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A Histon,J of European Research Into Drugs and Creativitv

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A Histon,J of European Research Into Drugs and Creativitv I I r I lOS TEN BERGE Breakdown or Breakthrough? A Histon,J of European Research into Drugs and Creativitv ABSTRACT Longuage barriers have largely prevented American scholars from learning about European studies concernIng drugs and creativity. An art historian reports on several Swiss, English, French and German studies conducted from the 19405 to the 19705, offering new data in a research area that has been banned since drugs Iike_mescalin, psilocybin, and LSD became illegal. Different views ofthe operations ofthese drugs, revealed by such terms as whallucinogens," "psychologenics," and "psychedelics," appear to have colored researchers' aims to a large extent. The notions of drugs "dlctaUng" or ~liberatlng" the intoxicated artist are criticized by discussing the importance of set and setting. It is proposed that intentional drug use among artists expecting artistic breakthroughs while Intoxi~ cated, can be seen as a form of "gaucherie" or disinhiblting technique. INTRODUCTION When studying creativity, scientific researchers have often turned to their attention to artists using drugs. Although the eagerness with which artists use drugs is somewhat mythical, it can be linked to an expectation that was born with Roman· ticism and since then has resurfaced with stubborn regularity in the history of Western art: the expectation that drugs might raise creativity, insplraHon, or at least aesthetic sensibil~ ity, to levels that would be much harder to reach under normal conditions. But although much anecdotal evidence seems to support sw;:h claims, and while the art world may count more drug enthusiasts among its members than other trades, iI is by no means as saturated by them as we might expect Jf drugs really 257 VO/llmen Number4 Fourth Quarllr 1999 Supplied by The British Library - "The world's k.nowledge" ~-~~~~--~~~~~~--~~~-~ I Breakdown of Breakthrough could foster creativity. In fact, the question why artists do not use drugs ~II the time. is as relevant as trying to ascertain whether these substances might stimulate creativity or not. Unfortunately, Brt historians have not been overly concerned with these questions. and most of the available information in this area comes from experimental research that aimed {or straight answers to the second question only. It is also unfortunate that these studies have not always been methodologically compatible and that their resuhs have remai· ned somewhat fragmentary since new drug laws In the late 19605 made further research impossible. Forthis reason alone it is importanllo bring together all the information that research­ ers hllve been able to gather in the past. During my research in this field, however,l found that American and European sci­ entists have remained ignorant of each other's work to a sur­ prisingly large extent.' It seems that language barriers have stood in the way of almost all transatlantic communication. A history and review of the most important studies that were done by European, and in particuhn French and German speaking scientists in this field, might provide researchers in theUSwHh new data to be interpreted a..!"d give fresh impetus to the dis­ cussion about drugs and creativity In general,2 As an art historian J do not feel competent to discuss the relationships between creativity and drug use with all the sci­ entific finesse of a professional psychologist. Still, I hope to offer not only an intriguing chapter from the history of expeli­ mental psychology, but also a unique chance to look over lhe shoulder of the drugged artist and reflect once again on the use of drugs In art. ftHA1LUONOGENS· Already in the early nineteenth century, sporadic mention Is made of drug experiences thet, afterwards, became the inspl­ retion for works of art. The idea that one could also be artisti­ cally active during intoxication was first posited by the French romantic author Th!ophile Gautier, who, Iry 1843, described how he felt an "irresistible urge"to start drawing at great speed when under the innuence of hashish (Geutier, 1961a, p. 41). The psychiatrist Jacques-Joseph Moreau (de Tours) then ini- I Alii have found about European research are the very summary arllcles by Kipholr (1969) and Anonymou5 (1969). For I\merlcan studies one Is rererred to Krippner (1985) and Janiger & DObkin de Rlos (1989), both wIth references to earlier studies. 