Urban Studies at 50 50(7) 1332–1347, May 2013 Special Issue Article

Cities and : The Precedents and Why They Matter

Michael Hebbert and Vladimir Jankovic

[Paper first received, October 2011; in final form, March 2012]

Abstract This paper reviews the long tradition of city-scale climatological and meteorological applications prior to the emergence in the 1990s of early work on the urban/global climate change interface. It shows how ‘valuing and seeing the urban’ came to be achieved within modern scientific and how in a limited but significant set of cases that science has contributed to urban practice. The paper traces the evo- lution of urban since 1950 as a distinct research field within physical geography and meteorology, and its transition from observational monographs to process modelling; reviews the precedents, successful or otherwise, of knowledge transfer from science into public action through climatically aware regulation or design of urban environment; and notes the neglect of these precedents in contem- porary climate change discourse—a serious omission.

Introduction It is an indisputable fact that cities were ini- greenhouse gas inventories were based on tially overlooked in the IPCC process. The the sectors of energy, industry, land use, science consisted of climatic forecasts agriculture and waste, making it hard to framed at a global scale and the policy sta- detect the role of urbanisation. Cities were keholders were international or state actors. not mentioned in the Kyoto Protocol. A Scientists involved in global climate fore- similar sectoral logic applied to the periodic casting were slow to engage with the urban Global Environmental Outlook published phenomenon except as an anomaly, city by the United Nations Environment weather stations being a source of data Programme. Governmental actors rein- distortion within the synoptic grid. The ini- forced this predisposition: it was natural tial techniques for calculating national for the process of international negotiation

Michael Hebbert is in the Bartlett School of Planning, UCL, Wates House, 22 Gordon St, London, WC1H 0QB, UK. Email: [email protected]. Vladimir Jankovic is in the Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Simon Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK. Email: [email protected].

0042-0980 Print/1360-063X Online Ó 2013 Urban Studies Journal Limited DOI: 10.1177/0042098013480970 CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1333 to frame the climate change issue in terms 1991, UNCED’s Rio Conference in 1992, of ministerial portfolios. The conventions ICLEI’s Climate Change Programme in of intergovernmental diplomacy discour- 1993, energie-cite´s in 1994, the UN’s Cities aged consideration of urbanisation as a for- and Climate Change in 2008, the World cing factor and cities as distinct territorial Bank’s Mayors’ Task Force on Urban stakeholders within the IPCC process. Poverty and Climate Change in 2009. It is Today, these exclusions are breaking often remarked that the discovery of global down, bringing a sense of fresh opportunity climate change has coincided with the tip- at the urban level. The increasingly fine reso- ping point to a world in which city-dwellers lution of models of the earth’s atmosphere outnumber rural folk. So UN-Habitat sum- (down to 25 km globally) means that cities marises the threat to humanity are for the first time visible within general circulation systems. The environment of the Fuelled by two powerful human-induced city with its three-dimensional geometry, forces that have been unleashed by develop- heat-absorbing materials, impermeable sur- ment and manipulation of the environment faces and pollution concentrations, is begin- in the industrial age, the effects of urbaniza- ning to be resolved in weather models. tion and climate change are converging in Governmental actors have realised that dangerous ways which threaten to have mayors may be able to maintain progress unprecedented negative impacts upon qual- where international agreement had stalled. ity of life and economic and social stability Urbanisation entered for the first time as a (UN-HABITAT, 2011, p. 1). climate change consideration in the fourth assessment report of 2007 and the fifth report This paper challenges none of the above due in 2014 will contain a separate chapter except to put a question mark by the word on cities and attempt a full-scale assessment unprecedented. It was at the scale of the of their role in carbon pollution and their that anthropogenic potential adaptability to climate risk. The effects—many linked to carbon contemporary literature on cities and climate combustion—were first systematically change—not least this Special Issue of Urban studied. The seminal contribution came Studies—shows cities at last incorporated from Albert Kratzer whose Das Stadtklima into global climate policy both as causal (1937) originated as a PhD thesis under the agents in greenhouse gas emissions/mitiga- supervision of the geographer Edward Fels. tion and as vulnerable targets. Fels’s own work on environmental impacts In thinking about cities and climate of economic progress—the businessman as change, it is hard to avoid the word ‘unpre- shaper of the earth, Der wirtshaftende cedented’. Everything hinges on recent sci- Mensch als Gestalter der Erde (1954)— entific discovery and response to projected stood directly in line between the pioneer- future threat. The time-frame stretches ing conservation science of George Perkins back no further than 1988, the year of UN Marsh (1882) The Earth as Modified by General Assembly Resolution 43/53 and the Human Action or Nathaniel Shaler (1905) establishment of the Intergovernmental Man and the Earth, and modern environ- Panel on Climate Change; or 1994 and the mental conservation represented by the United Nations Framework Convention on Wenner-Grenn Foundation’s symposium Climate Change; or 1997, year of the Kyoto Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Protocol. All the C3 actors are new-born— Earth (Thomas, 1956), Rachel Carson’s ICLEI in 1990, the Climate Alliance in (1962) Silent Spring, Carrol Wilson’s 1334 MICHAEL HEBBERT AND VLADIMIR JANKOVIC

