Importance es que yo estaba enamorada de t£, que te querfa tanto que ni siquiera me era preciso tenerte a mi lado para ser feliz.^04 For this same reason, Ana is extremely happy when war finally breaks out, for this will be a time of separation, hence suffering and loss, |EstOy contentaj Vamos a vivir intensamente, Alfredo. dSabes? Me encontraba como enmohecida, como vieja, como muerta, Alfredo...Ya no me sentfa vivir...Te veia tan seguro a mi lado, tan resguardado de todos los peligros, que ya casi no tenfas importancia.. ./Ser^f terrible que te vayasI /Sera*terrible que me quede sola I Oh, como amo este momento en que me vuelvo a sentir viva. Ana cannot achieve love with Alfredo, for love, like life involves escaping from, rather than aspiring to. In effect, true love is an ideal outside her "infierno" and she actually rejects any of Alfredo's offers for marriage, Alfredo.— Hablabas con desden de los matrimonios burgueses. Ana. --Si', a veces...Me quedaba triste y es que tenia nostalgia de otros momentos brillantes y terribles, en que yo habia resplandecido de colera o de deseo, en que yo habia sido cruel y tierna.^-0^ Ana is a being in agony, trapped in a circle of attitudes, and engaged in a struggle which is destructive. Her experiences are seen as destructive, for past relationships and present ones 104Ibid., p. 36. 105Ibid.. p. 56. 106 Ibid.. p. 54. 78 seem to combine into a macabre and cursing pattern. She actually moves farther away from love, for it only gains significance in proportion to the amount of suffering, frustration, and loss involved. Hence, the closer Ana moves toward evil, the farther from normal love, the more significant it becomes, 4Quieres saberlo? Para conservar y aumentar mi amor por ti necesitaba sentirme sucia, mancharme...para que tu" volvieras a aparecer en mi memoria como una maravilla que no me merecra, como algo adorable...107 In effect, Ana and Alfredo can only collide, and this type of association is inherently destructive. Even Ana's attempts to liberate Alfredo are destructive because they impose suffering and separation, Amor mio, adios. He llegado a quererte tanto que ya no puedo continuar contigo. Antes de que me vaya por otra razdn triste y sucia, antes de que ocurra algo que te haga sufrir mucho, antes de que empiece el infierno que, por mi culpa, seria nuestra vida, he decidido irme. Me voy con angustia, con el mas profundo dolor de mi vida y sin que haya algo que me solicite fuera de ti. Nuestra separacion, ahora es algo hermoso y terrible...^8 The experiences of Ana Kleiber reveal a parallelbetween the march toward destruction of a society, the process of self- destruction which Ana follows, and the process of destruction of possibilities for love. Self-destruction is given expression in Ana's attempt to tear down any impression of herself as decent, for she is constantly emphasizing her evil qualities, and she often warns Alfredo against them, "Todo el mundo deberfa huir de mf... l07Ibid., p. 68. 108Ibid., p. 35. 79 como de una apestada...Lo soy...Todo esto es imposible,, Driven by the fate working in her, Ana encourages the comments by Cohen which progressively destroy her image in front of Alfredo, and this fate which destroys Ana drives Alfredo to destruction, that of the murder of Cohen. In effect, the murder is an act of rebellion against the vicious circle of attitudes which enclose Ana, against the breakdown in morality which she and Cohen represent. For, in the act of living and destroying herself, Ana has progressively created evil and destruction for Alfredo, and the only alternative for him seemed to be escape, Luego me di cuenta de que mi miedo, el miedo que de verdad sentx en aquel moraento por mi crimen fue un pretexto, un sabio pretexto elaborado inconscientemente para escapar de aquel infierno.. .HO Hence, the experiences in Ana Kleiber reveal how war and circumstances teach feelings which influence individuals and spread into relationships with others. With the increasing seriousness of the situation, life to Ana becomes more absurd, suffering more inevitable. Her attitudes of nihilism and pessimism spiral her increasingly faster down a road of destruction. The destruction of Ana's sense of connection with the world and her significance in it is paralleled by physical and mental destruction. The desire for escape became increasingly a death wish, and Ana was driven to probe the depths of drink, •^^Ibid., p. 48, 80 Ana Kleiber penetrar£a en el misterio delalcoholismo. dQue* secretes habia detras del alcohol? dQue/ se escondfa alliT, en el fondo de la botella? Oh, fue una gran tentacion a la que me entregue’ sin ninguna reserva. Los companeros recuerdan como salfa muchas veces a escena... Matarme, el viejo sueifo.. .pero matarme del modo md*s abyecto... iUna mujer borracha! Esta feo. Yo habia lexclo los cuentos de Poe...Que' maravilloso el mundo de un alcoholico...Habia muerte de un ataque. | El "delirium tremens" Sentx la atraccion del "delirium tremens"! Yo llegaria. Busqud”, persegux*el ataque. Queria ver los pequeffos animaluchos de los alcoholicos...extranos bichos rodeandome...Supe lo que tenia que hacer, en que tendria que emplear y quemar mi vida. Habia encontrado el sentido de mi existencia.I*-*1 Consequently, physical destruction is paralleled by mental destruction, and in the end, all relationships become mere illusion. This occurred with war, for at first Ana had been happy at its outbreak, for this would,be a time of intense suffering and loss, hence, intense life, A1 principio si* viviT intensamente.. .Era imposible... la situacion se prolongaba demasiado y termino'' convirtiendose en una costumbre. In the same way, even the ideal of love becomes illusion, and the process from possibility to impossibility is complete, Detras de la fidelidad no habxa nada y me di cuenta: /solo el vacfo y la muerte! /El hastio y la tristeza! /y hasta el amor se apagaba en la espantosa paz de todos los dfas!ll3 The resolution of Ana's life is death, the natural resolution to the destructive process. Love was not possible for m ibid., p. 49. 112Ibid., p. 64. U 3 Ibid., pp. 67-68. 81 Ana, for circumstances had not been conducive to optimistic attitudes. However, the fate which controlled Ana was not the only barrier to their possibilities for love. Alfredo also was pulled and drawn away from Ana by a force stronger than himself, war. As a result of his murder of Cohen, Alfredo was forced into the Nazi Party against his will. Unknowingly he had created a "passport" for himself, and freedom was relinquished for protection. Hence, Alfredo, like many others, became an instrument in a process of destruction, "Yo nunca se*lo que he querido. Pero ahora ya no hay nada que pensar.. .sino entregarse.. .Ir a la matanza.. Thus, happiness and love were indeed impossible because of the circumstances, for each was isolated in a trap, one psychological, the other physical. Hence, relationship could be possible only in death, for Alfredo says, "Te escapabas siempre...Ahora ya te tengo. However, one cannot say that Ana and Alfredo were only victims of their circumstances, for what seems like fate is also the result of choices. Alfredo is the one to realize that Ana is in part responsible for the trap of attitudes that restricts her, for he says, "No hay nada que tire de ti. Eres tu; tu propia vileza".li6 Indeed, when one views the future as inevitable, when he views himself as condemned, then he, in fact, facilitates the fulfillment of that inevitability. Ana is not just an individual 114Ibid., p. 55. U 5 Ibid., p. 21. 116Ibid., p. 67. 82 case; she represents or reflects a society which, by feeling itself condemned to war, embarked upon an intensive effort to burn up life, destroyed morality, values, and attitudes, and in the process destroyed a nation. The alternative to the trap of one's own attitudes seems to be recognition of one's situation and the will to resist negative attitudes. Ana had neither. Alfredo also was in part responsible for the creation of the situation in which he found himself. Like Ana, he reflects a collective condition, the apathetic and the coward. Alfredo, like many others, had failed to heed the danger signals of war, for he did not see any connection between himself and the total process of what, at the time, seemed mere politics, Yo volvf a Alemania y sequiT su pista. Mi pafs estaba entonces agitado con las luchas politicas y el Fartido Nacionalsocialista tenfa ya muchos "ar. Fero In addition, Alfedo was a coward, a man of sparse integrity, for he willingly surrendered his freedom for protection, for freedom from responsibility. The Nazi Party then became a means to rationalize his crime. In effect, neither Ana nor Alfredo resisted their circumstances, and, in this manner, they became victims of their own weakness, 117Ibid., p. 36. 83 Lui, Frederic Merten, entrance* par lachete^dans une politique qui lui fait horreur, elle, Anna Kleiber, cherchant le facile oubli dans la boisson et les "passades avilissantes."H8 The significance and the revelations of Ana Kleiber are many and varied. One may regard the total work as a denunciation of war, ...,1a denonciation du mondo absurde qu'enfantent les guerres et le desordre qu'elles mettent dans les coeurs... 19 In addition, the work seemsto be a denunciation of human weaknesses, for the particular relationship of Ana and Alfredo contains the symptoms or reflections of a disintegrating society, of men in the act of destroying and being destroyed by their own creations. Indeed, by pointing out the weaknesses of the characters, Sastre seems to be dealing with the same problem treated by Bertolt Brecht in his Galileo. He suggests that war, and other forms of social destruction, are the sum total of men's action; men are responsible for the creation of their circumstances. This work like all of Sastre's works, is designed to agitate as well as reveal, for Sastre has treated history with an eye to present circumstances. He seems to challenge the spectator to be aware, to look beyond what seems mere politics for danger signals. Also, the dramatist attempts to awaken in the spectator consciousness of his own strength, for he is not merely a spectator of circumstance, 118 Capron, "Ana Kleiber," p. 9. 119Ibid., p. 9. 84 rather he is actively participating in them by what he does or does not do; he is now shaping history and the future by his actions. Ana Kleiber seems also to be an attempt to convince the spectator that there is no inevitability in this world which predetermines his fate; that everything depends on himself alone, and that there are no powers (whether divine providence or fate) uncontrolled by him or external to human society...120 Hence, Sastre reveals man to be both an object of war and an agent in its creation. Revolution. Another situation which the dramatist uses to probe the question of liberty is that of revolution. The latter is another form of oppression in our times, for Sastre emphasizes that revolution involves sacrifice, Concibo en ellos, y desde ellos, la Revolucion como una realidad tr£gica, como un gran sacrificio, como un hecho muchas veces cruento.-^l Revolution is treated in four works, Tierra roja, Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes, Prologo patetico, and El^ pan de todos. To probe the relationship of liberty and revolution, Alfonso Sastre views the latter as an evolving process from awareness of injustice through liberation to oppression . The works of Sastre suggest that social injustice can only be eliminated by revolution, however, the latter is often a disorder equally cruel and oppressive as that against which it is directed. 120i. pradkin, "On the Artistic Originality of Bertolt Brecht's Drama," in Brecht; A Collection of Critical Essays (Engle wood Cliffs, 1962), p. 98. 191 Alfonso Sastre, EjL pan de todos (Madrid: Ediciones Alfil, 1966), p. 9. 85 Indeed, revolution in our times, and as it is presented in the works of Sastre, is not a romantic notion, rather, it is anti heroic, a time of cruelty and sadness, and the detail of suffering is recurrent, whether in the form of violence or as the reshaping 1 99 of lives. This fact is established by action and by the state ments of characters like that of Paula who tells us, "La revolucidn ^ / I OQ no ha traxdo a esta casa mas que miedo y angustias". ^ Indeed, contemporary revolution is not a struggle against gods or inanimate things, nor against mere institutions and social forms, rather, it is against other men.^24 These are some of the ideas which Sastre seems intent upon emphasizing, the cruel facts with which the spectator must come face to face. Hence, one finds multiple references to characterization of contemporary revolution like this one by Oscar in Prologo patetico, Esta no es una historia rom^ntica, eso es todo. En otros tiempos una revolucion era una cosa enteramente bella. El golpe de Estado apenas exigia una preparacio"n pre via. Pero vivimos un nuevo tiempo, y estamos en la vanguardia con una mision determinada. Cada uno tiene su puesto.125 Sastre's plays are directed toward shedding light on the connections which exist between the critical conflict, the re solution of forces, and those events or happenings which both precede 1^2^11liams, Tragedy, p. 64. 123 Sastre, EJL pan de todos, p. 18. 124 Williams, Tragedy, p. 77, ^"*Alfonso Sastre, Prologo patetico, in Primer Ac to, No. 3 (1964), 173. 86 and succeed them. In this manner, revolution is viewed not as one event or crisis but as a whole action of living men; it is the perceiving of injustice, the efforts to liberate oneself, and the chaos and suffering of violence. As a result, revolution as a process of liberation from social injustice often appears endowed with the same negative qualities associated with injustice, for Sastre remarks, La sociedad en que vivo estef, quizas, demasiado enferma, y las fuerzas transformadoras se debaten en una penosa lucha, contagiadas en parte por la enfermedad que tratan de oombatir. -*-26 Hence, revolution and social injustice are both tragedies; both involve suffering and oppression. As a result, one is confronted with a dilemma, for Sastre suggests an urgent need for change, yet revolution as a means, as it appears in his works, is a cruel reality which involves the loss of life. Nevertheless, it seems evident that Sastre urges a choice of liberty from social injustice as a goal, however, he tries to equip the spectator with some knowledge that may help him to formulate an acceptable means to this goal, one that will truly accomplish the purpose of full humanity for all, if that be possible. These ideas are suggested in the introduction feoEl^ pan de todos, 1 Ofk Alfonso Saste, "La realidad y el deseo," EjL pan de todos (Madrid: Ediciones Alfil, 1966). 87 Queda claro en estos dramas que si toda revolucion es un hecho tragico, todo orden social injusto es una tragedia sorda inaceptable. Trato de poner al espectador ante el dilema de elegir entre las dos tragedias. Parece evidente, en efecto, que la tragedia sorda del orden social injusto solo puede ser destruifda por la tragedia revolucionaria. La esperanza esta"’en el desenlace feliz de esta tragedia que es, o debe ser, aguda y abierta, frente a la otra sorda, cronica, cerrada.127 Social injustice is unacceptable as a form of existence, for it imprisons man in a web of despair, suffering, and anguish, and it is a form of oppression incompatible with man's desires for happiness. Sastre conveys these ideas by presenting a total picture, mental and physical, of man's situation in a medium of injustice. There is a common medium in the four works of revolution. It is one which is naturally oppressive, for the predominating mood of the works is the grey cold of winter and rain. These elements have a noticeable effect on the mental attitude of the characters, for they produce despair, depression, sadness, and resignation. These feelings are evident in the references to weather made by the characters, like this one by Marta in pan de todos, Sigue el tiempo de lluvia...No ha dejado de Hover en todo el invierno...Este invierno de tristeza y de desgracia...128 1 27 A /Sastre, El pan de todos, p. 9. ^ ^ Ibid., pp. 43-44. 