ASAHPERD Journal

The ASAHPERD Journal is the official publication of the Alabama State

Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

FALL 2016 VOLUME 36, NUMBER 2 2016 - 2017 ASAHPERD Board of Directors Gina Mabrey, President Laura Prior, Past President Erin Reilly, President-Elect Donna Dunaway, Parliamentarian Donna Hester, Executive Director Ginger Aaron-Brush, Social & Digital Media Manager Anita Davis & Valerie Yarbrough, Jump/Hoops Coordinators Lee Renfroe & Jean Ann Helm Allen, Journal Editors Nancy Ray, Alabama State Dept. of Education Gina Smith, American Heart Association Penny Edwards, Alliance for a Healthier Generation Phil Holmes, Governor's Commission on Fitness Connie Dacus, Future Professionals Advisor

Vice Presidents & Vice Presidents-Elect

Penny Edwards, Health Division Caroline Valentino, Health Division Jean Ann Helm Allen, Physical Education Chris Reeves, Physical Education Shawn Mitchell, Sport & Exercise Science Stacy Bishop, Sport & Exercise Science

District Representatives

Vacant, District 1 Ron Ashley, District 5 Summer Lewis, District 2 Anita Davis, District 6 Brian McRae, District 3 Darron Alexander, District 7 Becca Grier, District 4 Kay Hamilton, District 8

Council Chairs & Chairs-Elect

Pam Rush, Adapted Council Laura Rickman, Adapted Council Michael James, Elementary Council Jaime Giangrosso, Elementary Council Ryan Rust, Middle/Secondary Council Shanekia Wiley, Middle/Secondary Council Callie Pike, Athletics Council Kellie Eubanks, Athletics Council Gunars Cazers, Higher Education Council George Schaefer, Higher Education Council Brooke Forester, Research Council TJ Exford, Research Council Natasha Satcher, Physical Activity Council Patrick Shremshock, Physical Activity Council Kamron Graham, Future Professionals Justin Wiley, Future Professionals

2 ALABAMA STATE ASSOCIATION JOURNAL Table of Contents

ASAHPERD 2 ASAHPERD Board of Directors/Council Officers

3 Table of Contents Fall 2016 Volume 36 Number 2 4 Note from the Journal Co-Editors EDITORS: Lee Renfroe, UNA 5 Publishing in the ASAHPERD Journal Jean Ann Helm Allen, UNA 6 Meet the Jump & Hoops for Heart State Coordinators [email protected] 7 2016 ASAHPERD Award Recipients

JOURNAL LAYOUT: Peer Reviewed Articles Donna Hester [email protected] 8-12 Exploring the Relationship Between Use of Nutrition Label Information and Risk for Eating Disorders among Adult Females in Alabama, Katy Smith,Shelley REVIEWERS: Holden and Sheryl L. Chatfield

Tom Coates, UNA 13-19 Pitching Performance after Tommy John Surgery, Lee Renfroe, UNA Gwyn Foster and James Matthew Green Eric O’Neal, UNA 20-31 Round Hill School: An Experiment in American Jane Roy, UAB Education, Tom Coates Sandra Sims, UAB Rodney Whittle, AAMU 32-36 Should Youth Athletes be Involved in Structured Sports Training Workouts? Andrew Shirek and Brad Strand Matt Green, UNA

About the Cover: The combination of 2016 being Leap Year and leap being an action word led to this year’s presidential theme LEAP Fearlessly. “The Radical Leap” by Steve Farber is centered on leading with Love, Policy Statement Energy, Audacity, and Proof - LEAP. The idea is that love generates boundless energy, inspires The ASAHPERD Journal is a blind, peer reviewed journal courageous audacity, and requires proof. Leading and is the official publication of the Alabama State isn’t about YOU; it is about YOUR IMPACT ON Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, OTHERS. This philosophy has since served as the and Dance. The Journal is published two times annually, basis of President Mabrey’s leadership style in the fall and in the spring. Manuscripts, photos, and professionally and personally. It likens to the old news items are invited and should be submitted in adage that ‘people don’t care how much you know accordance with the Author’s Guidelines found in this until they know how much you care.’ document. The authors’ opinions are their own and do not necessarily reflect the attitude or views of ASAHPERD, its officers, or the editors of the Journal.

www.asahperd.org

3 A Note from the Journal Editors Jean Ann Helm Allen & Lee Renfroe

Hello fellow ASAHPERD colleagues and friends! We are excited to be the new co-editors for the ASAHPERD journal! It is an honor to follow in Lynne Edmondson’s editorial footsteps. She did an outstanding job for many years and we know we speak for all the membership when we say that we greatly appreciate her dedicated service and time spent bringing an informative, professional journal to the membership.

We would like to take this opportunity to introduce ourselves and share with you our vision for the future of the ASAHPERD journal. We are both faculty at the University of North Alabama. When the announcement came out soliciting for a new journal editor, we both emailed Donna, offering to fill the position but without either one knowing that the other one was volunteering. When Donna found out that we both expressed an interest in the position, she called Tom Coates to discuss the idea of co-editors and he supported the idea, knowing that we enjoy and work well together.

When we became co-editors, we were given the opportunity to restructure the format and generate some new ideas for a fresh direction. We were excited to have this opportunity and have come up with some new ideas that we think will provide for an interesting change in articles. First of all, we decided that since so many of you are teachers, we would change the release time on the journal to fall and spring so that a summer journal would not be released when many of you are on summer break.

Second, we would like to broaden the scope of the submissions to meet a wider range of interests. Research articles are always valued in a peer journal but we also feel that a variety of offerings may be more beneficial since our membership has a broad base. We are asking for article proposals that include research but we are also interested in historical, best practices, trendy teaching techniques/activities…. we are open to any professional writing that our membership or interested parties see as beneficial to the journal readership. Lastly, we would like to solicite for additional reviewers. We have had outstanding reviewers to date, and we hope that they will continue to support our efforts. In addition, we would also like to see some new “faces” apply and share their expertise in the review process. Please contact us if you would like to apply to be a journal reviewer. The process is not time consuming and most of us who have participated in the process have really enjoyed the experience. We are excited to serve as your editors in the upcoming year and with your help, we look forward to putting together the best journal ever! Happy submissions, Jean Ann and Lee

4 Publishing in the ASAHPERD Journal

The ASAHPERD Journal is looking for articles that communicate theory, research and practice in an ASAHPERD (health, physical education, recreation, or dance) discipline. Acceptable topics include teaching techniques; research; Alabama state resources and services; meeting Alabama state or national standards; philosophy; advocacy and policy appropriate for Alabama; and reviews of web resources, books, and audiovisuals.