(1971) Report of the Study of Man’s Impact The Scientific Precedents on Climate and Ward and Dubos’s Only One Earth (1972). Urban climatology has Scientific interest in the atmospheric effect a long pedigree in the conservation of urbanisation extends more than 200 movement. years. As a nation of pioneers, Americans Since the study of urban weather systems contributed early research into the effects is explicitly a science of anthropogenic of deforestation, agriculture and town- cause, it has always challenged cities to building on seasonal change (Fleming, assume responsibility for their role as ‘‘co- 1998). Thomas Jefferson suggested in 1824 patterners of their climate’’ (Kratzer, 1956, that anthropogenic impact should be moni- p. 170). So there is also a prequel in the tored through climatic surveys ‘repeated realm of collective action. Greenhouse gas once or twice in a century’ (Landsberg, mitigation is prefigured in municipal energy 1956). However, it was the great cities of provision and public health action against Europe that contained the sites with the soot and smog. The history of modern town longest instrumental measurement series planning can be written in terms of a collec- and here that the climatic changes produced tive response to the externalities of carbon- by industrialisation, densification and sub- based industrialisation—as Patrick Geddes urban growth were most readily visible. defined it in the early 20th century, substitut- Patterns of urban temperature, precipitation ing the clean-energy ‘Neotechnic’ city for the and wind circulation were studied for sites black pollution and physical concentration around London by Luke Howard between of ‘Paleotechnic’ capitalism (Geddes, 1915). 1806 and 1830, for Paris in the 1870s by Adaptation strategy has much older antece- Emilien Renou, and for Berlin and Vienna dents. The design of cities embodies local in the 1890s by Gustav Hellmann and Julius knowledge of wind, sun, humidity and preci- Hahn respectively. The physicist Sir Arthur pitation, and of what is needed to survive in Schuster set up a University of Manchester a given geographical setting against the con- observatory that allowed comparison with a tingencies of weather and human enemies. municipal weather station two miles north. The history of urban habitats is not just one He commented of passive adaptation to regional climate but of active transformation to produce micro- The remarkable differences which appear in climates radically unlike their surrounding the temperature records in different parts of terrain—hotter, cooler, drier, moister, less the city furnish an additional proof, if proof windy, more ventilated, or whatever is most were wanted, that observations taken in or conducive to human comfort at a given lati- near a large town cannot be taken to repre- tude. City design is the oldest type of anthro- sent correctly the meteorological character of pogenic climate change (Egli, 1951). the surrounding districts, but it by no means These precedents are explored in order, follows that these observations are of no the next section dealing with the science of value. On the contrary, they may lead to cities as climatic singularities, and subse- some important conclusions on what may be quent sections with antecedents of urban called town weather as distinguished from policy response. The purpose of these his- country weather (Schuster, 1893, p. 168). torical excursions becomes apparent in the final section of the paper where we com- Manchester, of course, epitomised the spec- pare the prequel with the sequel and ask if tacular environmental contamination and how it matters. achieved by free industrial enterprise in the CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1335 absence of pollution control. Whatever the 1956, its reference list had grown to more season, town weather was foul. Its evil repu- than double the original size, incorporating tation was compounded by the orthodox a mainly English-language bibliography by medical assumption that infection occurred the British public meteorologist Charles miasmatically—germ theory prevailed only Brooks (1952). in the final quarter of the century. Some of Subsequent translation of Kratzer’s the 19th century’s most detailed urban heat second edition into English by the US Air island studies were done by doctors—Barles Force in 1962 confirmed the internationali- (1999) for example discusses the work of sation of the science in post-war years. The Pierre Foissac, author of De l’influence des leading protagonist was the German-born climats sur l’homme (1837) and De la me´te´or- Helmut Landsberg who moved to the US ologie dans ses rapports avec la science de from Germany in 1934 to teach the first l’homme et principalement avec la medicine et graduate course on bioclimatology. A l’hygie`ne publique (1854). Ventilation and major figure in American meteorology, he sunlight became overriding concerns of the served as director of the US Weather movement for public health and hygiene, Bureau office of climatology from 1954 to and so for early modern town planning. 