88 Such references to weather do not merely serve the purpose of realism. Rather, they serve as a basis for comparison and communication. For Sastre suggests that social injustice produces a similar mental state as that evoked in man by climatic factors. The comparison between the two situations, man and climate and man and injustice, is often suggested by means of the combination of references to climate and the social situation within a single remark like the combination of the words "invierno", "tristeza", and "desgracia", In effect, "el tiempo de la lluvia"-~its consequences on attitudes and feelings— becomes a metaphor for the times of injustice, the times of unhappiness. This is apparent in the closing scene of El pan de todos which is characterized by rain. The final scene presents Marta bending over the lifeless body of her husband; both are soaked by rain. The significance of the scene lies in the persistence of rain and its resultant effects on Marta, despair and resignation. As a result of the action, we know also that Marta's despair is the result of injustice, for her life has been reshaped by revolution. The spectacle of the rain, which now seems to be a visual symbol of Marta's attitude and feelings— unhappiness— together with her words, convey a precise image of the effects of the natural and social situation. In addition, she makes the comparison by fusing the two situations into the one encompassing word "esto", 89 Estoy segura de que no ha terminado todo, amor m£o. En esta madrugada llueve sobre nuestros cuerpos, y me doy cuenta de que no todo ha terminado,.. Todo esto va a continuar, D a v i d . . . 129 The above examples present a partial image of existence in an unjust situation, for the latter is like living in perpetual winter, in perpetual cold, and in perpetual rain. In deed, one becomes so deeply depressed that at times only in death does there seem to be a ray of sunshine, of happiness. This attitude is suggested in the final words of Marta, for she speaks of the salvation, the death, of David. He has escaped, and perhaps death offers the only immediate chance for happiness and for escape to those condemned to an existence of unhappiness, .. .Estas salvado.. .For aquif, David, todo sigue igual... Hace una ms£nana triste.. .Esta* lloviendo, amor mfo..., y yo me he quedado un poco' sola en este mundo...En donde estes, espera...Yo llegare^una tarde en que tu estds un poco triste...Le habra”llegado por fin el momento...a nuestro pobre a m o r . . . 13® Hence, in the motif of weather, Sastre finds a concrete and easily comprehensible means to communicate the mental ravages of injustice on man. A time of injustice is a time of sadness, and characters often lament the unhappiness that exists everywhere and express a desire to escape these conditions. For example, in Prologo patetico, the mother remarks, 129lbid., p. 62. 130Ibid., p. 63. 90 Corren malos tiempos, hija. Habra"*que encerrarse en casa y no salir nunca. Bueno, no te preocupes ya...Fodemos Ir cenando...Estoy cansada...Hija, pienso que debemos irnos al campo una temporada. Se estara^ bien alia, en casa del abuelo. Es un poco doloroso sentirse enve jecer aquf, entre estas jparedes, viendo que ni vosotros, que sols jovenes estais contentos...Parece que nadle puede ser feliz ya en el inundo.*31 In Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes, a chorus of beggars laments the times as ones of inhumanity and persecution, consequences of tyranny and the indifference of a morally degenerate society, Mendigo manco.--Si me pongo a pensar, yo me acuerdo de todos. Cierro los ojos y vuelvo a ver sus barbas, y su rofih, y sus llagas, y sus trajes rotos y sucios, y 4sus mutilaciones. Somos una pobre humanidad, ieh, companero? Nuestro mundo es un mundo en el que faltan ojos, piernas, brazos, o estan inmdviles, o nos agita un temblor raro y nos dan ataques y parece que vamos a morir...Yo comprendo que les de asco de que existamos, companfero. Mendigo sentado.— Bueno. Pero nosotros no tenemos la culpa de existir. ^ 2 The medium of these works is also characterized by mud, filth, and the miserable situation of some people forced to exist in base conditions. In this case, Sastre does not try to suggest by means of parallels or comparisons. Rather, he presents the physical situation of men in a situation of injustice in direct, realistic, and at times, shocking details. Paula of El pan de todos is describing the physical surroundings when she says, "En toda ■^•^Sastre, Prologo, p. 179. 132 Alfonso Sastre, Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes (Madrid: Ediciones Alfil, 1962), p. 11. 91 la ciudad ya no hay mas que barro y porquer£a."133 Such descriptions present an image of existence eked out in mud, in sadness, in rain, and in crippling limitations. However, Sastre not only gives a picture of existence, but he also indicates his own attitudes of disgust and appall in ironic remarks like that of the beggar, "Vivo en el barrio de la basura, junto a los vertederos. Alii me revuelco como un cerdo,"^^1' The implications are that some men are discarded as easily as one discards refuse. The evidence presented in Sastre's image of existence in injustice seems ample proof that such situations must be abolished. This attitude is still further strengthened by the descriptions that indict injustice, wherever it exists, as a "land" of crimes. For this reason, landscape appears as tinted with the blood of crimes against liberty and humanity in comparison to one which is green with life and freedom. In Tierra roja, Pedro reveals the comparison, Este paisaje tojo me parecio^muy triste...Yo venfa de una tierra de campos ^verdes y esta tierra roja me encogio^el corazon.. ,<*Y en esta tierra roja iba a vivir jro? Por entonces habfa habido una huelga y habian matado a varios mineros...y me parecicfque la tierra estaba roja de sangre... No, yo no queria vivir aqui*.. .Me acuerdo de que empezo* a Hover y al d£a . siguiente, cuando me levanted se habia formado en los caminos como un barro sangriento...No me acostumbrarla nunca a pisar esta tierra de crfmenes... ■^^Sastre, E]L pan de todos, p. 49. ^^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 28. 135 Alfonso Sastre, Tierra roja, in Cuatro dramas de la revolucion, (Madrid, 1963), pp. 90-91. 92 The "ciego" of Guillermo Tell represents "la voz del pueblo," and his romances serve as testimony of the crimes of brutality, persecution, and horrors;that perpetuate tyranny and injustice for masses of subordinated peoples.-*-^ Also effective in establishing the mood and characterization of a medium where injustice exists is the actual physical position of the various characters in the works of revolution whose freedom of movement is severely limited. Injustice in various forms is presented as a prison, and characters make frequent reference to existence in a form of imprisonment. For example, the existence of the miners of Tierra roia is described by Ines thus, 'Esta es otra carcel"In addition, Fablo states, Y de pronto me parece que es hermoso tener unas horas de libertad, aunque luego haya que bajar a esa agonia de la mina.,.138 In Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes. the idea of restricted freedom is evoked by the jail, for it is a visual symbol of man's existence. As a structure, it is awesome and fearful, a symbol of the oppression exerted by injustice over man. However, the jail also has another significance, for, combined with action, men building the jail, it becomes a dramatization of concepts, l^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 28. l^Sastre, Tierra roja, p. 138. 138Ibid., p. 136. 93 of the dialectical relationship between men and the situations which imprison them. That is, men are both prisoners and architects of the structures that enclose them. Given this miserable situation of existence and the consequent desire to escape it, there seem to be only two ways in which to continue or keep on. One is to be aware of the situation, and consequently exist in sadness and anger as do Pablo of Tierra roja. David Harko, and Guillermo Tell. This response is then reflected and communicated in the "ojos tristes" of each. Or, one can try to shut out the sight of injustice and simply exist in a half-blindness. These people are those of "ojos indiferentes" and when this reference occurs in relation to the spectators, the dramatist is challenging us to consider and pass judgment on these responses and on our own responses to injustice around us. Hence, Alfonso Sastre presents a total image of the tragedy of social injustice as he views it, and indeed, change is necessary. However, if the spectator is to choose, if he is to understand and deal withsocial injustice, he needs more than just an artistic presentation, He needs to delve beneath the surface and discover his own relationship to this problem. Sastre achieves this by presenting experiences that reveal the mechanics of some forms of injustice in our times, its effects on man, and the consequences of his responses. A study of some of the forms of social injustice is necessary as a prologue to an investigation of revolution, for the latter, as it appears in Sastre's plays is a consequence of injustice. 94 One of the forms of social injustice in our times that nourishes the seeds of revolution is that aspect of society known as great industrial enterprise. That this is a form of oppression and imprisonment often intolerable to man is investigated in Tierra roja. The particular situation in this work and a means to action is the "inevitable" retirement of a miner, Pedro, who no longer is of use to the Company. This particular situation is but one in a cycle of generations of miners who have toiled like slaves, attempted protest, and were each time crushed by the forces of "la.Compania". In effect, the relationship of man to a society powered by economic inequality, through gigantic enterprises, is represented by the miners and "la Compax^fa". The relationship between the miners and the Company is one of oppression and domination, for these men exist in a sort of bi-level jail, one underground, the mines, and one formed by walls which encompass the majority of existence and are built of poverty and oblivion, for the miners cannot escape this existence; they can only disappear, Tantos anos de penas...de pequenas alegrfas y...de amor... no han dejado huellas en la tierra...Asx vivimos y as 2T morimos y desaparecemos los p o b r e s . ^ 3 9 Such men are often reduced to servants in the face of industry, for they are forced to exist as subordinates and denied full 139Ibid., p. 91. 95 incorporation into the controlling power, for social class distinctions have been replaced by economic divisions. These men have been described aptly by Oscar in Prologo patetico, Son los siervos de nuestra epoca. Estan acostumbrados a ser humildes, a bajar los ojos, a no tener ningun derecho, a aceptar todo lo queseles^da como una limosna. Men become servants of enterprise, not because they are inferior, rather, because they have little or no voice in the direction of the Company. That is, as illustrated by the miners of Tierra roja, groups of men are denied incorporation as whole human beings, for they are denied the capacity to direct the industrial enterprise by active mutual responsibility and co operation, on a basis of full social equality. As a result, man has value not as man but only in relation to his usefulness to the Company, and the poor, the ill, and the aged are discrimi nated against. Hence, men become objects or working parts of a machine, discarded when they cease to function efficiently as illustrated in this dialogue, Pablo.--La Compania lo echa de su casa. Ines.--En realidad nunca ha sido su casa. Pablo.--Lo tenia metido alii* mientras era un hombre util para ella. Ines.--Asif es. Pablo.— Y cuando ya esta*viejo y enfermo y no le sirve, lo tira como una basura. ^ 1 ^4®Sastre, Prologo patetico, p. 177. 141Sastre, Tierra roja, p. 82. 96 - Ironically, the controlling power attempts to comfort man and cushion the fact that he is being discarded by designating it as "retirement", and the latter becomes almost a grotesque ritual as the other miners join to "celebrate" Pedro's departure. However, even this ritual is servitude, for it is a bowing to the wishes and customs of the Company; it is the final acknowledgement that the miner has no rights and no lasting retribution for his years of labor, not even a house, Asf* se despide de la casa...de la que durante tantos anos ha sido su casa y ahora tiene que abandonar para siempre...142 In such a situation, man is not free, for he belongs to a larger body, and, as such, he is denied basic rights, the right to own land, to receive an adequate salary, and to provide for the future. Some of the consequences of this situation are that after a period of time men lose sight of their humanity, come to regard themselves as inferior, and are blinded to their rights and possibilities. In addition, the distance between the form of oppression and the individual becomes: greater, for when man loses contact or participation with the oppressor, he tends to abstract and generalize the latter. Man breaks the connection between him self and the oppressor, and, as a result, the latter seems to be 142Ibid., p. 82. 97 a single and absolute force rather than a continuing action of many men. In several instances, the oppressor is transformed in the mind and considered to be a non-man. This is exemplified in Tierra roja, * ^ ^Sabes como llamamos en la mina a la Compania? "El Vpmpiro".. .Porque decimos que nos chupa la sangre.-®-43 This same consequence is illustrated in Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes, however, exaggerated in order to criticize this attitude, Mendigo sentado.--Describe usted. muy bien el castillo del sector Gobernador. "Sombr£b--<*cdmo dice?— , sombrfo y rodeado de fosos y prisiones subterraneas, en lo alto de los riscos, se alza el castillo del Otro..." Furst.--Quiero decir que Gessler no tiene nada que ver con este pueblo, que es tan distinto a los hombres del pafs como los es una serpiente, un escarabajo o un escorpion. Mendigo sentador-...es como si no fuera un hombre... una especie de aran’a .-*-44 Hence, men begin to believe in an unbearable, yet inevitable oppression against which they are powerless, and they become convinced that oppression is in the order of things as illustrated in this dialogue, Pablo.--Que cuando llega este momento, cuando un minero tiene que abandonar su casa, cuando a un minero lo echan de su casa, no hay ni la mas peque'na protesta, ni el mas pequeno gesto de ira...Esta tarde los companeros comentaban con tristeza la marcha del seiior Pedro, pero nada mas...como si esa marcha fuera inevi table. .. 143Ibid., p. 8 8 . 144 Sastre, Guillermo Tell, pp. 32-33. 98 Ines.--Lo es y no hay que preocuparse mas por ello.-^-* Hence, as illustrated in Tierra roja, groups of men are oppressed by industrial enterprise which denies them a full human existence. The only means to break through this prison of injustice, and the only means to liberation and change seems to be that of revolution. Indeed, tbe miners, and those before them, had protested and been subdued. Now, "golpeados por la vida" and disappointed by meager gains, the miners have lapsed into a sad resignation, almost indifference, 4Y que*' vamos a hacer? Tu tambidn te acostumbraras a dejar que los viejos se marchen sin una protesta. Hasta ahora, todas las protestas han sido inutiles. However, in spite of failure, it is necessary to continue to struggle against injustice, for each protest is progressive, if not immediately in material benefits, at least for the reason that those responsible for oppression are temporarily forced to acknowledge others as men. Hence, each effort toward liberation, each protest contributes to progress and change as explained by Pablo, Yo le dire^Jo que consiguieron. Meter el miedo en el corazon de los accionistas; hacerles sentir que ustedes existfan; disminuir sus ganancias. Los de la Compa*&£a se dieron cuenta de que estaban viviendo sobre un volcan encendido; de que tenfan que andarse con cuidado.^^ ■^Sastre, Tierra roja. p. 81. 146Ibid., p. 95. •*~4^Ibid., p. 96. 99 Revolution, that is, the perception of injustice and the revolt against it* seems necessary to break through the prison of injustice, to acquire liberty, for other responses such as resignation, fear, and collaboration only serve to perpetuate the status quo. In reality, man actually aids in the construction of the jails of injustice by his responses. Pablo serves as a catalyst to reveal evidence that shows the relationship of man as^an agent to the perpetuation of injustice, and, by doing so, he reawakens the miners to their situation, possibilities, and capabilities. Indeed, it seems that Sastre regards man as a latent passion, one that must be agitated, "como una llama de fuego, para que no seapague".