2 Unfortunately, studies from former communIst countries cannot be discussed here since, again, a language barrier stands In the way. 25. Supplied by The British Library - "The world's knowledge" JOllrnal 01 Cnollve Behavior tiated a series of experiments with writers and artists that became famous as the "hashlshc1ub" (Moreau, 1970; Gautier, 1961b). Since then not much systematic research was done in this field, until the introduction of mescaline in the 1920s and LSD in the 1940s. The modern history of the study of drugs and creativity started with psychiatrists asking artists to illustrate their hal1u~ cinations.ln 1940 forexample,the London based psychiatrists Walter Maday and Erich Guttmann wanted to know more about the nature of the hallucinations of their patients. Since they found their verbal descriptions not very reliable, they asked several artists to take the "hallucinogenic" drug mescaline and to sketch their visions during intoxication. In this way they [n­ deed obtained some illustrations of hallucinations, butin addi­ tion also observed some stylistic changes in the work produced in this manner, when compared with the artists' normal work. In one case they found a prevalence of wavy lines that were "entirely foreign to the artist's ordinary style but were marked in his sketches made during the intoxication, so that there can be little doubt about their causation by the drug" (Maday & Guttmann, 1941, p. 136). Although the logic seems impeccable. the situation is not as simple as Maday and Guttmann suggested. For one thing, It is noW known that the "wavy lines" in the work of the artist in question were nol entirely foreign to his ordinary style. In fact. the artist used wavy lines in his regular work for some time already. Ratherthan "dictating" him wavy lines, asMllciay and Guttmann suggested, intoxication might as well have given him an opportunity. perhaps even an excuse. to do some further experiments wilh this new element In his work. The idea of a drug "causing" wavy lines nevertheless directly relates to the psychiatric notion of the S!ilwandel, a German term denoting a more or less radical change in style in drawing or painting that sometimes accompanies the outbreak of psychosis. At the time, it was commonly believed among psychiatrists deal~ ing with the creative products of their patients, that the style In which the insane worked was somehow dictated by their pathology (MacGregor, 1989. p. 91). In effect, it was not so much the patient, as his disease that was considered to be the principal author of the work. "PSYCHOTOGENICS· Since drugs like mescaline were thought to induce a "model­ psychOSIS," it followed that they too would have to cause a change in style that would reflect the confused Slate of mind 259 Supplied by The British Library - ''The wor1d's knowledge" BrukdOwn 0' BI'tI..through of the Intoxicated. These ideas probably relate to a popular, though somewhat archaic notion of disease and intoxication as demons taking possessIon of mind and body. And although some phenomena of Intoxication do seem to confirm this belief, it is definitely nOlthe whole story. For one thing, this "demoniac mode'" implies that different painters under the innuence of one and the same drug would startworking in one and the same drug-induced style, a hypothesis that Is easy to falsify, both historically and experimentally. Still, an expression like "being under the influence" testifies to the enduring strength of the idea that drugs force the Intoxi­ cated to think or behave In ways that differ radically from his normal ways. In the 1950s drug experiments often started on this basis. In 1951 for example, LBsz[o Matefi, a physicizm and painter (rom Basle, Switzerland, set up an experiment to establish the exact pathological nature of the mescalin and LSD intoxication. To this end he would take one of these drugs and draw the porlrait of a supervisor every hour during intoxi­ cation as realistically as he possibly could. In this way MaiMi hoped to obtain an "objective" visual protocollhat, afterwards, would enable him to diagnos.e the two drug states. The follow~ ing fragments from the protocol of the LSD session give an impression of what happened: At 9.15 Matl!fi took 100 gamma LSD. At 9.35 he still feels completely normal. He resolves to work as neutrally llnd academically as possible. He considers drawing no. 1 {Figure laJ only moderately successful. At 10.40 he feels rather euphoric. His drawing becomes more uncer­ tain: "I see the object clearly, but draw It Incorrectly, my hands don't follov.' me. I must be careful not to smuggle in cubist ideas." He fails to keep control over the propor~ Uons between parts. His movements become wider, more expansive {Figure IbJ. From 11.00 colors start glowing and forms of objects dissolve into Schwung/(nfen, or wavy lines. 11.30: "I see and experience so much, everything mixes; no perspective; things don't have much sub­ stance." 11.45: "It makes me furious that I cannot really keep my mind on my work. IfI were normal, I might make some great drawings." "My hand must follow those wavy lines. Except for the play of colors and the plasticity, t see my model in the correct proportions and outlines, but my hand Is being dragged along by the dynamics of some 260 Supplied by The British Library ~ ''The world's knowledge" 1 --------------------.. --,.----~--·1 I JOUfn.1 ~f Cr~~l;~~ Behavior FIGURE lA-I.
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