1967 and was a key architect of the The literature on the atmospheric envir- modern-day NOAA. As US representative, onments of cities and their effects on citi- he became a leading light in the early zens was swelled in the 20th century by a decades of the World Meteorological growing number of monographs from Organisation, chairing WMO’s Committee regional geographers, for whom the physi- for Special Applications of Meteorology cal environment of the city offered an ideal and Climatology from 1971 to 1983. object of study as a cultural artefact in a Landsberg had a particular interest in the natural landscape. An increasing interest in science of urban climates, eventually micro-climates amongst meteorologists was authoring his own successor volume to pioneered by Gregor Kraus (Boden und Krazter’s Das Stadtklima, The Urban Klima auf kleinstem Raum, 1911) and Climate (1981). One of his most distinctive Rudolf Geiger (Klima der bodennahen contributions to the literature was a longi- Luftschicht, 1927). Much of this research tudinal study of the new town of Columbia, was German, as was Albert Kratzer’s earlier- Maryland, monitoring for the first time the mentioned synoptic text Das Stadtklima emergence of an urban heat island as a (1937). Written as a doctoral thesis in the greenfield site with 200 residents in 1968 philosophy faculty of the University of was developed into a town of 20,000 popu- Munich by a Benedictine monk and geogra- lation by 1975 (Landsberg, 1979). phy teacher from the Ettal Abbey, Das Heat island studies at every scale contin- Stadtklima was a definitive state-of-the-art ued to be a central object of research as the review, based on 225 studies and extensive field of urban climatology developed in the analysis of comparative data, documenting second half of the 20th century. The geo- the differences between urban and non- grapher Tony Chandler analysed the entire urban climates, and explaining the mechan- metropolitan climate of Greater London, isms of the urban heat island, wind systems, combining the German technique of ventilation and stagnation, precipitation automobile-mounted instrumental tra- anomalies, pollution and its dispersion, and verses with a British-style field survey invol- the downwind effects of urbanisation. By vement of schools, training colleges and the publication of the second edition in volunteers (Chandler, 1965). The ambitious 1336 MICHAEL HEBBERT AND VLADIMIR JANKOVIC

$10 million Metropolitan Meteorological 1961). In these Cold War years, urban cli- Experiment METROMEX monitored an mate research also had the stimulus of the area of more than 4000 square kilometres Soviet Union’s known use of weather engi- around St Louis and controversially attrib- neering technologies, and military concern uted anomalous patterns of thunderstorms, for climatic dispersal of chemical and radio- hailstorms and heavy rain to pollution drift active hazards (Derrick Sewell, 1968; Ferrar, east of the city (Changnon, 1979). Other 1976; Fleming, 2010). researchers were tracking the Chicago dust One effect was to bring more atmo- plume 150 miles north-west to Madison spheric chemistry and physics into the Wisconsin (Bryson and Ross 1972, p. 64) urban arena. New measurement techniques and demonstrating the radical impacts of such as constant-height balloons and Houston’s post-war development boom remote sensing were added to the traditional upon its rainfall pattern (Ferrar, 1976, repertoire of meteorological observation. pp. 60–98). The focus of analysis shifted towards mea- Belying Patrick Geddes’s expectation of surement and modelling of energy fluxes on the clean technologies of the 20th century, the meso-scale of the urban boundary layer pollution concerns continued to dominate and the micro-scale of the street canyon. the post-war climate agenda thanks to rap- Seminal contributions such as Ted Munn’s idly rising traffic levels and complex new Descriptive Micrometeorology (1966), types of industrial emissions—including Werner Terjung’s The energy balance clima- lead, asbestos, micro-organisms, NOx,SOx, tology of a city–man system (1970) and Tim hydrochloric acid, , aerosols and Oke’s Boundary Layer Climates (1978) laid radioactivity—which dispersed under free the basis for progressively more sophisti- wind conditions but could be trapped and cated numerical modelling of the urban cli- combined into chemical soups under condi- mate as computing power increased tions of thermal inversion. At the conclusion (Arnfield, 2003). Urban climatology was of the second edition of Das Stadtklima, enriched by cross-disciplinarity: fluid Albert Kratzer defined as the mechanics contributed the techniques of outstanding issue of the urban environment CFD (computational fluid dynamic) model- ling to simulate air flow in the complex Enormous amounts of gases as well as liquid three-dimensional urban environment; geo- and solid matter are poured into the air every graphy contributed GIS (geographical infor- day by urban industry, household heating and mation system) methodology, allowing traffic. It is not too far-fetched to compare the datasets on urban land use to be combined city to a volcano which continuously spews with atmospheric variables at high levels of forth clouds of gas, dust and ashes (Kratzer, resolution; architecture contributed CAD 1956, p. 166). (computer assisted design), providing the link between urban-scale climatology and London experienced deadly smogs in 1952 the burgeoning fields of environmental and 1955, and New York on Thanksgiving engineering and passive and low-energy Day of 1966 and in July 1970 (Bach, 1972). architecture (PLEA); environmental man- The first international conference on air agement contributed modelling software pollution took place in New York in 1955 such as the ENVI-met freeware which allows and Helmut Landsberg convened a major three-dimensional surface–plant–air inter- scientific gathering in St Louis in 1961, actions to be simulated at high levels of res- under the title ‘Air over cities’ (Landsberg, olution. Last but not least, increased CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1337 computing power and speed within the knew from the outset that they were study- parent discipline of meteorology brought ing an anthropogenic system with opportu- greater spatial precision to weather model- nities for positive feedback. In the words of ling so that for the first time urban-scale cli- M. Parry matology could begin to be integrated with the synoptic mainstream (Masson, 2000). the urban climate deserves the interest of cli- The scientific consolidation of urban matologists as an element of the physical meteorology was matched at the institu- background of town life, and as an artificial tional level. Helmut Landsberg played a key climate which may be modified by suitable role in establishing urban climatology net- planning (Parry, 1956, p. 45). works within the World Meteorological Organisation. A meeting on Urban Climates The duty of knowledge transfer from sci- and Building Climatology jointly sponsored ence to urban practice was a constant theme with the World Health Organisation in throughout the influential career of Helmut Brussels in 1968 was the first in a regular and Landsberg continuing series of scientific conferences and state-of-the art reviews, led first by Tony The knowledge we have acquired about urban Chandler and then by the Vancouver-based climates should not remain an academic exer- urban meteorologist Tim Oke. Significant cise on an interesting aspect of the atmo- features at the international level have been spheric boundary layer. It should be applied the continuing strength of the German to the design of new towns or the reconstruc- research tradition, the emergence (with tion of old ones. The purpose is, of course, to direct German links) of an equally vigorous mitigate or eliminate the undesirable climate scientific culture in Japan, the linkage to modifications brought about by other UN-related agencies such as WHO, (Landsberg, 1981, p. 255). UNEP, UN-HABITAT, and the CIB, and the co-sponsorship of non-governmental bodies The science-based call to action was given such as the International Federation for urgency by on-going trends (Douglas, Housing and Planning (IFHP) and the 1983). The motor-car, once regarded as a International Society for Biometeorology clean technology, was found to be a signifi- (ISB). Conscious of the need to establish their cant chemical polluter and a forcing factor group identity, urban climate scientists in the urban heat island, with each vehicle formed their own International Association emitting as much heat as a domestic boiler; for Urban Climatology (IAUC) in 2001 under rates of stormwater run-off grew in direct the leadership of Tim Oke. IAUC’s website1 relation to post-war highway construction and three-yearly conferences are the principal and surface parking; loss of vegetation and focus for urban climatology today. So the permeable surfaces also reduced the moist- organisation is relatively new, but the scientific ure available for evaporative cooling in the community has a 200-year track record of urban heat island; the growing height and work on anthropogenic climate change. mass of urban buildings increased aerody- namic roughness and complex turbulence effects at ground level, while denser build- The Policy Precedents—Attempted ing materials with high thermal admittance, absorbed and retained heat; public health Research in urban climatology was never concerns over photochemical smog were just about ‘blue skies’ thinking. Scientists compounded by the issues surrounding 1338 MICHAEL HEBBERT AND VLADIMIR JANKOVIC nuclear power generation. Reid Bryson and and water heating, with reflective external John Ross wrote paint to reduce albedo. Since topographic and synoptic conditions vary widely, and The time is at hand to begin planning and with them temperature patterns, wind redesigning of urban areas with much more speeds and ventilation rates, Landsberg attention to climatic considerations (Bryson emphasised the need for local analysis: the & Ross, 1972, p. 52). ‘air resource’ of every city is unique. As an international science community, In terms of recommendations, urban clima- urban climatologists tried to reach tology had begun (as in Kratzer, 1937, p. decision-makers through global intergo- 95) with simple advice about sunshine and vernmental networks and NGOs. Urban cli- shadow, and the need to locate residential mate was recognised as an issue quite early districts upwind of industry, in the ‘climati- in the history of global environmental gov- cally beneficial direction’—klimatisch begu¨n- ernance (‘world family housekeeping’ in stigte Luvseite. In post-war years, it developed the phrase of Max Nicholson, 1987). Under a progressively more sophisticated critique of Landsberg’s leadership, the World current urbanisation practices. In November Meteorological Organisation promoted 1972, Helmut Landsberg’s plenary address to research into cities through its Commission the American Meteorological Society for Climatology, one of eight established at Conference on the Urban Environment in the first WMO Congress in 1951. An inter- Philadelphia set out an agenda for city- national study group on urban climates was building set up as early as 1959 in partnership with the International Federation of Housing Widely divergent views have come from and Planning (IFHP), the International architects, engineers, economicsts, political Society for Biometeorology (ISB) and scientists and real estate developers. To this the UNESCO-funded Confe´deration chorus of intellectual bricklayers the meteor- Internationale du Baˆtiment (CIB). ologist is a Johnny-come-lately . Sound Subsequent collaborations included the meteorological principles . must begin to World Health Organisation, which co- penetrate the planning process (Landsberg, sponsored a 1968 Conference on Urban 1973, p. 86). Climates in Brussels and a 1984 Mexico City congress on Urban Climatology and its Attacking the fatalistic attitude of decision- Applications with Special Regard to makers towards weather effects of their own Tropical Areas; and the United Nations making, he offered a set of meteorological Environment Programme (UNEP) co- rules for urbanism that could be reprinted sponsor of a 1992 meeting on Tropical verbatim today: do not build on flood Urban Climates in Dhaka. Helmut plains; mitigate