^® This applies not only to the characters of Tierra roja, but to the spectator as well. As an outsider, Pablo can assess the situation and make the connections for he has not yet been contaminated by resignation, Es que yo no soy todavia un resignado. Usted esta’ acostumbrada a ver la cara de los resignados..., la triste y fea cara de los resignados. Pablo guides the others toward a realization that man, although a victim of injustice, also plays a part in determining whether or not that injustice shall remain, and to what extent. Man contributes to his circumstances by what he does and does not do. In effect, resignation turns man into "stone", for he regards 148perez Minik, Teatro, p. 402. 149 Sastre, Tierra roja, p. 83. 100 himself as something determined and acts almost mechanically, as the miners have become accustomed to doing after years of domination, • ^ I Ya veo que estan tranquilos!..No se mueven. No hablan. No tienen nada que decir. I Como si no pasara nada! Y esta noche.dormiran. Y mai&na iran al trabajo como sierapre. tk eso habeis llegado? Resignation gives silent consent to injustice as does fear, for both impede action. Indeed, all past protests had failed partly because too many were afraid to become involved, afraid to support Pedro when he marched alone to burn the house of the "Ingleses". Hence, man contributes to circumstances by his responses to them. Therefore, resignation and fear are ruled out as practical, progressive responses. Collaboration as a response is also unacceptable, for it perpetuates the status quo, and denies the responsibility that man has for other men who exist now and for those who will come later. "La Compa^ra" is nothing but a mask covering other men, and it is dependent upon other men for its survival, like Rafael, El viejo.--A ti te lo ha dicho el teniente. Eso esta* claro. (JPero tu sabes quien da de verdad esas ordenes? La Compaiiia. Todos, tu y tu teniente, no haceis mas que servir a sus intereses. Ella manda en vosotros. En esta tierra no se hace mas que lo que ella quiere. Sargento.— Yo no se*nada de esas complicaciones. Yo obedezco a mi teniente...No me parece ni bien ni mal. Yo obedezco. El viejo.— iQuei' piensas tu* de la Compaiiia, Rafael? Sargento.--{[De la Compania? Que son unos cerdos. 150Ibid., pp. 93-94. 101 El viejo.--Los odias. Sargento.— Sx, porque engordan con la sangre de este pueblo. Los odio... Hence, circumstances, injustice, are created and maintained by men, by those who seek power, those who are resigned or afraid, and by those who falsely see collaboration as a means to gain greater freedom or opportunity. For, Rafael is not free; he must obey orders, and although he sees no relationship between himself and others, he is also responsible for the situation of others. Indeed, this relationship to others is realized in a very painful way, for, his failure to act gave consent to the beating and death of a friend, "el viejo". The information brought to light by the discussion of Pablo and the miners suggests that revolution is necessary not only to change present circumstances but also for the reason that man is an agent in the creation of history. For example, if the miners had not succumbed to fear and resignation, and had in fact all resisted, then perhaps circumstances would be different. Also, if past actions, failure to aid Pedro, have contributed to the present situation, then man and circumstances are in part shaped by history. It also follows then, that man is now shaping history, in part determining the circumstances of those to come. Indeed, it appears evident that Sastre wants to lead the spectator to an awareness 151Ibid., p. 113-114. 102 of himself as a historical being, undeniably related to the creation of his own destiny and that of others, just as "el viejo" is led to this realization, Pero si no es por ti, Pedro. Es por todos. Por mf mismo, que me quedare" sin casa dentro de dos meses.^^ As historical beings, we are responsible for the creation of a better existence for those who follow; we are responsible for the decisions which shape the future, and we are responsible for acting to right injustice, for as long as the humanity of some men is denied, revolution is needed. Hence, men cannot simply become resigned or give up. It is never too late to act. Revolution is a long slow process, and results are slow in coming. However, it is an undefined path that leads toward an undefined future. On the other hand, injustice is a closed, defined existence with no hope. Hence, the dramatist presents the spectator with a choice, but he hopes that the spectator will chose the open path where there is at least some hope for elimination of suffering, and the words of the "joven" are a plea for action, Joven.— No...No es tarde...Es tarde para los que ya se fueron...Para los que cayeron acribillados antes de que nadie pudiera defenderlos...Claro que es tarde para esos...Y es tarde para los que han muerto de hambre, de asco y de abandono...Y para otros que no han muerto aun...pero que a estas horas se arrastran por las calles 152Ibid., p. 107. • - 103 y por los pueblos sin que nadie sepa quienes son..., porque son solo un hombre sucio y triste que nos pide algo en la calle y a quien no sabemos que'*decir..,, alguien que llama a la puerta y se nos queda mirando, y ya hemos comprendido, y alguien le dice; "Dios lo ampare..."; algo que apenas se distingue en la escalera del metro y es un hombre que duerme; una noticia del perio&ico por la que nos enteramos de que un hombre ha aparecido helado en una cueva; un viejo que ingresa, sin que nadie sepa quien es, en un manicomio; un borracho del que nos apartamos en la calle...Para esos ya es tarde...Pero no para usted que esta tcdavia aqujf.. .Ni para otros.. .Estamos a tiempo para muchos... ^3 Revolution is not only necessary as a possible means for achieving full humanity for all, but it is also a reality because some men desire it, and because others perceive injustice and are moved to act against it, as did Pedro, aid as Pablo does now, Cuando ya no puede defenderse y no le queda otro remedio que dejarse morir...Cuando ya no puede hacer ni el mcCs pequeno movimiento para defenderse... Habria que hacer algo...En estos momentos estoy atravesando un momento de ira, de furia...-^^ In effect, the experiences of Tierra roja reveal that once men become aware of their true situation and their possibilities, and once they become aware that oppression is not inevitable, it is then that oppression becomes even more unbearable. Men will continually unite before injustice and struggle to free themselves as generations of miners have done, ...diversas generaciones de obreros se sienten poseidas del mismo espiritu rebelde no porque quieren, sino porque se las obliga frente a una empresa industrial opresora. ^--*5 ^••^Ibid.,pp. 144-45. 154Ibid., pp. 82-83. 155 ^ Perez Minik, "Se trata de," p. 26. 104 Indeed, in brotherhood, there is added strength and one forgets his own fears and his own problems when dedicated to a common cause. Protest, in this case, a strike, does not lead to a peace ful securement of liberty and change, for the responses of industry to dissent among its workers is expressed in varied ways. The confrontation between the miners and the Company re veals attitudes and responses toward revolution and the resulting consequences of them. The course of protest, that is, the manner in which it is carried out, is dependent upon the attitudes and responses of both the protestors and the oppressors. The experiences in Tierra roja reveal that the oppressive order may view all protest with an air of indifference. That this is the initial reaction of the Company may be due to the fact that perhaps the previous experiences of aborted protests have led the Company to regard any common purpose or protest as folly, hence, the Company may simply try to ignore protests as illustrated in this dialogue, El viejo.— dQue^es lo que saben los jefes? Empleado.--...Los jefes lo sabxan a los pocos momentos de que decidierais esta estupidez. A media noche lo sabxa todo el mundo. El viejo.--iY que^dijeron? Los jefes. (jQue^dijeron? Empleado.— Creyeron que era una cosa de borrachos...157 ^"^Williams, Tragedy, p. 78. "^Sastre, Tierra roja. pp. 104-105. 105 On the other hand, if the strike or protest appears more serious and threatens to disrrupt the control of the Company, then the latter seeks to suppress dissent by force, with police action. This response indicates a tendency to identify protest and dissent with danger. However, responses of indifference or brutality are only an attempt to cover up injustice rather than to resolve it, and the consequences of this are often violence and chaos. In effect, police were sent to accompany the miners to work. In such a situation, tensions and hatred are intensified, and violence can be suddenly set aflame with the smallest spark. In addition, the responses of the Company— suppression— suggest that the Company is certain conflict will occur. This attitude in itself contri butes to the rise of conflict, as exemplified by the scuffle and 1 CO flareup of tempers between Pablo and the Sargento. Then, the sudden movement of Pablo, the burst of gunfire, the dead child, and the rampage of violence happened in a quick chain of events, like the burning of a fuse toward a stick of dynamite. Unfortunately, brutality often provokes a response of brutality from those seeking liberty from injustice, and the efforts of men for liberation are thus often stained by irrationality, by chaos and violence like that advocated by "la mujer", 158Ibid., p. 115. 106 El nixvo estaba mamando de mi pecho y de pronto lo ha soltado. Sus panales se estan manchando de sangre. Esa bala ha sido para el. Ha muerto...Ahora incendiareis la casa de los, ingleses y los matareis a todos. d Que’" esperabais? When established forms break down, men are often guided by emotion, revenge, and irrationality, and the result of these is tragedy: violence goes beyond the control of men into a frenzied nightmare of destruction. In time the conflict is worked through, and all returns to a semblance of order. During this period, there is a kind of indifference that becomes established as the conflict gains distance, as it becomes epic. In some instances the process, now history, is seen in a new light. The total action of injustice and protest is reduced to single events. Some are forgotten; others are exaggerated, and particular qualities are dramatized such as those of violence and suffering as related in the romances of the ciego in Guillermo Tell tiene los o jos tristes. -*-60 On the other hand, the action preceding conflict and the conflict itself may become generalized and abstracted, and the suffering of real men is forgotten. In Tierra roja, the total action is viewed by many as a repetition of the same events that have occurred periodically. This is revealed in the identical descriptions which ■^^Ihid., p. 115. ^■^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, pp. 114-117. 107 Ines and then Teresa give of the relationship between their fathers and the events of history, Que se fueron a la residencia de los ingleses y le prendieron fuego. Y mataron a varios. Y vino la policfa y ametrallaron al pueblo y murio^mucha gente. Thus, suffering, its causes and consequences, become simply events. There is a kind of indifference that returns to many of the people, for their lives have been reshaped by the violence; many have lost husbands and families, and they scarcely have the will or the strength to keep on. However, there is also a taking of sides, an attempt to fix the responsibility, the blame for all the deaths and destruction. There is also an exposure to the lies and campaigns that are made from the protest. 162 For example, the oppressors blame the protestors for the breakdown in order, and they become known as "agitators," Pablo.— Durante algun tiemponadie hablo^de aquello... Y se estaba mal en aquel silencio...Era...como si tuvieramos la boca cosida. Nos mir^bamos..,y eso era todo. Luego se supo lo que habia aceptado todo el mundo...No es que nosotros hubieramos protestado... No teniamos por que'T..Es que nos habia provocado la revuelta por cuenta de una Companfa enemiga. J oven. - -P ero no f ue a s £\ Pablo.— No.. .Fu^yo.. .Pero yo mismo llegue^a creer, de tanto oxrla, a partir de entonces, aquella historia... Yo mismo llegue^a creer que aquella protesta habfa sido un crimen...Nadie vino a deeirme otra cosa... /*NadieJ/- Y, en el fondo era comodo para mi-’ pensar que el culpable de los crfmenes era un...<*Como los llaman? ..,un agitador...163 161 Sastre, Tierra roja, p. 140. 162w illiams, Tragedy. p. 65. 163 Sastre, Tierra roja, p. 144. 108 The causes and results of conflict and the suffering of real men have become transformed into a mixture of truth and fantasy. The Company returns to its attitude of oppression, of indifference to the needs and situation of the miners although it attempts to appease and cover up the disorder with meager gains. However, injustice still remains. In effect, there is a reestablish- men of the same situation as that which preceded the conflict, and it is revealed in the attitudes of this dialogue, Pablo.— No se ha conseguido nada. Ines.— Unos meses de spue's, vino el pequeno aumento de salario. Sin que nadie pidiera nada...No es que solucionara mucho las cosas pero... Pablo.--Siguen echando a los viejos de sus hogares. Ines.--Dicen que estan estudiando la forma... Pablo.— Los estan echando como a perros. Ines.— Dicen que van aver si pueden construir mas. Pablo.— Nunca lo haran. No les importa.*^ The revolutionary process is still in march, for Pablo reflects the perception of injustice and the anger toward it. Ines reveals the attitude of the oppressors, indifference to the real problems of poverty and discrimination and the tendency to cover up rather than attempt to solve them. The experiences of Tierra roja, now history, show trends and processess; perception of injustice and indifference to it lead to protest and the latter 164Ibid., p. 135. is followed by conflict, suffering, and the restoration of order. Thus, it seems that the situation expressed in the dialogue is really an extension of this same process. By viewing history, 165 one can understand the present, and as Ortega y Gasset remarks,- also predict the structure of the future. Therefore, using the experiences of this drama as a basis for assumption, it is probable that the events presented will be repeated. This assumption is substantiated by the appearance of the joven, for he reflects the anger, the energy, and the lack of resignation which have appeared from time to time in particular men. In effect, if one elevates himself to mere spectator, suppresses the role of men in the processes, and views them as mere events, he may conclude that what happened was inevitable, that there is even a law of inevit ability— injustice, protest, conflict, and order. However, Sastre has drawn the connections between men and circumstances, men and history, and, in Tierra roja, he has presented men in the act of creating circumstances and history. Therefore, if it is the power of men to shape existence, then they also have the power to alter or change trends, to alter the predicted structure of the future, for the latter is not inevitable. The ending of Tierra roja is an open one as the future is also open. With this technique, Sastre leaves the spectator with the lessons of history, an under- 163 / Jose Ortega y Gasset, "La rebelidn de las masas" in The Generation of '98 and After (New York, 1963), p. 189. 110 standing of his role in this process and that of revolution, and with the responsibility for definition of the future. Another form of injustice which Sastre presents in relation to a study of revolution is that of political tyranny. This problem is investigated by means of the recreation of the legend of William Tell, for, while the episodes remain essentially the same, the form is that of tragedy. This legend serves as a metaphor for society and political tyranny. Tell symbolizes the struggle for liberty, and Gessler provides an image of political tyranny. In Gessler, the concepts of evil and political tyranny are equated. This is revealed in the descritions of him by the people, for Gessler is described as something ugly, diabolical, and non-human, "Tiene la sangre frra como las serpientes. O verde como una planta fea".