Manuscripts must meet the most current APA Guidelines, be submitted electronically as a word document in portrait configuration (not landscape), include an abstract, and not exceed 2500 words or 5 pages single-spaced, Arial, 12 font, and fully justified. Headers should be centered and sub headers left justified. Do not insert any extra blank spaces or special formatting. The current schedule for publication is spring and fall. Acceptance of articles for publication is ongoing. The abstract should be 50 words or less. Please include a cover letter with your credentials (student or faculty and your university affiliation or place of employment) and stating the article is not being considered for publication elsewhere. Contact [email protected] for more information.

Pre-professional undergraduate and graduate student submissions must be accompanied by a letter on official University letterhead from a faculty sponsor (even if NOT listed as a co- author) that they have reviewed the paper and vouch that it is in a condition worthy to be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal. We are requesting faculty sign and provide their contact information for an undergraduate or graduate student to ensure that the work is of high quality and was produced as part of a guided experience.

Interested in Reviewing for the Journal?

Would you be interested in making a professional contribution to our organization from the comfort of your own home? Do you enjoy reading the latest research going on in our field? Would you like to be a part of the journal process? If so, please apply to be an ASAHPERD journal reviewer TODAY!

Qualifications:

• Must be a current ASAHPERD member and maintain ASAHPERD membership

• Must have a terminal degree in an ASAHPERD field (i.e. health education/health promotion, physical education, adapted physical education, recreation, athletics/ coaching, exercise science, etc.)

• Have read and agree to the roles and responsibilities of an ASAHPERD Journal Reviewer

If interested access the link for the journal reviewer application here or contact the journal co- editors at [email protected] for more information.

5 Meet ASAHPERD's Jump Rope for Heart & Hoops for Heart Coordinators Anita Davis & Valerie Yarbrough

Anita Davis and Valerie Yarbrough are your state coordinators for Jump and Hoops! Anita and Valerie teach at Huntington Place Elementary in Tuscaloosa County. ASAHPERD is fortunate to have these dedicated professionals take on this role. As state coordinators, Anita and Valerie are the liaisons between ASAHPERD and all the local Jump Rope for Heart and Hoops for Heart coordinators in Alabama’s schools. Among other responsibilities, they assist in planning sessions for the Fall Conference and Spring Conference and encourage other teachers to conduct events in their schools.

Interested in signing up to hold an event? Contact Anita ([email protected]) or Valerie ([email protected]) for more information. When you complete a Jump Rope for Heart or Hoops for Heart event, you provide future generations with the knowledge and tools they need to stay heart healthy for life. Jump Rope for Heart and Hoops for Heart proceeds go to the American Heart Association to be used for fighting heart disease, providing educational materials and public education about heart disease, the nation’s #1 killer. Sign up today and you will receive materials on how to conduct an event. AHA provides many incentives for both the coordinator and the participants who champion this great cause. In addition, ASAHPERD provides coordinator incentives as well such as reduced membership fees ($5 for one coordinator per school event – a savings of $25), complimentary lunch on Monday at the Fall Conference, and an opportunity to apply for a $500 grant for your school. AND, because of your volunteer efforts and the time it takes to complete a quality event, ASAHPERD will award to teachers completing a Jump Rope and/or a Hoops for Heart event 6 CEU Hours! If you are already a Jump Rope for Heart or Hoops for Heart Coordinator, THANK YOU! If not, sign up today. Your students will benefit from the experience and so will you!

Congratulations to the 2015-2016 Top Money Raisers Jump Rope for Heart Fairhope Elementary School $26139.09 Cathy Hudson Paine Primary School $26134.94 Scott Burnett Edgewood Elementary School $23697.07 John Dorough Hoops for Heart Homewood Middle School $15244.28 Robert Gibbons UMS-Wright Preparatory School $11600.66 Terry Canova Demopolis Middle School $ 7758.89 Jesse Bell Jump/Hoops Combined Creekside Elementary School $18805.82 Mary Mitchell Mill Creek Elementary School $17612.35 Jennifer Klein Vestavia Hill Cahaba Heights $14485.11 Jeremy Andrews

6 Congratulations to the 2016 ASAHPERD Award Recipients

Honor Award ASAHPERD Service Award Administrator of the Year Retta Evans Joy Lucas Edward Drozdowski UAB Faulkner University Wares Ferry Elementary

Elementary Teacher of the Year Middle School Teacher of the Year Health Educator of the Year Ann Trotter Laura Prior Shelley Holden T.R. Simmons Elementary Tuscaloosa Magnet School University of South Alabama

Angie Nazaretian Lay Leader Walker Area Community Foun- Ethnic Minority Award dation, Paul Kennedy, CEO Hoops for Heart Coordinator Natasha Satcher Anita Davis University of West Alabama Huntington Place Elementary

Recreation Professional Jump Rope for Heart Coordinator Willis J. Baughman Award Outstanding Future Patrick Shremshock Debra McDonald Outstanding Majors Club Professional University of North Alabama Richland Elementary UAB - FLAME Danielle Mason, AUM Exploring the Relationship Between Use of Nutrition Label Information and Risk for Eating Disorders Among Adult Females in Alabama

Katy Smith1, M.S. ,Shelley L. Holden1, Ed.D., Sheryl L. Chatfield2, Ph.D.

1University of South Alabama, Department of Health, Physical Education, and Leisure Studies

2Kent State University, College of Public Health, Kent OH USA

Exploring the Relationship Between Additional risk factors for eating Use of Nutrition Label Information disorders in females identified by and Risk for Eating Disorders Among researchers include the tendency to diet Adult Females in Alabama to lose weight, in particular at severe levels (Patton, Selzer, Coffey, Carlin, & Lifetime prevalence rates for Wolfe, 1999) and reported low self- eating disorders of all types among US esteem, inadequate social support, and females in the United States are as high negative body image (Ghaderi & Scott, as 5.9 %, roughly twice the rate of 2001). Favaro, Ferrara, and males (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, Santonastaso (2003) suggested other 2007). McCarthy (1990) suggested that correlates with eating disorders that a cultural ideal of thinness for women, include being overweight or engaging in which is often below the actual average atypical eating patterns, such as binge weight for women in a given culture, eating or adhering to low calorie diets. influences body dissatisfaction at a A strategy that is used to help higher rate among women than men. individuals manage weight through food Eapen, Mabrouk, and Bin-Othman intake is the provision of nutritional (2006) assessed adolescent female information via food labels, which are research participants in the United Arab required by an increasing number of Emirates, and concluded that a thin countries including both the United body was considered desirable, and that States and the European Union participants frequently believed their (European Food Information Council ideal weight should be less than their [EFIC], 2014). According to Grunert, current weight. Jones, Bennett, Wills, and Fernandez-Celemin (2010), Olmsted, Lawson, and Rodin (2001) UK consumers were most likely to report asserted disordered eating attitudes and use of labels to identify fat, sugar, and behaviors become increasingly common calorie information. Campos, Doxey, in older teens and young women. and Hammond (2011) conducted a According to Striegel-Moore and Bulik systematic review of 120 international (2007), the single best predictor of research studies and concluded the developing an eating disorder is being prevalence of self-reported label use female. was generally high, with the greatest percentage at 82% (New Zealand) and