heat island effects with Landsberg summarised the anthropogenic shade trees; reduce surface parking lots; effects of urbanisation on climate for the introduce vegetation into urban surfaces; World Meteorological Orgaisation in a capture waste heat for district heating; pro- Special Environmental Report of 1976. mote natural outdoor ventilation through Interestingly, he noted in the same report urban design; promote electric transport that WMO was also beginning to study and discourage the private automobile in anthropogenic alteration of the global cli- cities; promote energy-efficient housing mate of the earth, adding prophetically: ‘‘it which makes use of solar power for space is to be hoped that this surveillance will CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1339 give an early warning of untoward happen- Standards for an optimised built environ- ings’’ (Landsberg, 1976, p. 26). At the ment could perhaps be applied to new urban scale, of course, evidence of the towns (as in Olgyay, 1963) or post-disaster untoward was already abundant. reconstructions but were of little use for All these meetings featured appeals to actually existing cities. WMO Technical decision-makers to become aware of Note No. 149 acknowledged the problem anthropogenic climate effects. ‘‘The acquisi- tion of more knowledge about the climate Many ancient towns of Europe and elsewhere of cities’’, wrote William Lowry in a still retain their basic mediaeval plan in their consciousness-raising feature for Scientific central areas and this resistance to fundamen- American, ‘‘may in the long run be one of tal change, in spite of urban renewal, imposes the key’s to man’s survival’’ (Lowry, 1967, a severe constraint upon the successful appli- p. 24). The international climatological cation of urban climatological principles to community made repeated efforts to raise city design . Urban climatology is relevant awareness through meetings, institutional only in cases of major expansion, urban rede- links, training initiatives and publications. velopment, or most obviously, in new town Examples from a single year include two design (Chandler, 1976, p. 39). World Meteorological Organisation reports, Weather, climate and human settle- The author, Tony Chandler, had compiled ments (Landsberg, 1976) and Urban clima- the WMO’s first comprehensive bibliogra- tology and its relevance to urban design phy of urban climatology (1970). His (Chandler, 1976), as well as published pro- account of optimised climatic design drew ceedings on Planning and construction in extensively on the meteorological state-of- conformity with the climate (CIB, 1976) and the-art but, tellingly, contained not a single Theroleoflocalandregionalgovernmentin reference to city planning literature. Even improving the environment of human settle- more remarkably, the same was true of a ments (IFHP, 1976). Climate experts bibliography of 250 entries on The Urban researched the training of architects and Environment: A Climatological Anomaly town planners and campaigned to improve (Berlin, 1972) compiled specifically for use the almost non-existent coverage of in planning education and research by the meteorological factors within the curricula Council of Planning Librarians. The difficul- of built environment schools. Remarkably, ties of translation were compounded as their lobbying effort extended to an unsoli- post-war climatology shifted from empirical cited mail-out of 1500 copies of the text observation towards more sophisticated Fundamental knowledge in urban and mathematical understandings of energy building climatology to Europe’s architec- budget, radiation and street canyon proper- ture and planning schools (Frommes, ties. Melvin Marcus’s presidential address to 1980). the AAG in New Orleans in 1979 reproached The scientific community was repeatedly his physical geography colleagues for their disappointed by the lack of response to its tendency to operate in efforts at knowledge transfer. The political scientist Richard Tobin explained the rea- a natural science isolation booth expressing sons: urban decision-makers would resist little concern for the relevance their microcli- evidence of inadvertent anthropogenic cli- matic fluxes and anomalous precipitation sta- mate change until public opinion forced tistics may have to urban planning or quality them to do so (Ferrar, 1976, p. 255). of life (Marcus, 1979, p. 531). 1340 MICHAEL HEBBERT AND VLADIMIR JANKOVIC

The problem was two-way. Urban profes- or ‘haze hoods’ was a typical trigger sionals, for their part, had become strangely (Lowry, 1967). A three-day inversion epi- uninterested in the three-dimensional envi- sode in 1966 caused 168 deaths in New ronment, especially its invisible atmospheric York City. Mayor John Lindsay appointed layers (Spirn, 1984). It was not always so— the public health expert Austin N. Heller as the nexus between human wellbeing and the Commissioner of the Department of physical setting had been a central concern Air Pollution Control (DAPC). Heller set of early 20th-century planning theory. up an ‘air resource management’ (ARM) Planning meant a physical shaping of mor- network of 37 aerometric stations across phology, density, layout, street form and the five boroughs to measure sulphur diox- land use pattern. Yet the tendency of plan- ide, carbon monoxide, smoke shade, sus- ning theory after 1970 was to regard ‘envi- pended particulates, dust fall, wind ronmental determinism’ as a fallacy. The direction and air temperature. University mainstream of planning, particularly in the partners were also involved in the interests Anglo-Saxon world, was being redefined as of ‘‘cross-fertilization of the academic and a mode of social intervention based upon operational branches of applied science and the methods of social science (Hebbert, basic research’’. Heller noted that ‘‘our 2006). An equally significant shift was department is probably the