-*-^ As a result of this view of Gessler as non-human, he is referred to as "el Otro", and the people of Altodorf see no connection between themselves and the Governor, Esta* alli>, en lo alto. Es inaccesible. Le hablamos y no nos oye. No puede orrnos porque es "el Otro" y no tiene oidos como nosotros, ni sangre roja y caliente, ni corazon.167 Although the dramatic time and characters belong to legend, Sastre is dealing with the problem of political tyranny within the circumstances of the twentieth century. Legend provides the framework for action; it is a distancing technique, a means to allow ■^^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 32. ^ ^ Ibid., p. 32. Ill the spectator to "step back" and view the problem within an imaginary situation that provides "ese rairar extrariado que es descubridor, revelador".I**® The legend of William Tell is, in effect, an artistic medium in which certain aspects of the problem can be separated or pointed out, and within this medium the dra matist communicates concepts artistically and by means of experience. For example, setting functions, in part, as a directive agent. That is, the element of abstraction suggested by the sparse scenery allows the spectators to break away from the narrow, local- historical conditions of the legend and consider the social and political problems that are being shown, ...se huya de toda reproduceion--incluso estilizada-- de la arquitectura y la indumentaria de la epoca. Este "Guillermo Tell" puede representarse con traies y uniformes actuales sobre escenarios abstractos.. In addition, props and costuming serve to separate and communicate ideas, for with the "armas" and the "flechas", Sastre directs the spectator's attention to the aspects of cruelty and oppression associated to political tyranny, ...Se advertira* que los hombres de la Folicxa y de la Escolta del Gobernador van armados con armas de fuego. El pueblo opone a estas armas sus flechas y sus picas. Este contraste es deliberado.170 The experiences of Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes reveal that the relationship between men and political tyranny 168 Alfonso Sastre, "Primeras notas para un encuentro con Bertolt Brecht," Primer Acto, No. 13 (1960), 14. 169 Sastre, "Notas" to Guillermo Tell. 170,..,Ibid., p. 6 ,. 112 is one of oppression and restriction on liberty. Men seem to be at the mercy of a cruel and heartless force, a situation attributed to the evil Gessler and described by Ffirst thus, Vive en otro mundo. Nos ignora. Somos para el como hormigas. Igual que nosotros matamos con el pie una hormiga, el puede matar a un hombre de este pueblo.-^1 The total action of the play suggests an overall theatrical view of this relationship, for political tyranny is a drama in which men play roles assigned by the director, in this case, Gessler. For example, some characters in this work have a dual characterization, real and symbolic, for some, the "capataz", "secretario", and "guardia11 are puppets of political tyranny. This suggests that men play parts which are segments of a national plan or script. In addition, several characters move and speak mechanically as though they were directed by some higher authority. For example, the "capataz" appears as an object, for his movementsare the mechanical responses of obedience, and he is scarcely distinguishable from the stones that surround him. In effect, he is also like a parasite for he does not work, rather he lives from the toil of others, A veces me pregunto en que”'*consiste el trabajo de ese capataz. Esta^ahf*sin hacer nada, mirando. Casi no se mueve. Parece una parte de la piedra.^2 171 Ibid., p. 32. 172 Ibid., p. 13. 113 Indeed, the function of the ’’capataz" is to carry out the orders of Gessler and instill fear in the people. He is merely a puppet, a tool that contributes to the perpetuation of tyranny. The "guardias” also appear puppetlike. Their individuality, will, and desires have been replaced by those of Gessler, and each movement is dictated by "la orden". In effect, they appear grotesque and automated not only in their movements but also in their dialogue, for they are robots, Guardia 1.— jiNo se volar a'’el sombrero? Guardia 2.--Pues es verdad. Guardia l,-- Guardia 2.--La orden no lo dice. Guardia l.--Es que puede volarse... Guardia 2.— La orden no lo dice. Guardia 1.— Entonces, no. Guardia 2.— £Y ahora que*"* hay que hacer? Guardia l.--Quedarnos aqui*. Guardia 2.— j/Lo dice la orden? ^7^ The effect of seeing men act as puppets produces smiles, even a laugh, on the part of the spectator. Indeed, the deformed view of man that is presented here seems to be a means of criticizing the situation. The effect is black humor, the laughter at something which is tragic, the absurdity of men reduced to things. 173Ibid., p. 52. 114 Political tyranny is, in a sense, an institution, for it is apre-written script of rules that do not consider human rights. In such a situation, men have value only for their ability to act, to contribute to the total presentation. Hence, the individual has no value, and if, due to circumstances, he can no longer function appropriately, he is ignored, treated cruelly, or even eliminated. These consequences are revealed in the dialogues of the beggars, for they serve as examples. The "mendigos" are forced to live their existence as beggars, for, injured in accidents and no longer useful, no provisions are made for them, and they are denied incorporation into the rest of society. Hence, they are condemned to live in obscurity and reduced to objects whose existence is perpetuated or terminated at will by the Governor, Mendigo sentado.--El Gobernador puede enfadarse otra vez con nosotros, y entonces... Mendigo manco.— Asi" es. Mendigo sentado. Puede ordenar otra caza. Mendigo manco.--Claro que puede... Mendigo sentado.--Y si lo hace nos perseguiran y no habrcf nadie que se o p o n g a . ^ 4 By the same token, those who refuse to play a role are treated as enemies. Such is the case of William Tell as revealed by the beggars, 17^!bid., p. 12. 115 Pero no puede hacer nada. Esta* flchado por el Gobernador. La PolicdCa lo tiene bien vigilado. No le dejan moverse. Esta acusado de resistente, de patriota.^75 The effect of such a situation is that men are submitted to an absurd existence, forced to live according to a set of rules which, for the most part are irrational and incompatible with aspirations and needs. That political tyranny is a static order unrelated to, or considerate of the individual, is illustrated by this ridiculous proclamation by the Pregonero, A los habitantes de la ciudad de Altdorf. De orden del senior Gobernador, todos los ciudadanos de Altdorf, sin distincion de clase, edad, sexo o estado, estaran obligados, a su paso por la plaza de Gessler, a saludar reverentemente el sombrero del senor Gobernador all£” colocado, hincando una ro- dilla en tierra, mientras se dice en voz alta que pueda ser ofda por la vigilancia alldf presente "Viva el senor Gobernador", advirtiendose que el incumplimiento de esta orden sera**castigado con el maximo rigor, estando capacitada dicha vigilancia para torturar de palabra y obra a los ciudadanos rebeldes, que seran conducidos immediatamente a presencia del jefe superior del Tribunal para la Represion del Terrorismo. -*-76 The ironic aspect of this proclamation serves to criticize a government that imposes meaningless behavior on men and denies them the right to dissent. These concepts are also revealed in the episode of the Governor's hat. In effect, the individual episode is a tragicomedy. The action and the dialogue of the guardias" 175Ibid., p. 12. 176Ibid., p. 53. 116 seems to represent the action of bestowing value on something that has little or none. That a hat, an object, an almost worthless object can become the substitute of real authority is a means of revealing to what extent tyranny engages in absurd drama. In addition, this episode serves as a catalyst to reveal attitudes and bring out the nature of political tyranny. That men should be slaves and reverent before meaningless symbols is an order so contrary to man's beliefs that it is humorous. This response is exemplified in the dialogue of the beggar and old woman who are both actor in a drama and spectator of one, Vieja.— Este es un mundo de locos. Mendigo manco.— <£Por que? Vieja.--|Hombrei Mendigo manco.--Yo he tenido borracheras peores. Vieja.--£Crees que esto es una borrachera del Gobernador? Mendigo manco. --Claro. Ya se le pasara. ^77 Although absurdity is humorous to some, toothers, it is a source of disappointment and despair. This is revealed in the episode involving Furst. As an intellectual, he had concerned himself with discerning the problems of injustice and formulating the theories of a new, free society. However, when Furst passes by the hat, is forced to bow, and is denied help from anywhere, he 177Ibid., p. 54. 117 is completely dismayed and bewildered, Furst.--No he faltado a ninguna ley. No tengo nada que temer. Guardia 2.--^Sabes de quien es ese sombrero? Furst.--No lo se*. Guardia.— Del seiior Gobernador. Furst.-«£Y que^hace ahr? Guardia 1.--Esta* ahif para que te arrodilles delante de el y digas: "Viva el Gobernador". Furst.--Es absurdo.-*-78 Furst is forced to bow before an object and thus is reduced to non man, to a puppet, No puede terminar. Solloza. Se agita en el suelo como un guinapo triste. Se hace el oscuro.-*-79 Indeed, life is so unbearable in a situation like this, where those who yearn for some measure of happiness in an orderly, a rational, and a reasonably predictable world find only misery in a disorderly, and irrational, and an unpredictable world,that they simply cannot go on. Furst can no longer go on because he recognizes injustice, but he knows he is not capable of acting against it. Hence, he commits suicide. Tell adequately perceives the tragicomic qualities of this situation when he remarks, "Hay que saludar a un sombrero. Parece una cosa de risa, pero es lo mas triste del 178Ibid., p. 57. 179Ibid., p. 58. ■*^®Mueller and Jacobsen, "Samuel Beckett's Long Saturday," p. 77. 118 mundo."l®l The sense of the absurdity of political tyranny is also conveyed to some extent through the counterplay of action and dialogue within the play, and something outside the play, namely the beliefs which have been the tradition of our culture.j?or example, the guards describe an episode which the spectator does not see, that of the priest and ..his followers who knelt before Christ while passing before the hat. The sense of absurdity springs from the contrast between the two symbols, one a man-made idol, a false authority, and the other, the symbol of Christian beliefs, and hence, the idea of an equal relationship between man, that none should be slaves, Guardia 1.— Lo del cura ha sido una jugada cochina. Guardia 2.--’iMaldita seal No habia forma de meterle mano. Guardia l.--Venia con el viatico y, claro, hay que tener respeto. Guardia 2.--Cuando ha tocado la campanilla, me he dicho: (•Que^hace este? Guardia 1.— Y toda la procesion se ha arrodillado. Guardia 2.--Pero no ante el sombrero, /maldita sea.' « Guardia 1.— Se han arrodillado ante Cristo, /maldita sea.' Guardia 2.--Lo que mas rabia me da es que hayamos tenido que arrodillarnos nosotros. Guardia 1.— Cuando me he dado cuenta de que eramos cristianos y que teniamos que arrodillarnos, me he dicho: /maldita sea!183 ^^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 63. ^^Mueller and Jacobsen, p. 90. ^^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 67. 119 The narration of this episode has its own theatrical qualities, £>r it is in a sense an allegory; the episode may be viewed as the triumph of men's beliefs over false, meaningless situations. It also emphasizes that men need to act out of purpose. The already-mentioned examples reveal that tyranny is an unacceptable tragedy which must be abolished. However, if men are to act against political tyranny, it is not enough to merely see its cruel effects. One must delve beneath its disguises and discover its vital organs, it processes. In effect, in this work Sastre has provided experiences and information which shed light on the skeleton, the nerves, and the brain that sustain political tyranny. For example, the latter is perpetuated and nourished by lies and illusions. It attempts to construct a set around the people which gives the appearance of prosperity, tran quility, - and happiness. The purpose of this is to lull the people into a sort of slumber so they will accept existence as it is written for them. However, the set is often deceiving, for on the one side it may appear to be simply a wall, while on the other, it has the appearance of a prison, for it serves to hide and enclose the deprived so that none will perceive and be moved to act against this injustice, Tabernero.— gDetras de la muralla vive gente? Mendigo sentado.--Entonces, (jljor que* te crees que construyeron la muralla?.. .^»Te acuerdas de que hace dos anos vino el Emperador de los cantones? .. .Pues entonces construyeron la muralla. Para que al entrar en Altdorf no nos viera. Haciamos feo...Dec£a que con los ladrillos que habfan empleado en la muralla podian habernos construj&o casas para unos cuantos... Political tyranny perpetuates itself by actively opposing and attempting to delay revolution, for the latter would mean meeting the demands of the people, recognizing them as men, and thus los ing power and control. There are two principal tactics used to accomplish the above purpose: indoctrination and suppression of dissent. Indoctrination consists, in part, of creating an illusion of happiness. Essentially, this involves the substitution of material benefits for human values. Men are taught to believe that their society is progressive and superior and that it is engaged in a program of modernization which will undoubtedly lead to happiness. This is suggested by the secretary's proclamation which illustrates how tyranny substitutes alternatives for solutions the substitution of modernization for elimination of human misery, the substitution of statistics for action, the separation of the idea of change from value, and "provisional" liberty for basic right *I No es posible! t jCuando el senor Gobernador esta ^ contento, todo el mundo tiene que estarlo, perro! /Estar triste es un acto de sabotajej... No hay ningun motivo para estar triste! /Ninguno! /Miramos con optimismo el porvenir! /Todo va bien! iMuy bien! /Se construyen carreteras! /Aumenta el nivel de vida de las clases trabajadoras! /Hay libertad de imprenta, salvo para el error y la mentira! /Antes del Gobierno delAlmirante General Gessler, el pafs estaba entregado al caos, a la corrupcion, a la barbarie! /Con Gessler, paz, progreso, orden piiblico, alegrfa! El proletariado es feliz! Hemos destrulTdo los viejos privilegios! /Que^alegrfa..jJ-85 184Ibid., pp. 28-29. 185Ibid., p. 71. 121 All this has no effect on the real problems of misery, poverty, and unhappiness, and there is no guarantee of freedom for the individual. As suggested by "...libertad de imprenta, salvo para el error y la mentira," liberty is relative and subject to the whims of interpretation by tyranny. In this drama of illusion, tyranny often masquerades in the guise of peace, law, and order, thus encouraging an image of itself as the source of protection and stability. As a result of these acquired values, roles are reversed, and the liberators, the non-conformists, and the dissenters are often considered threats to law and peace. This is revealed in Melchtal's statement, Si todos los funcionarios fueran extranjeros, el pafs ya habrfa saltado. Si Gessler fuera extranjero, ya habria muerto. Pero es que ellos se presentan como los verdaderos patriotas. Nosotros somos los "terroristas". Asi enganan a mucha gente. Dicen que ellos conocen lo que le conviene al pais en este momento. A nosotros nos llaman bandidos, terroristas, boicoteadores, gansters; saboteadores de un plan nacional.-*-°° This same attitude is dramatized in the figure of the secretario whose exaggerated actions and description of Tell serve as a criticism of this type of indoctrination and those who accept it, (Como alucinado, describe el suceso como un hecho infernal.) /Aparece de pronto rodeado de todos los diablosl |Nos sujetan, nos amordazan con sus manos peludas! |Tira una flecha roja contra tu sombrero! |Lo atraviesa! iNosotros hacemos todo lo que podemos! iPero nada!1 #Es un diablo disparando su maldita ballesta!-^? ^88Ibid., pp. 47-48. l87Ibid., p. 70. 