8 the lowest at 47% (European Union). (over age 19), female, and able to read Label use in the US was reported at and understand English. Participants 75%. The authors concluded females were provided with an information sheet were more likely to report that nutrition and description of the project and were labels influenced their food choices, and given assurance that no personally that consumers tended to look more identifying data would be requested. closely at nutrients they wish to avoid. The data for this research include Other researchers (e.g., Godwin, participant scores on the Eating Speller-Henderson, & Thompson, 2006; Attitudes Test (EAT-26) and a single Rasberry, Chaney, Housman, Misra, & multiple-choice self-assessment of the Miller, 2007) suggested that females frequency with which participants have greater nutritional knowledge and consulted nutritional labels. We also more favorable attitudes, and report asked participants to provide age and more frequent use of label information racial/ethnic identification. than men. However, in general, The EAT-26 was originally according to the EFIC, “little is known developed to identify symptoms of about whether consumers make long- anorexia nervosa, has demonstrated term healthier food choices as a result adequate psychometric properties and of having used nutrition information” (p. is a frequently used instrument in 9). This suggests that researchers have screening for other eating disorders incomplete understanding of individuals’ (Garner & Bohr, 1982; Orbitello et al., motivation for using label information. 2006). The EAT-26 was found Given that females are both more appropriate for use to identify risk for likely than males to experience an binge eating disorder (BED) and an eating disorder and to report use of eating disorder or eating disorders not nutritional labels, we proposed this otherwise specified (EDNOS) although research to explore the potential adjustment to the cut off score is relationship between these two recommended, in particular when the behaviors. The purpose of this paper is instrument is used with free living to present findings from a survey populations (Orbitello et al., 2006). research project designed to assess to what extent females’ reporting of use of Results nutritional label information might predict The survey was administered in potential for experiencing an eating person in pencil and paper format to disorder. participants; all 111 participants completed the survey. Eighty-two Methods participants self-identified as White; 26 This survey research project was self-identified as Black, and the conducted over the course of two remainder self-identified as Latino. Ages months in the state of Alabama. A of participants ranged from 19 to 82 with university institutional review board mean age of 26.31 (SD = 12.06). approved the project prior to the A small number of participants initiation of data collection. One hundred reported reading nutrition labels 100% and eleven participants were recruited of the time or never, resulting in a non- by purposive sampling. Selection criteria normally distributed outcome variable. included that participants must be adult Because of this and because our

9 interest was in assessing the strength of Discussion the relationship between potential for The results of our statistical eating disorder and self-reported label analysis of survey responses from 111 use, we collapsed the label use adult females suggest there might be a categories into two to facilitate use of a relationship between use of nutritional logistic regression model. We labels and having risk factors for eating considered those who reported using disorders. In their review, Campos et al. nutrition labels 50% or more of the time (2011) concluded that individuals who as nutrition label users (n = 67) and review labels might do so to identify those who reported using labels less things they wish to avoid, which than 50% of the time as non-users (n = suggests that label review could be a 44). facilitator for eating disorders that are When we applied the EAT-26 associated with desire to reduce authors’ recommended cut off score of calories or fat to sometimes unhealthy 20 to determine risk for eating disorders, levels. 11 participants met or exceeded this Limitations of this research score. Using the lower recommended include relatively small, homogenous cut off of 11 to determine risk for eating sample, however, our interest was disorder in free living populations, exploratory at this stage and participants (Orbitello et al., 2006), 33 participants represented the population of interest. had scores that suggest potential risk for We also relied on participants self anorexia nervosa, BED, or EDNOS. report, although as our interest was not We conducted logistic regression directed toward one specific one eating analysis to assess the relationship disorder, it would be difficult to validate between EAT-26 scores (RISKSCORE) self-reported data through use of one or and nutrition label user category. a small number of objective measures. Because of the multiple cut off points Grunert et al. (2010) suggested based suggested in prior research, we treated on direct observation in combination RISKSCORE as a continuous variable. with self-report data that participants The -2 log likelihood of the null model might overestimate their tendency to was 149.08; inclusion of our predictor review labels, perhaps due to social decreased this measure to 136.65. desirability. We hope by using a two- Coefficient values, confidence intervals, category split to have eliminated some and calculated probability values for the of the impact of overestimates, model are shown in table 1. presuming the general tendency to According to our model, for every overestimate would be conservative one unit increase in EAT-26 score, the rather than extreme. log odds of reading nutrition labels These findings represent a increases by 13%. All statistical starting point for further exploration into analyses were conducted using R use of nutritional labels. Given the version 3.2.2 (R Core Team, 2015). association between eating disorders Additional analysis detail, including R and individual factors, including level of code, is available by contacting the self-esteem, or environmental factors, authors. including level of social and emotional support available, further research might incorporate assessments of these actors as well.

10 References Godwin, S. L., Speller-Henderson, L., & Campos, S., Doxey, J., & Hammond, D. Thompson, C. (2006). Evaluating the (2011). Nutrition labels on pre- nutrition label: Its use in and impact packaged foods: A systematic on purchasing decisions by review. Public Health Nutrition, 14, 1496-1506. consumers. Journal of Food Eapen, V., Mabrouk, A. A., & Bin- Distribution Research, 37, 76-80. Othman, S. (2006). Disordered Grunert, K. G., Wills, J. M., & eating attitudes and symptomatology Fernandez-Celemin, L. (2010). among adolescent girls in the United Nutrition knowledge, and use and Arab Emirates. Eating Behaviors, 7, understanding of nutrition 53-60. doi: information on food labels among 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.07.001 consumers in the UK. Appetite, 55, “Eating Disorder Help and Information.” 177-189. RSS 20. (2014, March 11.) doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.05.045 http://www.mirror-mirror.org. Hudson, J.I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H.G., & European Food Information Council Kessler, R.C. (2007). The (2014). Global update on nutrition prevalence and correlates of eating labeling. Brussels, Belgium: Authors. disorders in the National Comorbidity Retrieved on August 22, 2015 from Survey Replication. Biological http://www.eufic.org/upl/1/default/doc Psychiatry, 61(3), 348-358. /globalupdateexecsumjan2014%201 Jones, J. M., Bennett, S., Olmsted, M. 3%20jan%202014_finalwebsummary P., Lawson, M. L., & Rodin, G. .pdf (2001). Disordered eating attitudes Favaro, A., Ferrara, S., & Santonastaso, and behaviors in teenaged girls: A P. (2003). The spectrum of eating school-based study. Canadian disorders in young women: A Medical Association Journal, 165, prevalence study in a general 547-552. population sample. Psychosomatic Laz, H.L., Rahman, M., Pohlmeier, A.M., Medicine, 65, 701-708. Berenson, A. B. (2015). Level of doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000073871.67 nutrition knowledge and its 679.D8 association with weight loss Garner, D.M. & Bohr, Y. (1982). The behaviors among low income EAT: Psychometric features and reproductive-age women. Journal of clinical correlates. Psychological Community Health, 40, 542-548. Medicine, 12, 871-878. doi: McCarthy, M. (1990). The thin ideal, 10.1017/S00332917000049163 depression and eating disorders in Ghaderi, A., & Scott, B. (2001). women. Behavioral Research and Prevalence, incidence and Theory, 28, 205-215. prospective risk factors for eating Orbitello, B., Ciano, R., Corsaro, M., disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Rocco, P.L., Taboga, C. . . . , & Scandinaviva , 104, 122-130. Balestrieri, M. (2006). The EAT-26 as screening instrument for clinical nutrition unit attenders. International