first city agency occurring at the scale of building design as in the nation to effect such an arrange- professional responsibility for many aspects ment’’ (DAPC, 1968). For a brief while, of thermal performance shifted from archi- New York was a climate-aware city. As tects to heating, ventilation and air condi- Mayor Lindsay commented in a TV tioning engineers. Neither of the two main broadcast target audiences for Fundamental Knowledge on Urban and Building Climatology was in A few years ago, it would have taken a meteor- receptive mode for insights into their ologist to tell you what an ‘inversion’ of the climate-shaping role. weather was. Now any New Yorker can tell you that it’s when the layers of air above us arrange themselves in such a way that our pol- Policy Precedents—Achieved lution can’t float away—and instead just hangs at street level in a stagnant pool . Cities which did incorporate urban climatic Until [Heller] came, the department never analysis into planning were the exception had a meteorologist on its staff. Imagine that. rather than the rule: but some did. The No meteorologist in a department whose job Building Research Station at Haifa is the air around us. Not only do we now have Technion provided important climatologi- a meteorologist, but a department is already cal support of new settlement design in working with Columbia, NYU, and Cooper Israel (Givoni, 1969). The Japanese archi- Union in developing basic studies of our traf- tect Kenzo Tange undertook wind-tunnel fic pattern, our weather and air currents, and experiments of different layout options for a host of new devices that may hold down his successful entry for the reconstruction pollution at its source.2 of the Yugoslavian city of Skopje after the of 1961 (Tange, 1967). Major With a change of mayor, climate policy went cities tended to commission climatic inves- off the agenda in New York City for four tigations episodically in response to critical decades and the leading urban climatology events. Concern over urban ‘dust domes’ unit on the Bronx campus of New York CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1341

University was disbanded. The city’s obser- Planning regulation has been shaped by vation networks and the research partner- considerations of light and air ever since ships were only revived after 2002 with the the late 18th century, when Prince Elector election of Mayor Michael Bloomberg, who Karl Theodor declared Munich an ‘open positioned New York for leadership of the city’, demolished the 17th-century fortifica- new wave of global climate change awareness tions, created the Englischer Garten as a (Corburn, 2009; Rosenzweig et al., 2011). public park and instituted building regula- For consistent long-term application of tions based on separation distance. The climatological principles to urban manage- 1904 Staffelbauplan der K.Haupt- und ment, we must look to German-speaking Residenzstadt Mu¨nchen by Theodor Fischer countries, particularly the southern zone of was a remarkable synthesis of enclosed Germany, together with neighbouring Swiss street corridors along principal roads with cantons and Austria. This is the only part of open layout along side streets—both ele- Europe which has an extensive literature of ments reflecting the climatic principles of urban climatological monographs and his mentor Camillo Sitte (Collins and where city plans will routinely cite air move- Collins, 1965). Fischer’s plan remained in ment as a basis of planning policies. Both effect until 1980, Munich having deliber- theory and practice having common origins ately decided to rebuild the gaps in its in a national culture of weather sensitivity— ruined street plan after World War II rather Wetterfu¨ligkeit—which extends far beyond than open them up, as Hanover and Berlin awareness of Licht und Luft and the atmo- did, into a modernist ‘stadtlandschaft’. spheric dimension of public health. Factors Under the city’s Stadtentwicklungplan of include a conscious reaction against the neg- 1963 (the Jensen Plan) the built-up exten- ative object-lesson of industrial Britain in sions of the growing metropolis were to Germany’s late industrialisation; collective alternate with green environmental fingers. memory that Stadtluft has cultural as well as And, coming up to date, the city’s present chemical properties; a legal system that overall strategy die Perspektive Mu¨nchen clearly allows constraint of private property 1998 is based on a triad of principles— rights in the environmental interest; and a kompact–urban–gru¨n—that echo Fischer’s decentralised constitution which requires early 20th-century synthesis of urbanity the Deutsches Wetterdeinst to engage more and nature (City of Munich, 2010). than most national meteorology agencies Munich’s design strategy is underpinned with services to state and local governments. by climate science. In 1986, the Bavarian Two examples can be mentioned. urban climate unit Stadtklima Bayern Munich has an important place in the undertook a comprehensive measurement history of climatology. Max Joseph v. and modelling campaign that demonstrated Pettenkofer, creator of the Archiv fu¨r Munich’s dependence for summer ventila- Hygiene, founded the first institute for tion on cold night-time air draining off the urban hygiene in Munich in 1879. Several of Alps to the south and daytime flows of the foundation texts of micro-climatology fresh air from the Danube plain to the east originate in the city’s university, especially (Bru¨ndl, 1988). Soon afterwards, it was the seminal The Climate Near the Ground of decided to relocate the airport from the east Rudolf Geiger—first published in 1927 and to the north of the city, releasing its huge still in print today (Geiger et al., 2009) and site for a trade fair and urban extension, the the Das Stadtklima of his pupil Albert Messestadt Reim, which would be the first Kratzer. demonstration project of the