122 Political tyranny also perpetuates itself by means of suppression of dissent, for the latter can be a stimulus toward unmasking of the truth, a means to expose the lies surrounding tyranny. This is revealed in two episodes, Tell's recounting of his torture and the murder of the "ciego". These two episodes really have a dual function, illumination and agitation. For example, both shed light on the mechanics of tyranny. The latter often resorts to brutality in order to suppress dissent. The function of brutality is to instill fear in the people, for the former is a powerful incapacitating force. The torture of a leader, Tell, and the details of his torture cause fear, and they also provide an indirect means of torturing others. Furst explains this when he says "A veces duele m^s el dolor de los otros". ^88 The brutal murder of the "ciego" reveals that tyrants are even capable of killing anyone who would defend the truth or seek to expose it. These episodes or scenes of terror also serve to "agitate", for by recounting the details of torture and the anguish of Tell and the blind man, Sastre hopes to evoke a feeling of anger in the spectator, anger and the desire to act against injustice and tyranny. The consequences of a situation in which political tyranny exists are that men are caught in a trap of cruelty and lies which blinds them to the truth so that they do not perceive injustice. 188Ibid., p. 36. 123 Or, if they do, they do not protest in fear of their lives. The only alternatives seem to be to go on in servitude of accept the risks of dissent as Tell seems to imply, MDe que es mejor morir en un momento determinado. De que vivir no es lo mas importante". Indeed, men are tragic victims of political tyranny, and revolution seems to be the only means to break through this prison of lies, misery, and brutality. The spectator is led toward a realization of revolution as a solution as the result of investigation of other alternatives. Men are victims of tyranny, however, they are also agents in this same process of terror. This reality--man as an agent--pervades the work, and it is, in part, brought to light by characters who function as a chorus, the beggars and the blind man. It is revealed that man contributes to the perpetuation of tyranny by his very responses to it. In effect, the people of Altdorf are in part responsible for their situation, for it is a prison constructed with the blocks of apathy, collaboration, and fear. With the clues and comments of various characters, one can construct a situation that facilitates the situation between Gessler and the people of Altdorf. In fact, the latter represent the type of society in which the seeds of tyranny can prosper. For example, there is a general indifference to suffering and misery; the beggars can perceive this in the way they are treated, 189Ibid., p. 63. 124 La gente se cruza al otro lado y vuelve la vista para no vernos. iPero aquf*estamos! lAunque vuelvan la vista para otro lado, aqui e s t a m o s ! 190 All bear the burden of responsibility, the poor and the wealthy, the "blind" and the spectator. The beggars are spectators in a sense, for they see indifference and tyranny, yet they react with silence, Mendigo manco.--(Contemplando la obra.) Va a ser muy bonita la cdrcel Mendigo.sentado.--(sombrio.) Va a ser muy grande. Va a caber en ella todo el pais. Y la estamos construyendo nosotros mismos aunque no pongamos las piedras. ^Sabes como? Con el sllencio.1^1 The total action of Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes is both illumination and criticism of political tyranny, yet it is also an illumination and criticism of the situations that contribute to tyranny. One is most certainly the cruelty and evil of Gessler; another is indifference seen in varying degrees in the majority of characters in this play. Indifference is presented in Sastre's work as something absurd, for it perpetuates the role of men as puppets. This attitude is communicated by means of action and dialogue, for "la vieja" accepts the Governor's order to bow before the hat even though she recognizes its absurdity, lYa veras como lo saludo! Sere*la primera persona que haga esta estupidez. Luego iran desfilando todos los ciudadanos respetables. 190Ibid., p. 10. 191Ibid., p. 13. 192 Ibid., p. 54. 125 In doing so, the old woman appears comical and absurd as she screams loudly "Viva el Gobernador".193 However, this act of acceptance, indifference, has a greater significance that comes to light in the words of the "mendigo", words that also serve as a warning not only to the actor but to the spectator as well, Seras como un personaje de la borrachera. Es lo que somos todos. | Unos personajes de la gran borrachera del jefe! /Anda, .andai ' A ver como lo haces; que me reir^ desde aqudf. To be indifferent is, in part, to accept the role imposed by tyranny and in doing so, one sanctions tyranny. These are the consequences that so often go unnoticed, for, when one is in the midst of a situation, events appear as mere politics rather than as parts of a moving process. This is suggested in the remarks of the "capataz" who, motivated by personal gain, has chosen collaboration. It appears to him that he is just doing a "job", for the collaborator, like the apathetic, often does not consider the connection between himself and others, between him self and history. These connections are revealed by the "ciego", Ciego.--Eres un cobarde. Eres un egoxsta. Cualquiera podrfa escupirte a la cara. Yo le darfa la mano y le dirfa: "Has hecho bien". Capataz.— Tengo mujer, tengo hijos... Ciego.--Estas construyendo una carcel para tus hijos. 193Ibid., p. 55. 194Ibid.,pp. 54-55. 126 Capataz.--Es una casa. Este es mi oficio. Yo no se^* si es una carcel. A mdT me da igual que sirva para escuela, para manicomio o para carcel. Este es mi oficio. Construir casas. Yo no soy mas que un tecnico.. .Me dan un jornal y asf* comen mis hijos y tienen ropa en el invierno. Ciego.--Haces sufrir a-todos estos hombres. L con crueldad, Ayudas a que siga la tirania. It is not simply that men suddenly awaken one day and find themselves caught in a prison. Rather, such a situation is the result of the total action of many men. Therefore, the actions of each individual affect not only primary relationships, but the collective situation, for the ‘'capataz" is now shaping the situation in which his children will exist and perpetuating tyranny for a whole society. In this work, as in the others, Sastre tries to make the spectator aware of his significance and responsibility in relation to humanity and history. In view of this consideration, neither indifference, nor collaboration, nor fear are acceptable responses. The latter also perpetuates the status quo. This is evident in two tragic episodes, one by means of narration, the other viewed. Melchtal allowed his father to be tortured before his very eyes, and watched in silent rage and consent, Estaba loco de pena y de furia pero no me atrevr*. Vefa los ojos ensangrentados de mi padre y no sabfa ma*s que llorar y retorcerme las manos. Luego el dolor fue haci^hdose tranquilo. 195Ibid., pp. 19-20. 196Ibid., p. 45. 127 No one came to the aid of Furst; they watched as he was beaten,andho one oametbtheaid of Tell, for, as Melchtal explains, n ...tu sabes el miedo que tenfa todo el mundo,t.^^^ Hence, by the process of elimination, Sastre leads the spectator toward a consideration of revolution, that is, perception of injustice in combination with active, constructive efforts toward change. These concepts are important, for the works of Sastre suggest a definition of revolution as the efforts to secure full humanity for all. Although men by their responses connect violence with revolution, the latter need not always be identified with violence or the sudden capture of power.^9® In addition, the dramatist criticizes the careful calculation of revolution by laws and probabilities not yet experiences.^9^ There are those like FUrst who view revolution as a slow growth of consensus, as the careful construction of theories and programs. However, the draw backs of this conception of revolution include a pre-determined view of man and a loss of sight of reality. Furst speaks of programs based on the "normas inmutables del Derecho Natural", and of regulations which the people would follow. However, it appears that Furst would impose anotherpre-determined order on man, as tyranny already does. Such planning gives the illusion of progress, however, it does not solve the immediate and real dis- 1 9 7 -Ibid., r u - a p. 81.01 198 Williams, Tragedy, p. 76. 199Ibid., p. 65. 128 order of poverty and misery. It is Tell who makes these observations, Os escucho y me parece como si no hubiera injusticia y miseria en el pafs. Como si todo fuera mentira. Como si estuvierais contando cuentos. Como si fuerais a mon- tar un negocio. Como si esto fuera una catedra de la Universidad...^00 Hence, a revolution of words, a purely intellectual revolution produces the same effects as the other responses discussed; "Hay que actuar. El tirano engorda mientras nosotros no dedicamos a hablar". Revolution is necessary and imperative because man is responsible for creating and changing society, for creating history. However, the works of Sastre also suggest that revolution is inevitable, for while some men imprison, others, at conscious risk of death, seek to liberate. Such a man is Guillermo Tell. Tell is not motivated to action by a goal of national liberation, nor does he aspire to be a hero. Rather, his actions are the result of emotions, of anger and fear, of an inner need to challenge injustice, Hedwig.--Tienes loeojos muy tristes, Tell. Tell.--Entonces, puede que ocurra algo, Hedwig. Hedwig.--(*Vas a salir? Tell.— Sf. Hedwig.— (Con terror.) |No te vayas! 200sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 49. ^•^Ibid., p. 43. 909 Tell.--No puedo elegir. No puedo quedarme. Hence, Tell shoots the Governor's hat, and this act has unforeseen consequences. As a result, Tell comes face to face with "el Otro", with Gessler, and now evidence is revealed in regard to the relationship of man, liberty, and political tyranny. For the first time in the work, Gessler appears, drunken, grotesque, and sadistic. The implications of this appearance are several, for it reveals that "el Otro" is^' in effect, man, and that evil and political tyranny are both qualities of man. Thus, man is the source of oppression and misery for other men, and the relation ship between man and political tyranny is seen in the relationship between men. Although an extreme example, Gessler is really of the same kind as are the people of Altdorf, for he is indifferent and uncaring. In addition, the actions of Gessler reveal that it is the indifference and irrationality of other men that torture and oppress man, for Gessler forces Tell to jeopardize his sonfe life in a cruel spectacle, not for his act, but rather because of something he did not do, "Que no te hayas rei 202Ibid., p. 64. 130 He appears in his true role as an egotistical and indifferent director-tyrant. Gessler is seen in the act of directing men's lives— Tell and his son-~in a tragedy whose theme, like that of political tyranny, is the suffering and anguish of men, Teatro gratis para todos. "La tragedia de Guillermo Tell." Fasen, pasen, senores...Vamos a empezar. /Adelante! /Arriba el telon!2^4 The tyrant needs those to act out his orders just as theater needs its spectators, and in both cases, one cannot exist without the other. Hence, the idea of spectator really becomes a metaphor for an indifferent society, and it is Tell who reveals the connections, Ya lo ves, Walty. Es como un teatro. Hay muchos ojos indiferentes puestos en nosotros...Estan haciendo la digestion de una buena cena. No les importa lo que nos ocurra...Somos tan solo un espectaculo, hijo mio. Un espectaculo en el que a ellos les toca aplaudir o silbar.205 Too often the misery and suffering of other men is merely a spectacle for others, and such a situation often serves as a catalyst for an unexpected tragedy, unexpected violence. This is revealed in the closing episodes of Guillermo Tell, for Tell, as a result of human error, kills his son, and as a result of grief, of fear, and of anger, brutally murders the Governor. Brutality is answered with brutality, and the results are tragic; an un controllable flood of violence, 2Q4Ibid., p. 75. 205 __ Ibid., p. 75. 131 (Tell da un terrible alarido. Es como un aullido de fiera.) ...Despedazad ese cuerpoi /Rompedlo en mil pedazos! iQue yo puedo coger su cabeza por los pelos y es- trellarla contra la pared! j Mueran los tiranosI^O^ The consequences of these events are the death of Gessler, the restoring of a semblance of order, and liberation of the country, yet sadness and misery remain. As the episodes become epic, however, certain generalizations and conclusions may be derived. Indeed, the total action of the work suggests that men create and maintain tyranny, therefore, it is not something super natural or transcendent, rather, it is something negotiable. In addition, the inevitable existence of individuals like Tell suggest that as long as injustice remains, revolution will occur for, QtevolutionJ It is born in pity and terror: in the perception of a radical disorder in which the humanity of some men is denied and by that fact the idea of humanity itself is denied. It is born in the actual suffering of real men thus exposed, and in all the consequences of this suffering: degeneration, brutali zation, fear, hatred, envy. Revolution is an action of real men, for the sake of real men, and thus subject to the weakness and emotion of real men. This is the realization of Tell, Es la historia que me hubiera gustado vivir. Lo que a mi me hubiera gustado que fuera la historia de Guillermo Tell..Son acciones de heroe, de hombre fuerte y sin nervios?®® 206Ibid., p. 79. 2^Williams, Tragedy, p. 77. 2®^Sastre, Guillermo Tell, p. 84. 132 And, revolution is, by necessity, against real men, and the consequences are sacrifice and the suffering of those like Tell whose lives have been reshaped by the cruel realities of revolution. The previous works discussed present a complete picture of the situation of man and injustice, together with its consequences. These works have shown that as long as some men sanction oppression, others will reject it thus making revolution a necessity and a reality. However, revolution, born out of a desire for full humanity for all, is often twisted and deformed until it becomes a source of terror and restriction not unlike that of injustice. Alfonso Sastre investigates these aspects of the revolutionary process in Prologo pat^fcico and ET1 pan de todos. In Prologo patetico, Sastre presents the material for an investigation of revolution as oppression in two ways, the information as theory, is expressed in dialogue, and it is suggested by action, in the personal experiences of Oscar. The first cuadro of this play consists of a discussion of some aspects of revolution by four.members of the Party. The purpose of this discussion seems to be suggested in a statement which Oscar makes, "Un d£a se puede hablar..., y no hay que tener miedo de plantearse las cosas cara a cara.,.^09 By means of this discussion, it seems that Sastre intends to confront the spectator with a frank and sometimes shocking consideration of revolution in our times. 9 ( ) Q A X ^Sastre, Prologo patetico, p. 170. 133 Commitment to the revolution breeds its own forms of oppression and imprisonment. This is suggested by the physical situation of the four revolutionaries. As the curtain rises, the scene reveals a drab room not unlike the hut in Escuadra hacia la muerte. There are men here because, as revolutionaries, they must meet secretly. This secrecy and isolation is due to the threat of those who view revolution only as a harmful process, and they pursue the "liberators" as they would a criminal. The immediate physical situation is restrictive and breeds a mood of gloom, and these circumstances prompt discussion of the revolution and lead to revelation of a parallel between the immediate physical situa tion and the concrete situation of the individual committed to the revolution. The latter is a form of imprisonment, for it restricts the existence of the revolutionary so that he is not free to enjoy full social participation with friends or family. The sadness of this deprivation is conveyed when a contrasting picture is presented in reminiscence about past moments, youthful and carefree moments of companionship.2^-® Dedication to demands of the Party must take precedence over personal life, and the revolutionary often finds himself very much alone as Oscar suggests, ...muchas veces pienso que una ficha en un partido revolucionario basta para vivir...Pero a veces la Q a familiaj siento muv lejana.. .Muchos dfas es como si no existiera... 210Ibid., p. 173. 2 Ibid., p. 169. 