11 Journal of Obesity, 30, 977-981. doi: Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Bulik, C. M. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803238 (2007). Risk Factors for Eating Patton, G. C., Selzer, R., Coffey, C., Disorders. American Psychologist, Carlin, J. B., & Wolfe, R. (1999). 62, 181-198. doi:10.1037/0003- Onset of adolescent eating 066X.62.3.181 disorders: Population based cohort Striegel-Moore, R. H., Dohm, F. A., study over 3 years. British Medical Kraemer, H. C., Taylor, C. B., Journal, 318, 765-768. Daniels, S., Crawford, P. B., et al. R Core Team (2015). R: A language (2003). Eating disorders in white and and environment for statistical black women. American Journal of computing. Vienna, Austria: R Psychiatry, 160, 1326-1331. Foundation for Statistical Computing. Wilfley, D. E., Schreiber, G. B., Pike, K. http://www.R-project.org. M., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Wright, D. Rasberry, C. N., Chaney, B. H., J., & Rodin, J. (1996). Eating Housman, J. M., Misra, R., & Miller, disturbances and body image: A P. J. (2007). Determinants of comparison of a community sample nutrition label use among college of adult black and white women. students. American Journal of Health International Journal of Eating Education, 38, 76-82. Disorders, 20, 377-387.

Table 1 Predictor Coefficient 95% CI 95% CI P Odds 95% 95% (SE) Lower Upper value ratio CI CI Lower Upper Constant -.57(.36) -1.3 .11 .11 .57 .27 1.12 RISKSCORE .12 (.04) .05 .21 .002 1.13 1.05 1.23 R2 = .106 (Cox-Snell). Model χ2 = 12.43

12 Pitching Performance After Tommy John Surgery

Gwyn Foster and James Matthew Green, Ph.D.

University of North Alabama, Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation

Introduction through the humerus and ulna and a The ulnar collateral ligament tendon graft is passed through the (UCL) provides the main stress restraint tunnels to create a new UCL. In the to the elbow and tolerates well the figure eight technique, the graft is stress associated with normal daily weaved in a figure eight pattern with any activity. However, for a baseball pitcher, residual of the patient’s UCL sutured the UCL may be stressed to intolerable onto the graft to add strength. In the levels, ultimately resulting in a tear to docking technique, the tendon graft is the UCL necessitating UCL passed through the ulnar tunnel and reconstruction, known as Tommy John then brought together in the humeral surgery. tunnel and sutured together. In the Dane TJ technique, the tendon graft is passed The UCL through the humeral tunnel and screwed The UCL, located on the inside of into the ulna allowing for less bone the elbow, is a triangular ligament tunnels to be drilled. In this technique, composed of three bands. The main the graft is made into a double strand restraint is the anterior band, which graft by folding it over itself (Greiwe et incurs the bulk of stress during pitching al., 2009). (Gillespie & Cowder, 2003). This stress is caused by the rotation of the humerus Literature Review followed by rapid extension of the elbow Erickson et al. (2013), found that while a pitcher goes through his entire 26% of National Collegiate Athletic range of motion (ROM). Repeated Association (NCAA) athletes and 51% of stress across time to the UCL may grade school athletes think that pitchers result in unnoticeable micro tears in the should have Tommy John Surgery to ligament. Eventually, cumulative enhance pitching performance damage may require surgery if not regardless of medical need (Erickson et corrected with non-operative treatment al 2013). Irrespective of ethical (Patel et al., 2014). positions, research has not definitively determined if the surgery influences UCL Reconstruction pitching performance (Erickson et al., Dr. Frank Jobe performed the 2013, Makhni et al., 2014). However, 70 first surgery in 1974 on Major League to 90% of patients return to pre-surgery Baseball (MLB) pitcher, Tommy John performance level (statistics such as (Gillespie & Cowder, 2003). Today, earned run average, win percentage, there are two modifications used along strike out to walk ratio, and walks plus with Dr. Jobe’s original surgery, which is hits per innings pitched matched that of known as the figure eight technique. In pre-surgery performance) (Makhni et al., all three techniques, tunnels are drilled 2014). Dugas et al. (2014), showed that

13 75% of patients who underwent the (2013), showed participants who figure eight technique returned to pre- needed only 18 months post-surgery to surgery performance level (as be eligible for participation and pitchers previously defined), 91% of patients who to have pitched in at least 1 MLB game underwent the docking technique to be considered rather than showing returned to pre-surgery performance pitchers who had pitched in Minor level (as previously defined), and 87% League Baseball (MiLB), MLB, or both who underwent the Dane TJ technique (Erickson et al., 2013). This could have returned to pre-surgery performance been linked to improvement observed in level (as previously defined) (Dugas et the study. al., 2014). Makhni et al. (2014), only Erickson et al. (2013), observed considered pitchers who had been initial improvement in the first two active established in MLB (appeared in at least years (participants had pitched one or 1 game) before and after surgery rather more MLB games post-surgery) of post- than showing pitchers from both MiLB operative pitchers. Data for three or and MLB (Makhni et al., 2014). Because more years post-surgery could not be of sparse research and challenges compared because it did not exist for associated with quantifying pitching pitchers who had retired within five performance, it is unclear if Tommy years of having the surgery. Retired John surgery alters performance of pitchers accounted for 68% of pitchers baseball pitchers. in the study. Erickson et al. (2013), credits the improvement to the The Current Study possibility of change in pitching status, The purpose of this study was to for example a starting pitcher may have determine if Tommy John surgery has been reassigned to be a relief pitcher. any impact on pitching performance. We This change in status would lead to compared pre vs. post performance fewer innings pitched and to facing based on earned run average (ERA), fewer batters, which would make walks plus hits per innings pitched comparisons with pre-surgery (WHIP), and strike out to walk ratio performance difficult (Erickson et al., (K:BB). 2013). Makhni, et al. (2014), found that Materials and Methods 20% of pitchers did not return to MLB Using a secondary data source level competition. Thirteen percent (described below), this study examined returned only to active status (appeared 59 pitchers who had surgery between in 1 to 9 MLB games) and 21% did not 2001 and 2011. To be included in the return to baseball at all. On average, study, a pitcher had to have played at pitchers showed decline in performance least three years prior to and three meaning that statistics, such as earned years post-surgery in MiLB, MLB, or run average (ERA), walks plus hits per both. The total number of pitchers who inning pitched (WHIP), strike out to walk fit the criteria was 43. Pitchers who had ratio (K:BB), and win percentage, retired before they had reached three became worse. seasons post-surgery were considered The problems associated with significant to the study, but their these studies are that Erickson, et al. statistics were not included in the data