ground-rules 1342 MICHAEL HEBBERT AND VLADIMIR JANKOVIC set out in the city’s ‘compact–urban–green’ movement in the city’s valleys: this science strategic vision (City of Munich, 2010). provided the basis for detailed regulation of The airport redevelopment concept was building separation and height. As the devised by one of the three climatologists Daimler-Mercedes works grew along the behind the 1986 study of Munich, River Neckar in the first half of the 20th cen- Professor Helmut Mayer, now of the tury, so did concern for air-hygeine, to the University of Freiburg. The entire layout is point where the municipal council decided configured to protect the quality of that in 1938 to appoint an in-house meteorolo- slow wind that blows from the Danube gist to ensure that climatic factors were plain on sticky summer days. A landscaped given full weight in the implementation of band 400 metres wide from east to west of its 1935 Urban Construction By-law. the site serves as a ‘fresh air glade’ Paradoxically, with the outbreak of war, (Frischluftschneise) to guarantee the ventila- Karl Schwalb’s first task was to create a net- tion of the city centre from the east. Then, work of rooftop chemical nebulisers and within the residential neighbourhoods, a ‘fog catapults’ that would shroud the entire secondary system of open spaces runs into city and its factories from the view of Allied the housing blocks to pour cool nocturnal bombers. Yet the camouflage tactic also pro- alpine air from the south (City of Munich, vided valuable experimental data on the pat- 1995, pp. 11–12). It is an unusually direct tern of air-flows in and around Stuttgart. application of climate analysis to urban After the war, Schwalb built up a specialist design. team which continues today as the Urban The seminal example of long-term appli- Climatology Unit. Dr Ju¨rgen Baumu¨ller suc- cation of climatology to the practice of ceeded him in 1971 and Dr Ulrich Reuter in urban design is found in Stuttgart, state cap- 2008. Stuttgart’s municipal team of 10 urban ital of Baden-Wu¨rttemberg. As a manufac- climatologists maintains a small number of turing town surrounded by steep hills, weather stations, carries out ad hoc measure- Stuttgart has always suffered from air quality ment campaigns—such as an experimental problems, exacerbated by exceptionally low release of tracer-gas SF in the hills above the wind speeds and weak circulation—locals city in 1981—and operates a comprehensive refer to the city centre as the Kessel (caul- set of computer models of the city climate. dron). Its planning history shows a level of Baumu¨ller and Reuter are both active scien- awareness of climatic factors exceptional tists, well connected not only with research even by German standards. ‘Unhindered units in German universities but with urban access of light and air’ was the design basis of climatologists world-wide (Hebbert et al., the first workers’ suburb—das Postdo¨rfe— 2011). laid out by the Wu¨rttemberg authorities for Stuttgart first attracted international postal and railway workers in 1868. The city attention through a documentary film enti- extension plan devised by Karl Friedrich tled Urban Development and Urban Climate: Ko¨lle in 1897 was based on through- Stuttgart—an example from the Federal ventilation (Durchlu¨ftung) principles with Republic of Germany, presented with voice- houses spaced along one side only of the new over in Chinese, Russian, Japanese and streets along the valley sides (City of English as the official German contribution Stuttgart, 2007, pp. 16–17). The extension to the United Nations Habitat I Conference plan approved by Mayor Gauss in 1901 in Vancouver in June 1976. The film’s vivid included a technical appendix by Dr Fritz imagery included long shots of shimmering Erk on the natural patterns of wind thermal hazes and three dimensional CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1343 animations of cold air flows—streams of and anabatic systems of air circulation has blue gel pouring down valley sides until particular appeal in dense hot-humid cen- blocked by buildings. Above all, the docu- tres such as Hong Kong, Kaohsiung City, mentary displayed real-life city-scale climate Singapore and Phom Pehn, where even the management in the person of slightest acceleration of air flows may have Oberbu¨rgermeister Manfred Rommel, pipe- significant implications for ventilation and smoking son of the World War II general, human thermal comfort (Hebbert et al., scrutinising city maps with his staff of 2011). So a methodology evolved in the meteorologists and planners. It caused a stir temperate zone has found a following in the in North America (Spirn, 1984) and yielded southern hemisphere—playing a part, for extensive long-term links with Japanese example, in the Hong Kong government’s scientists and municipalities. response to the SARS crisis (McCann and Stuttgart’s most significant policy contri- Ward, 2011, ch. 6; Ng, 2012). bution has been a translation device, the Recalling the historical precedents, the Klimaatlas or urban climate map, connect- potential for knowledge transfer which ing meteorological analysis of the city’s ‘cli- Richard Tobin doubted in 1976 now seems matopes’ to policy guidelines for planning. strong. In a context of widespread awareness High-resolution mapping of air flows and of urban climatic factors and their signifi- thermal exchanges provides an evidence cance, the appeal of climate mapping is base for controls over the siting and mas- obvious. Less so are the institutional require- sing of buildings, the management of open ments that underpin it—the resources to spaces and the reservation of unbuilt zones mount high-density weather observation as catchments and conduits of the strategic campaigns, expertise and computing power ventilation system (Hebbert and Webb, for models, institutional capacity to derive 2012). It is useful equally for the determi- and enforce