134 The stark reality of the individual's social position is revealed by Beltran, "La familia de un revolucionario es algo que se desvanece pronto...Se queda uno solo, ya veras.212 The revolutionary process becomes a source of oppression and restriction because of a hardening process, that is, the condens ing of efforts into a party, and the establishment of a static set of regulations and ideals which are imposed upon people. The individual agent becomes a servant of the revolution. He is like a cell in a larger body, and thus forms part of a collective whole. His own personality is suppressed, and his attitudes become those of the Party; his existence becomes the moulded material of an idea. These ideas are suggested by Anton, ...(Se acerca al telefono. Lo mira fijamente. Sigue sonando. Monotono.) Puede ser Pablo...No hay que cogerlo...No estamos. Esa es la consigns. Reunion - __ secreta. No hay nadies en tu habitacidn, Beltran. Ni tu, ni yo, ni este.. .estamos aqujf, como si esto fuera tan solo el llenzo de una pantalla..., imagenes...213 The word "imagen" is significant for it evokes the idea of a like ness. In addition, an image is superficial; it passes over the screen without having left evidence of its ever having been there. It is temporary. These qualities serve to characterize the situation of the individual who is committed to the revolution, for his only value to the Party lies in the superficial aspects, the acts. Feelings, ideas, and attitudes are only obstacles as Pablo suggests, ^•^Ibid., p. 169. 213Ibid., p. 167. 135 i Veo que te has dedlcado a pensar. Todo eso es malsano. El Partido necesita, ahora mas que nunca, hombres de accion. El pensamiento es un lastre... 14 The individual who is committed is thus a functioning part of the whole, a single cell which, if it begins to malfunction and threaten the health of the Party, may be discarded. In this case, the revolutionary is then viewed as non-man; he is like a diseased segment as are the "enemies" of the revolution. Hence, both can be destroyed without feelings of remorse, El jefe...A una orden suya todo esto saltara^en mil pedazos. Sera tremendo..., como una hernia que se estrangula de pronto y no se sabe lo que va a ocurrir...215 The revolutionary is really trapped in a series of concentric prisons. One is formed by dedication to the Party, for this excludes normal social relationships. Outside the immediate walls are other prisons built by those segments of society that view the "liberator" as criminal. Beyond these walls lie death. However, the individual is not even free in death, for, he enters the annals of history, and becomes subject to the judgment of those who come after. That is, the revolutionary is not even free to give the final interpretation to himself or to his acts; others will condemn or justify him, 214Ibid., p. 188. id., p. 187. 136 Los demagogos. Esta* derramandose demasiada sangre. La haran caer sobre nosotros, sobre los que la hemos derramado. Nos llamaran extremistas o traidores.., grupos incontrolados, dedicados al bandidaje y al terro- rismo...216 Revolution— its confinement and demands— is a source of anguish for those committed to it. It seeks to twist and shape the attitudes of the individual, and the Party demands that he form a priori concepts. For example, agents like Anton and Oscar must learn to hate men they have never seen before, and they must arbitrarily divide men into "friend" and "enemy", good and bad, as though men had a pre-determined nature. Such demands are not only contradictory to traidtional beliefs, but they are also contradictory to the purpose of the revolution as suggested by Oscar, Ha decidido luchar por los demas. El se considera perdido, pero piensa que la desgracia de los demas quiza' tenga remedio. Y luchando por los demas tiene una sorpresa..., siente que sus heridas se cierran..., aunque el mal quede dentro siempre...A veces, entre los amigos, uno se queda triste y sin ninguna frase que decir...Me gusta pertenecer al partido...217 In a sense, the individual is obliged to assume a role heretofore accorded only to God, the taking of life, and he is expected to do so with hate in his heart, as though this feeling alone will justify his act. In addition, these demands do not instill in the individual a sense of satisfaction or of belonging, rather they ^•^Ibid., p. 174. 217Ibid., p. 169. 137 evoke a sense of anguish and of alienation as described by Anton, Todo se ha convertido en amor y en odio para nosotros..., amor y odio. No, no me asusta matar, pero es que para matar a uno necesito odiarlo y, al mismo tiempo, amar a los demas, porque son buenos y desgraciados, y se mere- cen que yo mate a quien los hace sufrir, enfermar, palidecer..., tener hambre...Toda esa pobre gente se merece que mueran "algunos" y hasta que los matemos con odio...Pero es que cuando voy a cumplir una orden del partido, es extrano...No puedo odiar...Me quedo solo, frfb...218 If the revolutionary is blinded by commitment to ideas, then he can obey without emotion and without consideration of consequences. However, if he is aware, then he sees that his actions are, in fact, against rather than for humanity, that the process of.liberation has turned into an institution of violence and terror, similar to that which he sought to abolish, El acto como tal es "gratuito" segun dicen los anarquistas; pero para mx es repulsivo realizar un acto asi..., inhumano y extra^io.. .para mi*, que no soy un anarquista. A ningun hombre se le ha exigido nunca tanto como a nosotros.219 Revolution is a time of violence, of suffering, and of repression not only for those who are directly involved in the process, but also for those in whose name it is made. For example, revolution acquires its own institutional qualities and views men as objects. Not only open enemies, but others as well are abstracted, reduced to things, and killed from lists with the indifference of a Gessler, 218Ibid., p. 171. 219Ibid., p. 170. 138 Digo que es curioso. (Un silencio. Rxe de un modo mervioso, como con un estremecimiento.) "Algunos hombres nos habran muerto."^No os asustsaveces pensar que muere alguien y que no sabemos quidn va a morir? Todos pueden morir. Todos...bajo nuestro g o l p e . 2 2 0 Often the idea of revolution becomes abstracted and set above real men, and those of the liberation process lose sight of reality and become indifferent to real people and real misery. The consequences are that connections between revolution and society and revolution and history are broken. Acts are viewed as "gratuitous", as the completion of an order rather than as the beginning of consequences. Hence, men begin to think only in terms of objects, and to believe that destructive power is against only "enemies", "institutions", and non-human elements. Such a notion is utopian, for revolution is an action against men, against friends, and families, not just a vague action that can be justified with an idea. These two attitudes are revealed in this dialogue, Beltran.--(JLlamas "actuar vagamente" a provocar que un tren caiga en el vacxo? Un tren en el que va, por ejemplo, un alto funcionario del Estado o un jefe de la Policfa... Anton.--(Sombrio.) Pero, ademas, The consequences of this situation are that revolution 220Ibid., p. 170. 221Ibid., p. 171. 139 sanctions atrocities, for they are viewed simply as the means to an end. Sacrifice, suffering, and misery are viewed only as a "fase previa", and the loss of human life becomes merely a tactical revolutionary situation as suggested in the words of Oscar, Mueren "otros" tambien, pero ni siquiera esa sangre es inutil. La accidn en conjunto— incluso con sus "inocentes sacrificados," como tu"dices— hace que se conmueva esa super-estructura que es el Estado, un Estado que hay que desmontar a toda costa.^22 What emerges from this discussion is a picture of revolution as a tragic reality, for it is not merely progressive and liberating. Instead, there is the reality of a process becoming an order, and it demonstrates its own forms of inhumanity, indifference, and brutality. Anton provides an apt characterization of revolution in our times when he states, Todo esto es un juego sucio. Ibamos a hacer una revolucion y estamos haciendo una canallada.223 Indeed, revolution is an action by men, for men, and against real men. This is the reality that Antorf emphasizes, Es que yo no creo que haya que desmontar un Estado. Un estado no es mas que sus hombres.224 However, theory and words often fall on deaf ears. They do not suffice as a means of communication and agitation. Rather, one must see and experience the disorder and the suffering of revolution 222Ibid., pp. 170-171 2 2 3 Ibid., p. 174. 224 Ibid., p. 171. 140 before he can really comprehend it. Sastre provides an opportunity for the spectator to accomplish this by dramatizing the previously- discussed theories by means of the personal experiences of a character, Oscar. The experiences of Oscar may be viewed as a trial, for they are the dramatization and investigation of some of the previously- mentioned concepts about revolution and their consequences. The collective relationships of revolution and man and revolution and history are reflected in the personal experience, for Oscar’s existence is the moulded material of ideas, ...Oscar no es un teorico. Un teorico es un hombre que, a cada momento, puede cambiar, sin morir, de teorfa. Oscar ha puesto en el juego su existencia, no simplemente sus palabras.225 Oscar is committed to the revolution; he obeys its orders and views each of his acts as a single and isolated step toward liberation. As a result, Oscar has lost sight of the connection between himself, society, and history. Hence, when Oscar blows up a bus, it has no other significance to him other than that .he has fulfilled his duty. However, from this moment on, there is a series of unexpected events that serve to shed light on the relationships between man, his acts, society, and history. An act is not "gratuitous" as the anarquists imply. Rather, it has unthought of consequences, both collective and personal. 225Ibid., p. 186. 141 The bomb explosion, meant to kill only the War Minister, results in a nightmare of violence. Innocent people who had never even seen or heard of Oscar are killed, and an act of "liberation” becomes an act of destruction, Ha habido muertos. Y, por lo visto, muchos heridos. A Jaime le ha impresionado una mujer muerta, tirada en el asfalto, con la falda subida v las medias arrugadas, en un charco de sangre.22® Yet, Oscar does not at first see the connection between his actions and others, for he justifies these "inocentes sacrificados” as a necessary evil, an unavoidable step in the process of liberation. Rather, the human connection is realized in a very painful way, for the suggestion that Oscar's brother has been killed in the explosion suddenly gives new meaning to a revolutionary act. It has social and personal consequences. The above event serves as evidence that revolutionary action, no matter how it is justified, affects society. It is not merely against objects but against real people, against families. There is not only the violence and the chaos, rather, there is also the suffering imposed on poeple by the reshaping of lives. This is revealed by Oscar's mother, for the commitment of Oscar to revolution undercuts family relationships thus denying him and his mother the full enjoyment of primary relationships, 226Ibid., p. 178. 142 Siempre hemos estado bien en casa, The above quotation reveals other implications that suggest the oppressive qualities of revolution. The latter often seeks to impose an idea on people, a goal as a substitute for immediate happiness. However, as Oscar's mother implies, happiness is a basic desire, and theory or idealistic goals do not suffice as a substitute. There is a contradiction here, for man is born to live, not to prepare for l i f e . ^ 8 There is yet another aspect to the connection between revolutionary action and society, for Oscar's act serves as a means to imprisonment. In effect, he is imprisoned for his "crime". This action has several implications. It reveals the ambiguity that results in a time of revolution, for a single act may on the one hand be justified, and on the other condemned. Hence, the individual is subject to contradictions, and man and revolutionary action are subject to the judgment of society. The latter has the power to define man and his acts, and they are only justified if society shares his ideals and cause. Because there are segments 227Ibid., p . 176. 22^Williams, Tragedy, p. 171 143 of society who do not view revolutionary action as simply liber ation, Oscar has now been given a new role, that of "criminal". He discovers that society has its own prisons, a situation which is unbearable for man, for he is isolated and cut off from society while in the midst of it, ...No hay derecho a tener a un hombre en una celda as if.. .Un hombre necesita ver caras de hombres... Un hombre tiene derecho a eso para asegurarse de que en su casa van a d o r m i r . 2 2 ^ This concrete prison and the anguish which it evokes in Oscar serves as a catalyst to reveal to Oscar his true situation as revolutionary. He perceives a parallel between the concrete jail and that created by revolution, for Oscar realizes he is not free. He is a tool restricted and shaped by the forces of revolution, for his responses are mechanical, ...yo vefa que no hablaba, que me hacfan morir a golpes y que yo no hablaba. Vefa mi silencio duro e impenetrable. Lo estaba haciendo yo, y sin embargo lo veia ya como un hecho, como algo que ya no dependia de mx. Me limitaba a hacerlo. Ni siquiera se me ocurrio*f en ningun momento, que era posible h a b l a r . 2 3 0 What becomes apparent from Oscar's words is the image of an individual as servant and a loss of personality which results from the Party and, at the same time is a threat to it. For, the struggle to end oppression and alienation is seen as producing its own new kinds of alienation, and when the latter is perceived, O O Q ^ ^ ^^Sastre, Prologo patetico, p. 183. 230Ibid., p. 188. 144 there is a new struggle against it. Hence, when Oscar becomes aware of his true situation, it become unbearable, and he turns against the Party, thus becoming its enemy, ...A mf^el Partido no me importa ya nada. He venido a hacerme cargo de esta celula...Voy a actuar por mi cuenta.231 Oscar accuses Pablo of being the source of his oppression and imprisonment, for Pablo is a leader; he represents the revolution and, in part is responsible for its course, Busco al culpable y veo que eres tu. A ti no tiene que importarte, como no te importa que muera el dueno de una taberna, o el director de un Banco, o un taxista..., si es en el cumplimiento de una orden... No solo no te importa, sino que eres el unico culpable de que haya muerto. Eres el jefe. Todo emana de ti. La muerte, la vida y el terror.232 This accusation serves to reveal still other characteristics of revolution, and its effects on man. By accusing Pablo, Oscar accuses the revolution of hardness, of placing an order above the lives of real men, of the paradox of brutality becoming falsely associated with liberation, and of creating its own forms of alienation. Hence, revolution is seen not as merely progressive and liberating, rather, it is a process that includes violence, suffering, and the loss of the reality of life. Out of emotion and a desire for liberty from the restrictions of revolution, Oscar kills Pablo. This act may be viewed as a 231Ibid., pp. 188-189. 232Ibid., p. 190. 145 denunciation of the revolution as it has been presented and an indication of its incompatability with the basic desires and needs of men. However, Pablo is both symbolic and real; he is the revolution and man, and this reality reestablishes the connections between the individual and the action. Men are victims of revo lution, but they also conceive and nurture it; they determine its course of growth. That revolution is oppressive, cruel, and indifferent is the result of both leaders and followers. This is revealed by Pablo just before he dies, Hablas de "culpabilidad". Yo te digo que nadie es culpable. Moreover, revolution is not just an action of "evil" men, for good and evil are inseparable. Rather, this process is created and maintained by those like Pablo 'que amaba a la Humanidad', yet who give orders to kill, and by those like Oscar who love humanity but obey the orders. Revolution becomes oppression because men become blinddd to reality; they abstract and elevate an idea until it becomes more important than men, yet, if men accept oppression in others or in themselves, other men, by the very act of living, will reject it and oppose revolution. Atrocities cannot be justified by merely theory or idea, because an idea cannot sustain men indefinitely. This is shown 233Ibid., p. 191. 