14 analysis. Retirement quickly after averaged according to the number of surgery can mean that a pitcher’s seasons for each pitcher. Paired t-tests performance had become so poor that were conducted for each dependent he could not make a team. To show this, variable. Results were considered MLB career lengths were averaged for significant at p<0.05 to show both retired and active players and improvement or decline in performance. compared with pitchers who retired in 2014 without having the surgery. Results Players who retired before they reached Dependent measures were the average were deemed to have expressed as means and standard retired due to poor or no performance deviations pre and post-surgery. There post-surgery. A list of players was found were no significant differences for any on MLB Reports dependent measure pre vs. post- (http://www.mlbreports.com/tj-surgery/), surgery (Table 1). cross-referenced with MLB Online (http://www.mlb.mlb.com) and Baseball Discussion Reference (http://www.baseball- Tommy John surgery is a popular reference.com). Players were then surgery for correction of overuse injuries narrowed according to the inclusion occurring to the UCL. Because of its criteria previously described. proposed benefit to pitching Statistics were found on performance, some have argued that it FanGraphs (http://www.fangraphs.com). would be useful to undergo surgery Once obtained, the individual statistics without diagnosed medical need (per pitcher) were entered into a (Erickson et al., 2013). To date, spreadsheet where statistical analyses research is sparse and it is still unclear were conducted to compare mean whether Tommy John surgery is values (pre vs. post-TJS). Measures beneficial. This study investigated pre used as dependent variables and vs. post-surgery performance using determined to reflect performance in the ERA, WHIP, and K:BB as dependent current study were earned run average measures reflecting performance. (ERA), walks plus hits per innings Results of this study show that pitched (WHIP), and strike out to walk overall there was no difference in ratio (K:BB). These statistics were pitching performance before vs. after chosen because they are principally undergoing Tommy John surgery. linked with the pitcher and not the However, basing conclusions solely on abilities of the fielders or the offensive aggregate analysis may result in capacity of the team. Further, because misleading conclusions. If a portion of they are expressed in relative terms, participants benefited while a similar they are plausible reflections even in portion experienced worse performance, cases where a starting pitcher was these may cancel each other and result reassigned to relief duties. in similar mean values pre vs. post- surgery. In that paradigm, concluding Statistical Analysis ‘no significant effect’ would be The statistics were totaled for inaccurate for both groups of every season before surgery and for respondents. Consequently, we opted to every season after surgery then analyze further and assess individual

15 responses using criteria representing with pitchers who pitched more innings what we determined a “meaningful” and faced more batters. difference. We propose assessment in this manner provides a more clear view Other Data of true response to Tommy John Based on a change of ± 0.5, surgery vs. basing conclusions solely on there was not enough change in K:BB or aggregate analysis. WHIP to be meaningfully different. Only 2 of the 43 pitchers showed an Earned Run Average improvement in K:BB and only 1 pitcher Based on a change of ± 0.5 in ERA, showed a decline in K:BB. Only 1 44% of pitchers showed a worse ERA pitcher showed an improvement in where only 26% showed improvement. WHIP and only 2 pitchers showed The other 30% showed no significant decline in WHIP. change. Fifty-five percent of the pitchers who showed improvement were starters. Career Lengths This percentage is meaningful Twenty-seven percent of pitchers considering that only 37% of the retired before they were able to reach pitchers included in analysis were three seasons of play post-surgery starters. This means that, though only (Table 2). This was considered a decline one-third of the pitchers were starters, in performance because it was assumed over half of the pitchers who improved that something resulted in the pitcher were starters, so a starting pitcher may not being able to reach a performance have a reasonable chance at level that would allow him to make a improvement. Two-thirds of the pitchers team or accrue playing time. Fifty-three were relief pitchers but less than half of percent of players included in the those who improved were relief pitchers analysis retired with a 13-season MLB indicating that relief pitchers are less career on average. This is comparable likely to improve. Thirty-eight percent of to MLB pitchers who did not have the starters showed improvement in ERA, surgery and retired in 2014 with an 25% showed decline, and 37% showed average MLB career length of 11 no significant change. Fifty-six percent seasons. of relief pitchers showed decline in ERA, Sixty-six percent of the pitchers, 33% showed improvement, and 11% including those not in the analysis, have showed no change. retired and have an average MLB career Fifty-five percent of the pitchers length of 12 seasons pre and post- who showed improvement had an surgery combined. Thirty-six percent of increase in innings pitched. Of the pitchers retired before they reached a pitchers who showed a meaningful 10-season MLB career. These pitchers difference in ERA, 75% who had an could have had a gradual decline in increase in innings pitched showed performance after surgery that caused a improvement where 77% of pitchers continual decrease in playing time until who had a decrease in innings pitched they had little to no playing time showed decrease in performance. This because of low performance, which could be because fewer innings pitched would cause them to retire early means fewer batters faced, so runs because they were not playing. This would have bigger impact on ERA than suggests that there is approximately a