planning guidelines. It remains nation of individual sites and for the spatial to be seen how ‘mobile’, in McCann and planning of the metropolitan region of 2.6 Ward’s terms (2011), this technology of million inhabitants (VRS, 2008). urbanism really is. The prosperous Schwabian capital in the Neckar valley, where vineyards co-exist with high-technology car production, Conclusion might be a special case. Yet under the head- ing of Environmental Meteorology Climate How might these precedents affect our and Air Pollution Maps for Cities and understanding of urban climate change? Regions, its methodology has been adopted First, obviously, they shift the time-frame. as national standard VDI 3787-1 by the The urban heat island appears not as an Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, the German anomalous discovery of the 1990s but in its Institute of Engineers, and applied domesti- true light as the longest-studied category of cally in (for example) Berlin, Kassel, anthropogenic climate change. Instead of Freibourg, and Bochum. Its suc- seeing adaptation planning as ‘‘still only a cess has prompted international interest, novelty’’ (Rosenzweig et al., 2011, p. 238), led by Japanese cities such as Osaka, Kobe, we have many decades of experiment to Yokohama, Fukuoka, Okayama and Sakai, draw upon, and not just the overhyped with many others following world-wide handful that crop up repeatedly in the (Ren et al., 2011). The Klimaatlas focus on urban climate literature, such as Mayor Lee topography, roughness and the katabatic Myung-bak’s Cheong-gye stream in Seoul 1344 MICHAEL HEBBERT AND VLADIMIR JANKOVIC and ARUP’s unbuilt master plan for humidity, wind velocity and direction, pre- Dongtang, Shanghai. cipitation, fog and mist, and air pollution; Secondly, the perspective of urban clima- geographical terrain information derived tology brings into relief a different set of cli- from topographic, slope/valley and soil mate factors. The risk-resilience model type maps; and a third layer of data on highlights high-impact risks such as storm- land use, landscape and buildings, with surge, drought, typhoons and temperature associated planning parameters. The cli- extremes, but has less to say about everyday matic analysis map translates into site- and localised weather phenomena such as specific recommendations—proactive, to rainfall and wind patterns. Air movement, improve and maintain desired micro- perhaps the most important micro-climatic climates, and reactive, to deal with undesir- variable affecting human thermal comfort, able consequences of development. The occurs in every city at every hour of day and methodology reveals potentials that may be night and is directly affected by building missed by a risk-resilience approach: poten- form and urban layout. Ventilation is not tial to reduce urban thermal loads; to opti- just of interest in heat-waves, it enhances mise existing urban ventilation paths and liveability in all weathers. chart new air paths where needed; to pro- Thirdly, all the successful examples of tect cold air production and drainage areas urban climate management depend upon in the peri-urban landscape; to harness fine-grained spatial mapping. The repeating topography, land–sea breezes and the inter- patterns of urban weather (i.e. their cli- nal thermal circulation of the urban heat mates) are complex and spatially specific, island. Again, Stuttgart’s climate change requiring observation and analysis of local adaptation strategy offers a nice example of particularities. Diurnal patterns of urban the global–local coupling in practice (City wind circulation have an intricate spatial of Stuttgart, 2010). distribution linked to topography, building Fourthly, urban climatology offers a dif- form and landscape. Solar radiation and ferent perspective on mitigation and adap- shade patterns relate directly to street tation. UN-HABITAT has argued that the canyon dimensions and the spacing of surest way to mitigate carbon emissions is buildings. Human comfort levels are highly by planning for compact, mixed-use urban- sensitive to air flows and humidity levels ism, ‘‘delinking high living standards and dependent on presence or absence of street high quality of life from high consumption trees. So the level of resolution is a vital and high greenhouse gas emissions’’ (UN- consideration: the urban climate is a meso- HABITAT, 2011, p. 61). Yet the same scale phenomenon but it can only be report fails to explain how urbanists are to usefully understood in micro. The micro- become climatically informed, except by climatic variables at the centre of VDI compiling lists of previous extreme weather 3787-1 methodology cannot be derived events and small disasters (UN-HABITAT, from coarse-gridded models derived from 2011, p. 147). We argue the equal impor- IPCC forecasts of annual average tempera- tance of understanding everyday weather. ture, precipitation and sea level rise. Ren Approximately half the urban heat island is et al. (2011) show how a city’s geographical caused by human energy use, and half is information system (GIS) base can support solar energy trapped in the urban form. the integration of three broad categories of Both aspects can be affected, for better or data: analytical maps of climatic elements worse, by physical planning and landscape. such as air temperature, atmospheric This spatial, diagnostic approach is most CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE PRECEDENTS 1345 urgently required in tropical cities where award ESRC RES 062-23-2134, ‘Climate Science present planning and design practices still and Urban Design, a Historical and Comparative aggravate instead of mitigate (Emmanuel, Study’. 2005). And finally, the story of urban climatol- Notes ogy has an institutional dimension. It is 1. See: www.urban-climate.org. true that the urban climate awareness cam- 2. J. 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