146 in part when Oscar kills Pablo out of revenge for his brother's "death", ...esta tarde he xnatado a un hombre, y lo he matado sobre tu cadaver...Yo lo he hecho por ti, tj sabes? porque para los otros mu£.''fcos inutiles tenfa una justificacion teorica...“ However, even revenge does not suffice as justification for murder, for men are subject to circumstances, and they cannot pre-determine the definition or the justification for an act. Oscar realizes this when he returns home and finds his brother alive. The suggestion and verification of Julio's death was a trick, and now Oscar finds himself in a "ratonera" of circumstances, at the mercy of the judgment of others, ...pero si fctfhubieras muerto...es horrible pensarlo... pero si tu hubieras muerto...Yo tendrfa ahora alguna justificacion y no estaria..., tan perdido...233 Oscar's experiences have unmasked, one by one, the fallacies of the presented theories of revolution. Man's acts, whether as obedience to an order or as the result of emotion, are not gratuitous. They have causes and effects on society. This holds true for the total revolutionary action, and the latter cannot be justified by theory. Justification lies with those who come after, for the revolutionary is creating history, and he and the process will be judged by the post-revolutionary generation. When re volutionary action becomes epic, there are at least two possible 234Ibid., p. 194. 235 Ibid., p. 194. 147 interpretations. Perhaps the disorder will be forgotten, and with it the experiences of Oscar. Perhaps all that will be remembered is the cause, the noble ideal, and thus the atrocities overlooked as Oscar suggests, Supongo que todavra quedan hombres...Y la revolucion continua, y a mlT debenapartarme como una basura, y ellos venceran...Estoy alegre, y esta alegria me dignifica un poco, y ya no me siento tan miserable...Luchan por una nueva justicia social, Julio. Piden una vida digna para todos los hombres...Si lo consiguen, no importa que hayan muertos algunos hombres inocentes... 36 However, if this occurs, then the illusions of revolution will also continue. In these words of Oscar there is a suggestion of a re establishment of the same situation that led to his misfortune, the emphasis on an idea and the indifference toward human life. However, if the future brings about progress and positive change, then past suffering may be honoured, even justified. Some may look at history and say that the revolutionary action was necessary. Then, the total action could be viewed as "El triste prologo de un largo dra feliz".23^ The problem of revolution, liberty, and man is also viewed in El^ pan de todos. In this work, revolution is seen as sacrifice, and to communicate this aspect, Sastre recreates part of the myth of Orestes, the Chorephori. Oreste's murder of his mother Clytemnestra provides a means to express an aspect of the relation ship between man and revolution. 236Ibid., p. 195. 237 Ibid., p. 196. 148 Revolution is presented as an awesome and crushing force in march that will not and cannot be stopped. These characteristics are presented in the prologue and derived from David's speech, ...hemos pedido...una profunda y, si es preciso, cruel accion purificadora. No estamos dispuestos a consentir que una minor£a de criminales entorpezca la marcha de la Revolucion. Sabed, pues, que estamos vigilantes y dispuestos a todo. Sabed que la Revolucion a pesar del ego£smo criminal de unos cuantos, est^en marcha.238 Revolution emerges as a force that is dialectical in its movement, for it is for life, for men, and for a new order, yet, it is also hardness and destruction, "el tiempo de la sangre," ...No va a detenernos--os lo aseguro--el miedo a la sangre...no vamos a vacilar, cuando alguien intenta retrasar y entorpecer el proceso revolucionario; no vamos a vacilar, digo, en hacer un escarmiento ejemplar...No ha pasado tampoco el tiempo de la sangre...Pero la Revolucion triunfara y un dia, estaremos contentos de haber emprendido este aspero c a m i n o . 2 3 9 The collective relationship of man and revolution is reflected in the experiences of David Harko, for he is an image of the revolution; he reflects its qualities. Like the collective action, David is committed to a cause of liberation and justice, "...una nueva vida para todo el mundo...y ya no habrfa miseria ni dolor..."24-0 jn effect, David has become so devoted to this cause that it has become a form of fatality, a "demonio" which pulls him along a path of destruction, for Marta remarks, 238 Sastre, El^ pan de todos, pp. 11-12. 239Ibid., p. 12. 240Ibid., p. 26. 149 ...lo veo consumido, como si estuviera ardiendo por dentro y no se diera cuenta...El tiene como un demonio dentro que no le d e j a . 2 4 1 David appears heroic in his dedication to the cause of liberty, in his fortitude, in his willingness to endure suffering, even self-destruction, for he tells his mother, Estoy comprometido a seguir. No dejarxa esto por nada del mundo...... Es horrible. Pero ya no queda mas remedio que cargar con las consecuencias. Ya no queda mas que aceptar lo que venga: el espanto, la verguenza y la angustia: Ya no hay nada que discutir. Ya no depende de mi nada.^4^ However, this attitude, the words, "Ya no depende de m£ nada," also negate the admirable qualities of David and the revolution. They suggest the manner in which the liberation process becomes oppression and brutality for the men in whose name it is made. For revolutionary action is not merely personal, nor is it a matter of only personal suffering, and it is not merely the completion of orders. To adopt such an attitude is to break the connections that exist between the revolutionary and society. Loss of the reality that revolutionary action affects society, and the placing of an idea above the lives of men result in oppression and destruction. These attitudes and consequences are seen in the experiences and relationships of David Harko. For example, he demonstrates an indifference toward men, for the "enemies" of the revolution are viewed as non-men, as a disease that must be destroyed, 2^-llbid., p. 14. 242Ibid., pp. 38-39. 150 Se ha decldido emplear una dureza extrema en el castlgo. Actuaremos, por unos meses, como si no tuvieramos piedad. Es el unico modo de atajar la enfermedad. Es...como una lepra h o r r i b l e . ^43 This same attitude is dramatized in David's relationship with Yudd, for the latter had betrayed the Cause and now he merits a non-human treatment, that of "un escarmiento ejemplar". The pattern of David Harko's experiences thus reflect that of revolution, a dialectical movement which is for men, yet it be comes hardened and directed against men. This pattern also includes destruction, for the actions for liberation and change involve destruction of what is already established, whether ih the form of institutions or personal relationships, and destruction of human life. These consequences are revealed in the experiences of David. For example, there is the corroding of his relationship with Marta, for devotion to the cause necessitates absence from home and imposes suffering. This is the sacrifice of personal happiness and that of Marta to provide for the happiness of those who will come later, as revealed in this dialogue, David.— Procuraremos que todo sea hermoso. Marta.— Si, ya se*. Cuando tu*dices "todo", todo no somos tu y yo, s m o los otros.. .aunque tu y yo muramos.244 Devotion to the revolution results in destruction of life, 243Ibid., p. 28. 244-,.. ot- Ibid., p. 25. 151 and. this is revealed in the experiences of David. He gives the order for the purge, an act meant to renew the life of the liberation process by means of destruction of corruption and those responsible for it. However, this act has unforeseen consequences, for it results in Juana's death. This event not only reveals that revolutionary action involves sacrifice, but also that sacrifice which cannot be predicted, for there is the loss of life not merely of those directly involved, but also of the innocent, of those whose only aspirations are for personal happiness. Thus, revolution is a form of fetality, which, like that of the ancient Greeks, leads men against their will to the destruction of life, of those most dear to them. Hence, Sastre findsthemyth of Orestes still very much alive, and for a brief moment, there is a fusion of the two, David and Orestes, ...Me encuentro extrano...Es como si fuera otro hombre y estuviera viviendo en una epoca oscura y magica... como si hubiera faltado a una ley muy antigua... However, there are also differences. Orestes was driven by a force, beyond the power of man, to fulfill a curse. David was motivated by a man-made fatality, for revolution and its negative qualities are the product of men, and "Tal vez se pueda hablar de una nueva metafisica en la que Dios ha sido sustituido por el hombre".24^ Sastre is insistent upon the revelation of circumstances as 245Ibid., p. 57. ^4^Mar£a de Quinto, La tragedia, p. 134, created by men. He achieves this revelation by plunging the spectator into an investigation that involves dissection of the present situation and of its underlying elements, the events of history. However, it is the responsibility of the spectator to discover the clues and evaluate the evidence before conclusions can be drawn. For example, what seems fatality is really the result of human action. There is the fact that revolution is an action of men, a reality already established in the previously- discussed works of Sastre. In addition, the immediate tragic situation which involves David and his family is the result of several actions; it was David's hardness, his blind commitment to a political imperative, and his refusal to deviate from this course that insured Juana Is death. Yudd is also responsible for the situation, for he had tricked Juana, and he had robbed, thus helping to perpetuate the already-existent misery and poverty. Marta implicates Juana in the situation as well, for she says, "Y su ultimo esfuerzo por llevarnos a todos es el que nos ha traido a este dolor de hoy..."^^ That is, Juana's implication in the situation results from her efforts to escape the poverty to which she and her family had long been condemned. The particular situation, with its ingredients of injustice, suggested by Yudd, the lack of resignation to misery, Juana, and the hardening of the efforts for liberation reflected in David, is a reflection of the general cir- ^^Sastre, El pan de todos, p. 51. 153 l cumstances in times of revolution. The comparison is made and the particular situation is connected to the total process by references to history. These references appear primarily in the discussions between Paula and Marta, and they reveal the circumstances of poverty and misery that led David*s father and David after him to commit ment to the Party. The purpose of these references is to show that the present situation is rooted in the past, and that revolution is the total action of many men like David and his father. It is an action which is born in the efforts to abolish injustice and its way of life, to make way for a new one of justice. And, viewing past and present together, it becomes evident that the course and characterization are also dependent upon the actions of men. Indeed, revolution is a form of oppression for it involves sacrifice, yet, sacrifice cannot be pre-justified as a means to liberation. The reason is that revolutionary action is subject to the judgment of others. For example, David justifies his act as a renewal of the faith, a loss of life for a new life, Durante toda la noche ha habido hogueras encendidas en todo el pa£s...los campesinos han cantado y bailado alredor del fuego...y miles de obreros se han dormido oonfiando de nuevo en la Revolucion.. .iHabia que hacer e s t o . * 2 4 8 Often, an act is not judged by the motives given by its initiator, but rather for others. This is revealed when David says, 248Ibid., p. 55. 154 "Me estas acusando de no se* que^crimen. Me estas llamando asesino."2^ Revolutionary action is subject to the contradictions of society, ~ for the latter has the power to interpret acts. In effect, the consequences of David's act are not seen as a renewal of faith, the means to a cause, but rather as a preservation of brutality. Paula suggests that this action is the sanctioning and perpetuation of atrocities, ...--iServira's de ejemplo a unas juventudes malditas y desde ahora todas las madres miraran a sus hijos de otra formal iPorque desde ahora las mujeres tendran miedo de sus hijos! iContigo empieza un nuevo tiempo, David! iUn tiempo en el que todo estara^permitido. 0 David comes to a realization of his guilt in his motherfe death, and this is communicated by means of a contrast with Orestes, • ^ ^ I He ido mas alia de mis propias fuerzas! (Todo el mundo ha confiado demasiado en mf*! (Han puesto en m i sus esperanzas! |Pero no sirvo!_/Pertenezco todavfa al mundo en que tu vives! /Estoy aqui’, atterrorizado! jTiemblo! /Quisiera pararlo todo, destruir el patfbulo! iPerdon, camaradas .. .• 51 Because David cannot support this burden of guilt, he kills himself. This action has several implications; it serves as a denunciation of revolution as oppression and destruction, and this self-inflicted death is a renewal of the guilt which man bears for his tragic circumstances. However, this act is dialectical in its interpretation, and this is revealed in the closing scene. The Party views David's death as sacrifice for a cause and he is seen as a hero, ^ ^ Ibid., pp. 56-57. 251Ibid., p. 58. 155 David Harko ha muerto en un accidente.. .Sus ultima's palabras fueron de solidaridad para la causa, de Amor al Partido y de fe en el porvenir...David Harko es un ejemplo para las juventudes del Partido...David ...es un heroe de la Revolucion. 252 In addition, Marta suggests that David has found salvation. If one views the total pattern of David's experiences, it appears as the paradox of David saving his life through losing it, of becoming a hero through suffering. In addition, since David reflects the revolution, then its movement may be characterized in this same pattern, the action of people renewing life through destroying it...but the revolution is still in march; the pattern is still being shaped. Indeed, it seems that the dramatist suggests that the outcome, the creation of new life, the final interpretation is yet to be decided, and the decision rests with men. 252Ibid., p. 62. CHAPTER III CONCLUSIONS Alfonso Sastre pursues the goal of liberty by means of treatment of this theme in his works. Liberty for this dramatist is an ideal, both a personal one and one which he proposes for the spectator. His works suggest that men should be "comprometido- para-la libertad", that is, committed to liberty from injustice. It is not just that this is a worthy mission for men, but rather such a commitment surpasses the pessismism of those who view only the tragic condition of man without due respect for his possibilities and capabilities for escaping it, for Sastre remarks, ...el artista revolucionario opondra*su estar coraprometido-para-la libertad, al inconformismo burgues que consistiria en auto declararse libre para la nada; autodeclarada libertad en el modo del nSein--Zum--Tode"...la cual ve por fin, en el horizonte de su propio deshielo, desaparecer un fantasma nada aterradora ahora: la agonxa originaria pero ya en el modo nuevo de lo que va quedando como verdaderamente "l£mite"--la muerte— en el real desmontaje revolucionario, a que, a pesar de todo y felizmente, se ha ido procediendo mientras tanto; el desmontaje de...la injusticia.^ Sastre1s works, although realistic in their presentation of social-political problems, exhude an air of optimism, for there ■^Sastre, Anatomia, pp. 193-194. 