16 one in three chance that a pitcher may Aggregate analysis failed to have his career cut short after having demonstrate a consistent overwhelming surgery. It is noted however that improvement. Assessment using differentiating between direct impacts of criterion-based changes seems to surgery vs. natural decline in suggest a great deal of variation among performance due to aging in that individuals in response to the surgery. paradigm is difficult. Although improvement is difficult to quantify, pitchers can be expected to Further Assessment return to MLB without any significant Assessing pitching performance change in performance level after is excessively difficult due to extraneous having Tommy John surgery, based on variables, which are essentially current dependent measures (ERA, impossible to control. Quantitative WHIP, K:BB). variables could be used such as fastball Although a normal career length velocity, but these type variables would may be anticipated, it should be noted be problematic as well. For example, that 36% of pitchers in the current study increased speed on a fastball would not retired before they were able to reach a necessarily translate into better career length of 10 seasons in MLB performance. Win/loss record is compared to the overall average of 12 confounded by the potential lack of seasons. offensive support a pitcher might Over half of the relief pitchers in receive. A one hit game in which the this study did show decline in ERA. single hit was a homerun is viewed as Current analysis seems to suggest ERA exceptional yet could still result in a loss is a more sensitive measure of if the pitcher’s team fails to score. An performance (vs. WHIP and K:BB). array of other factors makes such an Pitchers who have an increase in assessment difficult. The age of the amount of innings pitched after surgery pitcher at the time of surgery, the and starters are more likely to severity of the injury, and adherence to experience an improvement in ERA, yet and effectiveness of rehabilitation are the inter-individual variability makes but a few of the considerations that broad-based conclusions essentially make for a difficult assessment. impossible. Additional work is needed to Although challenging, the question of more clearly ascertain the impact of the effectiveness of Tommy John Tommy John surgery on pitching surgery is worthy of future inquiry, performance. particularly considering the popularity of the technique. Future studies should seek to control for as many extraneous variables as possible in the interest of extending the knowledge of this type of surgery on performance.

Conclusion From this study, the impact of Tommy John surgery on performance cannot be definitively determined.

17 References Dugas, Jeffrey, Justin Chronister, E. Greiwe, R. Michael, Benjamin Bjerke- Lyle Cain, Jr., and James Kroll, and Christopher S. Ahmad Andrews (2014). Ulnar Collateral (2009). Medial Collateral Ligament in the Overhead Ligament Reconstruction. Athlete: A Current Review. Sports Operative Techniques in Medicine and Arthroscopy Orthopaedics 19.4, 243-250. Review 22.3, 169-181. Makhni, Eric C., Randall W. Lee, Erickson, Brandon J., Anil K. Gupta, Zachary S. Morrow, Anthony P. Joshua D. Harris, Charles Bush- Gualtieri, Prakash Gorroochurn, Joseph, Bernard R. Bach, and Christopher S. Ahmad Geoffrey D. Abrams, Angielyn M. (2014). Performance, Return to San Juan, Brian J. Cole, and Competition, and Reinjury After Anthony A. Romeo (2013). Rate Tommy John Surgery in Major of Return to Pitching and League Baseball Pitchers: A Performance After Tommy John Review of 147 Cases. The Surgery in Major League American Journal of Sports Baseball Pitchers. The American Medicine 42.6, 1323-1332. Journal of Sports Medicine 42.3, Patel, Ronak M., T. Sean Lynch, Nirav 536-543. H. Amin, Gary Calabrese, Gillespie, Catherine, and Jamie Cowder Stephen M. Gryzlo, Mark S. (2003). Tommy John Surgery: A Schickendantz (2014). The Revolutionary Procedure. Nurse Thrower’s Elbow. Orthopedic Practitioner Perspective 11.8, 39- Clinics of North America 45.3, 40. 355-362.

Table 1. Pre- vs. post-surgery comparisons for dependent measures (n= 43)

Pitching Statistics

ERA Win % K:BB WHIP

Pre-surgery Mean 4.24 52.0% 2.50 1.37

SD 1.17 9.3 0.98 0.19

Post-surgery Mean 4.54 49.3% 2.50 1.42

SD 1.56 12.6 0.78 0.23

P Value 0.29 0.24 0.98 0.26

SD = standard deviation

18 Table 2. Statistics regarding pitching career duration.

Pitching Career

Pitcher Status Average Career Career Range No. of Pitchers (seasons) (seasons) Active 11 5-17 20

Retired Included in 13 5-22 23

Analysis

Retired Not Included in 10 1-27 16

Analysis

Included in Analysis 12 5-22 43

@ASAHPERD

19 Round Hill School: An Experiment in American Education

Tom Coates, D.A.

University of North Alabama, Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation

Introduction brief history and the introduction of From 1823 to 1834, Round Hill German gymnastics and outdoor School existed near Northampton, education at Round Hill. Massachusetts. Overlooked by most educational historians the experiments at Round Hill School: 1823-1834 Round Hill was regarded most often The early 1800's were a time of simply as the location where German change and transition in America. The gymnastics were first introduced into an original thirteen colonies on the eastern American school and this fact quiet often coast of the North American continent had seems only of importance to physical waged a war for independence and educators. emerged as the United States. The But Round Hill School was much population of this young nation was more and deserves recognition as an growing, industry was becoming more important attempt to bring innovative common place and expansion was ideas into the American education accepted. Materials and products were scene. The two founders of the school, becoming more readily available to the Joseph Cogswell and George Bancroft, increasing population. The young nation were among the first Harvard scholars to was sound and on its way to greatness. study in Germany at a time when the Education, as a reflection of educational system of that country and national transition, was ripe for innovation. much of Europe was undergoing The Latin school and the "grammar" massive changes in theory, curriculum, school, the two most popular types of and methodology. These two young precollege schools in the eighteenth men carried the light of progressive century, were rapidly being replaced by European educational ideas back to the academy in the early nineteenth America and after a futile attempt to century. The spread of publicly supported kindle the flame of reform at Harvard high schools, the first of which was College, set out to establish their own established in 1821, was not yet a major school which would incorporate the best factor in American secondary education. of what Europe had to offer. As a result, new schools such as the The purpose of this paper is to academy, were springing up throughout provide information which will lead to a New England, many due to the current better understanding of the Round Hill enthusiasm over experimental School experiment. Emphasis will be Pestalozzian theories of education (Nye, given to the conditions leading up to its 1964). Harvard College, being the oldest establishment, the major characters and most prestigious institution of higher involved in its establishment, the growth education in America, was becoming stale and curriculum of the school through its and suffered from academic inbreeding. President John Kirkland realized a need