156 157 is the suggestion that liberty and justice are possible. Alfonso Sastre achieves this optimism, a confidence in man, by unmasking some of the forms of oppression in our times to reveal that they are in fact created and maintained by men. Thus, he suggests that the tragic condition of man (other than death) is due to circumstances created by men, and that it is in the power of men to change these circumstances. In effect, the dramatist tries to "agitate" the spectator to act on and constructively change his own situation, to pursue the goal of liberty, not blindly but in the full awareness of the mechanics of oppression and the consequences of efforts for liberation. This information comes to light as a result of the dramatic presentation of the theme of liberty in Sastre's works. The works of Alfonso Sastre suggest that the means of liberty are those of rebellion and revolution; they are both in evitable as long as injustice exists, and they are necessary if man is to change circumstances and shape a better future. However, Sastre balances man's rights and instincts with his responsibilities, for his works reveal that men must consider the consequences of their acts, for they live in relation to society and history. His works also reveal that the course and outcome of the liberation process is dependent upon the choice and the responses of men. Thus, liberty in the works of Alfonso Sastre is an ideal and a mission to which men must dedicate themselves if a better world is to be created; yet, liberty involves the anguish of choice and responsibility. 158 The theater of Alfonso Sastre will someday receive the attention and recognition which it deserves, for Alfonso Sastre, like his characters, is a rebel, a fighter who will pursue his goal until it is won. Yet, before that moment is reached, whether onstage or off, his works can be appreciated and valued for their perceptive revelation and investigation of contemporary man, of the contradictions of our times, one that must be recognized as an age of revolution, of the struggle for liberty. BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources The Plays of Alfonso Sastre Ha sonado la muerte (1946). 1 Teatro de Vanguardia: quince obras de Arte Nuevo. Madrid: Editorial Perman, 1949. Comedia sonambula (not performed)* Teatro de Vanguardia: quince obras de Arte Nuevo. Madrid: Editorial Permdn, 1949. Uranio 235 (1946). Teatro de Vanguardia: quince obras de Arte Nuevo. Madrid: Editorial PernUfn, 1949. Cargamento de suerfos (1948). Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro. No. 3, Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964. Prologo patetico (not performed). Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro. No. 3, Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964. El cubo de la basura (not performed). Tres dramas espaooles: teatro. No. 1. Paris: Editions de la Librairie du Globe, 1965. Escuadra hacia la muerte (1953). Coleccion Teatro. No. 77.^ La mordaza (1954). C. T., No. 126. La Sangre de Dios (1955). C. T., No. 152. El pan de todos (1957). C, T., No. 267, El cuervo (1957). C. T., No. 246. *T>ate in parentheses indicates the year of initial performance. ^For convenience the series Coleccion Teatro, published v/eekly by Ediciones Alfil, Madrid, will be abbreviated C. T., followed by the number of the publication. 159 160 Medea: de Eurxpides, version para un teatro popular del siglo XX (1958). C. T., No. 387. La cornada (1960). C. T,, No. 253. Ana Kleiber (1960). C. T.,No. 171. En la red (1961). C. T., No. 361. Los acreedores : de August Strindberg, version libre (1962). C. T., No. 376. Mulato: de Langston Hughes, version libre (1963). C. T., No. 412. Por la noche (performed under the title of Oficio de tinieblas. 1967). Tres dramas espanoles: teatro.. No. 1. Paris: Editions de la Librairie du Globe, 1965. 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"Coloquios sobre problemas actuales del teatro en Espana," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones S. A., 1964, pp. 103-108. "Declaracio*n del G. T. R.,n Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro. No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones S. A., 1964, pp. 117-118. "Documento sobre el teatro espanol," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones S. A., 1964, pp. 119-125. Drama y sociedad. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones S. A., 1956. "Encuesta sobre el teatro de Valle Inclan," Insula, Nos. 176-177 "Espacio-tiempo y drama," Primer Acto, No. 6 (1958), pp. 13-16. "Introduction" to Medea, C. T., No. 387, pp. 5-10. "Manifiesto del T. A. S.," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3, Madrid: Taurus Ediciones S. A., 1964, pp. 99-102. "No entienden de teatro," Primer Acto, No. 10 (1959), pp. 2-3. "Nota del adaptador," Mulato, C. T., No. 412, pp. 7-8. "Nota del autor," La cornada, C. T., No. 253, p. 7. "Nota del autor," Por la noche♦ Tres dramas espanoles: teatro, No. 1. Paris: Editions de la Librairie du Globe, 1965, pp. 187-188. "Nota previa," El cubo de la basura. Tres dramas espanoles: teatro No. 1. Paris: Editions de la Librairie du Globe, 1965, pp. 27-28. "Noticia del teatro espanol contemporaneo," Sur, No. 292 (1965), pp. 58-61. "Lo nuevo y lo viejo en el teatro espanol: planteamientos generales Primer Acto, No. 51 (1964), pp. 13-15. "Prefacio" to Cuatro dramas de la revolucion. Madrid: Editorial Bullon, S. L., 1963, pp. 7-14. 162 "Primeras notas para un encuentro con Bertolt Brecht," Primer Acto, No. 13 (1960), pp. 11-16. "Prologo" to Ana Kleiber, C. T., No. 171, pp. 5-7. "Prologo" to Tres dramas espanoles: teatro. Paris: Editions de la Librairie de Globe, 1965, pp. 7-11. "La realidad y el deseo," El pan de todos, C. G., No. 267, pp. 5-8. "Sobre las formas 'sociales' del drama," from Correo Literario reprinted in Primer Acto; coleccion de teatro, No. 3, Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 89-95. "Subveneiones," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 81-82. "El T. A. S. por ultima vez," from La Hora reprinted in Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 89-95. "El teatro de Alfonso Sastre visto por Alfonso Sastre," Primer Acto, No. 5 (1957), p. 7. "Teatro de vanguardia, regreso al realismo y experiencia epica," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 139-142. "Le theatre espagnol contemporain," Preuves, No. 123 (1961), pp. 25-29. "Teatro imposible y pacto social," Primer Acto, No. 14 (1960), pp. 1-2. "23 difficolta per essere un autore teatrale anticonformista," Sipario, Numero doppio dedicato a spagna, oggi, Nos. 256-257 (August-September, 1967), p. 36. Interviews with Alfonso Sastre Domenech, Ricardo. "Alfonso Sastre: un dramaturgo en marcha," Estafeta Literaria, No. 113 (1958), p. 4. ______. "Entrevista con Alfonso Sastre," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3 (1964), pp. 55-61. 163 Miralles, Alberto. "Hombres de teatro: Alfonso Sastre," Yorick, No. 11 (January, 1966), p. 11. Moreno Galvan, Jose M. "Con Alfonso Sastre," Correo Literario, Vol. 6, No. 10 (1955). Secondary Sources Studies of Alfonso Sastre's Theater Aragones, Juan Emilio. "El teatro profundizado de Alfonso Sastre," Punta Europa, No. 83 (1963), pp. 24-35. Buero Vallejo, Antonio. "Obligada precision acerca del imposibilismo," Primer Acto, No. 15 (1960), pp. 1-6. De Coster, Cyrus. "Alfonso Sastre," Tulane Drama Review, V (1960), No. 2, pp. 121-132. ______. "Two Recent Plays by Alfonso Sastre," Hispania, XXXIV (1961), No. 4, p. 758. Dome*nech, Ricardo. "Tres obras de un autor revolucionario," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 36-54. Garcia-Abrines, Luis. "La poesia accidental en el teatro de Sastre," Dusquesne Hispanic Review, No. 1 (1962), pp. 41-54. Garcia Escudero, Jose-*Maria. "Tiempo," from Arriba reprinted in Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 65-69. Garcia Pavon, Francisco. El^ teatro social en Espana. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1962, pp. 159-180. Garzo, Eugenio. "El teatro de Alfonso Sastre," Cuadernos Hispano- americanos, No. 59 (November, 1954), pp. 213-215. Gich, Juan. "Cronica de Madrid: el teatro de Alfonso Sastre," Correo Literario, Vol. 5, No. 7 (November, 1954). Haro Tecglen, Eduardo. "Introduceion a Alfonso Sastre," Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1964, pp. 71-77. 164 Lorelle, Yves. "Le Miller espagnol: Alfonso Sastre," Combat, April 22-23, 1961, p. 9. Maori, Oreste. "Realismo di Sastre," L'Approdo Letterario, No. 31, pp. 131-133. Marfa de Quinto, Jose'*, ka tragedia 2 hombre. Barcelona: Editorial Seix-Barral, 1962.. Marquerfe, Alfredo. "Alfonso Sastre," Veinte anos de teatro en EspaKa. Madrid: Editoral Nacional, 1959, pp. 197-205. Pasquariello, Anthony A. "Alfonso Sastre, Dramatist in Search of a Stage," The Theater Annual, No. 22 (1965-66), pp. 16-23. Pfrez Minik, Domingo. "Alfonso Sastre o la accion directa," Teatro europeo contemporaheo: su libertad 2 compromisos. Madrid: Ediciones Guadarrama, 1961, pp. 399-411. ______. "Se trata de Alfonso Sastre, dramaturgo melancolico de la revolucion,"Primer Acto: coleccion de teatro, No. 3. Madrid; Ediciones Taurus, 1964, pp. 11-35. Pronko, Leonard C. "The Revolutionary Theatre of Alfonso Sastre," Tulane Drama Review, V, No. 2 (1960), pp. 111-20. Puelt: tolas, J. Rodriguez. "Tres aspectos de una misma realidad en el teatro espanol contemporaneo: Buero, Sastre, Olmo," Hispanofila. No. 31 (September, 1967), pp. 43-58. Schwartz, Kessel. "Tragedy and the Criticism of Alfonso Sastre," Symposium, XXI, No. 4 (1967), pp. 338-345. Van Praag, Chantraine. "Alfonso Sastre, la esperanza del joven teatro espanol," Torre, X, No. 11 (1962), pp. 111-119. Vazquez Zamora, R. "Alfonso Sastre no acepta el posibilismo," Insula, Nos. 164-165 (1960), p. 27. Vogeley, Nancy Jeanne. "Alfonso Sastre: His Theater in Theory and in Practice" (unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1962). Critical Reviews of Alfonso Sastre's Plays Bergamfn, Jose*. Rev. of La cornada from El Nacional, reprinted in Teatro espanol 1959-60, pp. 168-70. Camp, Andre*. Rev. of Ana Kleiber. L'Avant Scene, May 15, 1961, p. 36. Capron, Marcelle. "Ana Kleiber," Combat, April 26, 1961, p. 9e Corrigan, Robert Willougby. "Introduction" (review of Ana Kleiber), The New Theatre of Europe. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1962, pp. 9-31. Domenech, Ricardo. "Notas sobre teatro" (review of La cornada), Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos. No. 128-129 (1960), pp. 253- 259. Marquerfe, Alfredo. Rev. of La mordaza from ABC reprinted in Teatro espaftol; 1954-55, pp. 33-35. Monleon, Jose*? Rev. of En la red from Triunfo reprinted in Teatro. espanol: 1960-61, pp. 254-257. Nerva, Sergio. Rev. of La mordaza from Esp^na reprinted in Teatro espanol: 1954-55, pp. 35-38. \ j ^ ______. Rev. of En la red from Espana reprinted in Teatro espanol 1960-61, pp. 252-254. Ostertag, Hansjorg. "Drama der Angst" (review of la mordaza), Dokumente, January, 1955, pp. 71-72. Paget, Jean. "Irkoutsk, la Kabaale et autres mystiques" (review of Ana Kleiber), Combat, May 2, 1961, p. 8. Pasquariello, Anthony M. "Alfonso Sastre y Escuadra hacia la muerte," Hispan^fila, No. 15 (May, 1962), pp. 57-63. ______. "Censorship in the Spanish Theater and Alfonso Sastre's the Condemned Squad," Theater Annual, No. 19 (1962), pp. 19-26. Prego, Adolfo. Rev. of En la red from Informaciones reprinted in Teatro espanol; 1960-61, pp. 249-252. ______. Rev. of ka cornada from Informaciones reprinted in Teatro espanol; 1959-60, pp. 165-168. Vazquez Zamora, R. "La cornada de Alfonso Sastre," Insula, No. 159 (1960), p. 15. 166 Villegas, Juan. "La sustancla metafisica de la tragedia y su funcion social: Escuadra hacla la muerte de Alfonso Sastre," Symposium. XXI, No. 3 (Fall, 1967), pp. 255- 263. General References Aeschylus. The Oresteian Trilogy. Trans. Philip Vellacott. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1956. A1tares, Pedro. "Dal teatro dell'impero al teatro di consumo," Sipario Numero doppio dedicato a Spagna, oggi. Nos. 256-257 (August-September), pp. 9-17. Arestad, Sverre. "Ibsen's Concept of Tragedy," Modern Language Journal, No. 74 (June, 1959), pp. 285-297. Arjona, Doris K. "The Spanish Theater of Today," Educational Theater Journal, No. 11 (1959), pp. 265-70. Aragones, Juan Emilio. "El teatro espanol y su encrucijada," Bolivar, Nos. 4-45 (Bogota, 1955), pp. 501-516. ______. El teatro £ sus problemas. Publicaciones de la Real Escuela Superior de Arte Dramatics. Madrid: Ministerio de Educacion Nacional, 1955. Aub, Max. "Prologo acerca del teatro espanol de los anos veinte de este siglo. Cuadernos Americanos, XXIV, No. 140 (1965), pp. 194-210. Bentley, Eric. The Playwright as Thinker. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1967. Blau, Herbert. "The Popular, the Absurd, and the 'Entente Cordiale'," Tulane Drama Review, V, No. 3 (March, 1961), pp. 119t15. Borel, Jean-Paul. El teatro de lo imposible. Trans. G. Torrente Ballester. Madrid: Ediciones Guadarrama, 1966. Brecht: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Peter Demetz. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Brooks, Cleanth. Tragic Themes in Western Literature. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955. Bullock, Alan. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. New York: Bantam Books, 1958. Calarco, No. Joseph. "Tragedy as Demonstration," Educational Theater Journal, XVIII, No. 3 (1966), pp. 271-277. Capon, Eric, "Theatre e Realite," British Journal of Aesthetics, V, No. 2, pp. 261-269. Castellano, Juan R. "dEsta*^en crisis el teatro espanol?" Cuadernos Americanos, XCVII, No. 2 (1958), pp. 237-244. ______. "Estado actual del teatro espanol," Hispania, XLI (1958), pp. 431-435. ______. "El teatro espanol desde 1936," Hispana XXXIV (1951), 240-244. Castellet, Jose Marfa. Notas sobre literatura espanola. Barcelona: Editorial Laye, ______. "Panorama de los jovenes," Correo Literario, Vol. 5, No. 7 (November, 1954). Cruz, Jorge. "La temporada teatral de 1960," Sur, No. 268 (February, 1961), pp. 145-147. De Coster, Cyrus C. "The Theatrical Season in Madrid 1954-1955," Hispania, XXXIX (1956), pp. 182-185. Domenech, Ricardo. "Para una vision dialectics del teatro contemporaneo, Primer Acto, No. 48 (December, 1963), pp. 15-20. Dupriez, Bernard. "Petite histoire du theatre actuel en Espagne," La Revue Theatrale, No. 34 (1957), 22-32. Esslin, Martin. "The Theater of the Absurd," Tulane Drama Review, IV, No. 4 (May, I960), pp. 3-15. Ferrer, Olga P. "Three Years of Spanish Theater: 1960-63," Books Abroad, No. 38 (Winter, 1964), 28-31. Forster, K. W. "The Image of Freedom: An Inquiry into the Aesthetic of Schiller and Sartre," British Journal of Aesthetics, V (1965), 46-52. 168 Gorelik, Mordecai. "An Epic Theatre Catechism," Tulane Drama Review. IV, No. 1 (September, 1959), 90-95. Gordon, M. "La vida de hoy a trave*s de los dramaturgos contemporauieos, Ya, February 28, 1965. Herman, William. "Theatre as Enterprise," Tulane Drama Review, X, No. 1 (1965-66), 110-135. Kaplan, Donald M. "Character and Theatre: Psychoanalytic Notes on Modern Realism," Tulane Drama Review, X, No. 3 (1965- 66), 93-108. Kaufmann, R. J. "Tragedy and Its Validating Conditions," Comparative Drama, I, No. 1 (Spring, 1967), pp. 3-18. Lumley, Fred. Trends in Twentieth Century Drama. London: Rockliff Publishing Corp., 1956. Man in the Modern Theatre. Ed. Nathan A. Scott, Jr. Richmond: John Knox Press, 1965. Monner Sans, Jose Maria. Introduceion al teatro del siglo XX. Buenos Aires: Editorial Columba, 1954. Peman, Jose Maria. Los complejos del teatro espanol. Madrid: Instituto de Espafta, 1959. Perez Minik, Domingo. Debates sobre el teatro espanol contemporaneo. Canarias: Goya Ediciones, 1953. ______. "Itinerario patetico de una generacion de dramaturgos espanoles," Insula, Nos. 224-225 (July-August, 1965), p. 3. Ponce Munoz, F. "El nuevo teatro," Punta Europa, No. 74 (1962), pp. 13-17. Pucciani, Oreste F. "An Interview with Jean-Paul Sartre," Tulane Drama Review, V, No. 3 (March, 1961), pp. 19-34. Playwrights on Playwrighting. Ed. Toby Cole. New York: Hill and Wang, 1960. Sartre: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Edith Kern. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1962. Saisselin, Remy G. "Is Tragic Drama Possible in the Twentieth Century?" The Theater Annual, No. 17 (1960), pp. 12-21. 169 Sartre, Jean-Paul. "Beyond Bourgeois Theater," Tulane Drama Review, V, No. 3 (March, 1961), pp. 3-12. Server, Alberta Wilson. "Notes on the Contemporary Drama in Spain," Hispania, XLII (1959), pp. 56-60. Soldevila Durante, Ignacio. "Sobre el teatro espanol de los ultimos veinticinco anbs," Cuadernos Americanos, XXII, No. 126 (1963), pp. 256-289. El teatro; enciclopedia del arte escetiico. Ed. Guillermo Diaz-Plaja. Barcelona: Editorial Noguer S. A., 1958. Tomasso, Vicenzo. "II giovane teatro espagnuolo," II Popolo (Rome, May 4, 1961), 5. Torrente Ballester^ Gonzalo. Panorama de la literatura espanola contemporanea. Madrid: Ediciones Guadarama, 1956. /V 4 * ______. Teatro espanol contemporaneo. Madrid: Ediciones Guadarrama, S. L., 1957. Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967. Wreszin, Michael. "Jean-Paul Sartre: Philosopher and Dramatist," Tulane Drama Review, V, No. 3 (March, 1961), pp. 34-58.