20 for reform and innovation with the former teachers at Harvard College, one a curriculum and pedagogical theory at professor, the other a tutor, embarked Harvard as early as 1815. Hiring its own upon an educational adventure which and perpetuating a program of would establish an American school educational ideas not geared to an patterned after the German Gymnasium emerging nation and the nineteenth and Swiss experimental schools modeled century, Harvard, the pinnacle of on Pestalozzian principles. Their names American higher education, was were Joseph Green Cogswell and George compelled to look toward Europe for Bancroft. educational ideology which would provide These two educators had similar the means for instituting positive change. experiences which helped to bring them By the 1800's German universities together in this venture. Both were were in the first bloom of their graduated of Phillips Academy at Exeter renaissance, leading the western world in (Hyde, 1970). Cogswell and Bancroft almost every branch of learning (Morison, were also graduates of Harvard College 1937). In 1815 President Kirkland and were among the first American became one of the primary instigators of scholars sent to the University of an idea to send American scholars Gottingen in Germany for advanced abroad to Germany for advanced study. studies by Harvard College. Each Edward Everett and George Ticknor, returned to the United States and Harvard graduates of and professors at Harvard College very much impressed with the College were the first such scholars to German Gymnasium and Pestalozzian begin their advanced studies in Germany principles of education especially as at the University of Gottingen. They were reflected in the Fellenberg system at followed in 1816 by Joseph Green Hofwyl, only to find discontent with their Cogswell and in 1818 by George positions at Harvard primarily because of Bancroft; also Harvard graduates (Hyde, its resistance to innovation of German 1970). "This was to begin a revolution educational ideas. Both men felt strongly which swept through American higher enough about the value of the educational education during the nineteenth century experiences they had seen and studied in and produced as an off-shoot the Round Europe to forsake Harvard and begin their Hill School” (Bennett, 1965). own school, Round Hill School, which The time was right for Round Hill incorporated the best of the German School. The academy was the dominate Gymnasium and the systems of factor in American secondary education. Pestalozzi and Fellenberg into an The educational theories of Pestalozzi, intellectual American setting (Nye, 1964). which had swept Europe, were now beginning to make a stir in the arena of Joseph Green Cogswell American education. There was a need Joseph Green Cogswell was born for new schools to educate an expanding in Ipswich, Massachusetts on September population. Round Hill School's only 27, 1786. At sixteen he entered Harvard problem would be that it would be too College, after spending a year and a half effective in fulfilling its goals. at Phillips Academy at Exeter, New Hampshire. While a student at Harvard The Founders of Round Hill School from 1802 to 1806, he earned a livelihood In 1823 two graduates of and during vacation by teaching school. In 1812 he was admitted to the bar and

21 married Mary Gilman, the daughter of the young Thorndike departed for Italy. In Governor of New Hampshire (Hyde, Rome, Cogswell met Ticknor and spent 1970). some time with him before turning north to When his wife died of tuberculosis Switzerland (Hyde, 1970). in 1813 he gave up his law practice and In the summer of 1818 Cogswell moved to Harvard to accept a position of visited two famous schools in Latin tutor. While at Harvard he met and Switzerland, one established by Johann became acquainted with a young Pestalozzi at Yverdun and the other student by the name of George Bancroft. established by Phillipp von Fellenberg, a Cogswell remained at Harvard for two student of Pestalozzi, at Hofwyl. A second years until it was apparent that he was visit was made to Hofwyl in August and to not satisfied with the narrow limits he felt Yverdun on October 23 (Hyde, 1970). Of it offered. This lack of fulfillment the two experimental schools, Cogswell combined with poor health forced him to was most impressed with Fellenberg's resign in 1815 (Hyde, 1970). system at Hofwyl. In 1816 Cogswell was employed Hofwyl had achieved fame for its by Mr. Israel Thorndike to accompany manual labor plan which was intended to his son, Augustus Thorndike, a recent adapt each student's education to his graduate of Harvard, to Europe and to social position and need. It was a remain with him for at least two years. "practical institute" for the sons of laborers When he arrived in Gottingen on and peasants and a classical curriculum November 1, 1816, he had no firm plan for the sons of upper-class families who to engage in studies, but was looking intended to enter business or the forward to meeting with two friends, university. Regardless of social status, all George Ticknor and Edward Everett boys at Hofwyl worked together on (Hyde, 1970), the first two Harvard various tasks (Nye, 1964). Cogswell was scholars to attend the University of also impressed with the absence of Gottingen for the purpose of studies. rewards and punishment at Hofwyl Within a short period of time after (Bennett, 1965). his arrival in Gottingen, Cogswell became Cogswell was critical of Pestalozzi interested in learning, in particular the and his school at Yverdun. During his two German language, and became intently visits to Yverdun, Cogswell noted the lack involved in scientific pursuits, namely of discipline among the students and geology, natural history and botany could not agree with Pestalozzi's method (Hyde, 1970). Other areas of study which of scholarship which excluded occupied his time while in Germany memorization. An obvious jealousy for the included history, the arts, mineralogy, work done by Fellenberg was also noted library science, and education (Bennett, on the part of the school at Yverdun 1965). In May his studies intensified as he (Hyde, 1970). spent nine hours per day listening to In spring 1819 Cogswell and lectures, seven hours in private study, Thorndike returned to Germany. In that and an hour per day with his charge, year he received a Doctor of Philosophy Augustus Thorndike. By mid-June the (PhD) degree and while visiting some of long hours of study had begun to show on his former Gottingen professors met his physical health and he was advised to again a former student of his, George spend some time away from Gottingen. Bancroft. Leaving Germany, Cogswell On September 6, 1817 Cogswell and once more visited Pestalozzi, his

22 second visit, before traveling to France Bancroft arrived in Germany on to spend the winter. In 1820 he traveled August 18, 1818 and embarked upon to England and Scotland. While in his studies which consisted principally Scotland he contributed an article, "The of Greek, Hebrew and Latin. While at Means of Education, and the State of Gottingen he became increasingly Learning in the United States of critical of German manners and America," to Blackwood's Magazine customs. In early September he (Hyde, 1970). In this article Cogswell successfully defended nine theses was highly critical of the American and at the age of twenty was awarded education system which he described as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree "a lamentable waste of time" taught by (Hyde, 1970). "bad masters, under a bad method of After leaving Gottingen, Bancroft study” (Nye, 1964). traveled to the University of Berlin where In late October of 1820 Cogswell he attended philosophical studies and returned to America and in January of lectures on the science of education. 1821 he accepted the position of From inspiration received at Berlin he professor of mineralogy and chemistry, began to study the public and private a position especially created for him, schools of Berlin, became enthusiastic and librarian, previously held by about the schools he visited, and began Andrews Norton, at Harvard. Fresh from to give thought to American educational Europe and full of innovative practices (Hyde, 1970). educational ideas, Cogswell was About this time the idea of anxious to implement change. His establishing an American school based on reforms began with the library but the the German model first appears in relation Harvard Corporation showed little to Bancroft. He, unlike Cogswell, first interest. Harvard could not immediately entertained the idea while in Germany but accept the new ideas from Europe and the literature is not clear on exactly whose Cogswell became impatient (Hyde, idea such a school was. Nye (1964) 1970). suggests that in early 1819 Bancroft suggested such a project to President George Bancroft Kirkland of Harvard and asked for the George Bancroft was born in older man's advice. Kirkland in return Worcester, Massachusetts on advised against it (Nye, 1964). Hyde October 3, 1800 and, like Cogswell, (1970) in his thesis on Round Hill School was educated at Phillips Academy at suggests that the initial suggestion for a Exeter. From Exeter he moved on to school probably came from President Harvard where he was tutored by Kirkland. As early as January 1819 Cogswell and later graduated in 1817. Bancroft had written to President Kirkland Meanwhile Edward Everett had indicating the plans he was following corresponded with President Kirkland clearly prepared of Harvard recommending that the him to become an instructor at Harvard, a Harvard Corporation sponsor another clergyman, or that he would set up a high American scholar to study at the school. In a letter on July 6, 1819, University of Gottingen. The Bancroft, still in Germany, indicates that Corporation considered the request the idea of President Kirkland concerning and decided to send Bancroft for three the establishment of a high school years (Hyde, 1970). appears to be a fine field for him (Bancroft)

23 to apply his knowledge (Hyde, 1970). appointment as tutor of Greek at Harvard. Hyde's position is also supported by His stay at Harvard however was not a Bennett in an earlier article. Bennett also pleasant one for the Cambridge society states that the original suggestion for the was somewhat hostile to his adopted establishing of a high school was made by European ways and the students ridiculed President Kirkland and that Bancroft his behavior. In addition, he met with the responded favorably to the suggestion. same resistance that Cogswell had Bennett further states that Bancroft made experienced when attempting to inject it clear that he did not want to devote more innovative European ideas on education than five years of his time to such an into the established, inflexible Harvard occupation and suggests that Bancroft no system. In the autumn of 1822 Bancroft doubt felt an obligation to Kirkland who and Cogswell began to seriously consider had financed his study abroad and that the establishment of a school for boys to this feeling of obligation precipitated his be patterned in a manner similar to the positive response to the suggestion best European schools (Hyde, 1970). (Bennett, 1965). Bennett (1965) also suggests an Round Hill School interesting possibility for both Bancroft's As the result of mutually and Cogswell's stay in Germany. It is unsatisfying tenures at Harvard, Bancroft, apparent that these two scholars and Cogswell became committed to the developed similar ideas about education establishment of a secondary school while in Europe and each traveled widely. based on the European idea of education Bennett suggests the possibility that one in the fall of 1822. They first considered or both many have visited the locating the school near Baltimore but Schnepfenthal Institute where Johann were advised against that location. With GutsMuths was teaching. The institute their duties at Harvard completed in June was located at Gotha which was about of 1823 they set out to find a suitable site seventy-five miles from Gottingen. for their proposed school. Near Cogswell mentions visiting Gotha but Northampton they found two stone does not mention the institute or houses located on a small rolling hill GutsMuths. locally know as Round Hill. The two In February, 1821 Bancroft left houses and about fifty acres of land were Berlin and traveled to Weimar where he available for rent and provided a private visited Goethe. From there he proceeded and beautiful location for their school to Heidelberg where he attended a series (Nye, 1964). of lectures by Schlosser. By early May he The first task after identifying the had arrived in Paris where he became site for the school would be the associated with several notable men recruitment of students. To accomplish including the Marquis de Lafayette. From this, a printed prospectus was published France his travels continued to London, in Cambridge in the summer of 1823 back to the continent and Switzerland, listing the conditions and objectives of the south to Rome and Naples before school: departing for American in June, 1822 (Hyde, 1970). The institute which we After his return to the United propose to establish is States, Bancroft accepted an designed to furnish occupation for those years, which in

24 France are spent at a College Latin. Spending money was not to be and in Germany at a provided less the economic equality of Gymnasium. A boy who has the student body was destroyed (Nye, completed his ninth year, is 1964). old enough to commence his On October 1, 1823 Round Hill regular studies, and to delay School opened with fifteen boarding them longer would be to waste students and ten day students. Cogswell precious time, and (what is of lived in one house and Bancroft in the still more moment) the period other along, with Bancroft's sister, N.M. when good habits are easily Hentz, who served as the school hostess formed (Nye, 1964). and a teacher of French, the boarding students, and four servants. The The prospectus went on to state: curriculum consisted of English, Greek and Latin, French, Spanish, German, and We would also encourage Italian (Gerber, 1971), history, activity of body, as the means geography, and mathematics. With the of promoting firmness of opening of the school, Bancroft became constitution and vigor of mind, responsible for curriculum and and shall appropriate regularly methodology and Cogswell for a portion of each day to administration. healthful sports and gymnastic The daily schedule began at six in exercises (Bennett, 1965). the morning with the boys rising and preparing for devotional exercises at Male boarding students between six-thirty. At six-forty-five they were in the ages of nine and twelve were their room studying and reciting at which preferred and students from other time they moved outside for calisthenics, schools were not welcome since the followed by a mile run in which Bancroft methods at Round Hill were to be always took part. The run was followed by revolutionary to those used in other breakfast at eight and at eight-thirty the schools. Between ten and twenty students moved to the playing field for a students were to be selected at a cost of half-hour of archery, balancing, tumbling, three hundred dollars for the year, which and games. Classes met from nine to included two vacations of three weeks twelve followed by dinner. At one in the each, one in the summer and one in the afternoon another half-hour of exercise winter. The methods of government was provided followed by classes from within the school were to be "parental" two until five. Sports took place for half an type with no corporal punishment. Loss hour from five to five-thirty. The evening of meals or confinement to room was the meal lasted from five-thirty to six. From usual penalty for rules infractions with six-thirty until eight French exercises confinement to the "dungeons", a dark were written and at eight-thirty, following basement room, the most stringent a short devotional meeting, the students punishment known at Round Hill. retired to bed (Nye, 1964). Gerber (1971) Industry and obedience would be states that the day began at six and encouraged as well as religion in a ended at nine with the two hours between broadly tolerant and unobtrusive way. A five and seven p.m. set aside for exercise good library was promised and all boys and recreation. Bennett states that three were expected to be prepared to learn

25 periods for play were provided, after each and that he longed for more scholarly of the three meals, ranging from half an undertakings. In March of 1827 Bancroft hour to over an hour. He further states married Sarah Dwight and for a time that probably no gymnastics were taught things seemed brighter at Round Hill. the first year but that the boys participated This period of renewed interest was short in a great deal of exercises, running, lived for "the critter", as he was called by leaping, and climbing (Bennett, 1965). the students, still had problems in the Enrollment at Round Hill School classroom. He became so involved in his began in increase and by 1825 the own scholarly endeavors that teaching enrollment had grown to sixty-nine boys. became a burden. Between the summer and autumn of 1826 During 1828 the relationship the enrollment increased from eighty to between Bancroft and Cogswell became one hundred and thirty-five boys. After strained. By now Bancroft was tired of the that time the enrollment was held to one routine life of the schoolmaster and on hundred (Hyde, 1970). With the March 3, 1830 Cogswell officially wrote increasing enrollment the curriculum was Bancroft and proposed that he be also expanded. Elocution, bookkeeping, discharged of his legal obligations and horticulture, statistics, surveying, drawing, paid five thousand dollars (Hyde, 1970). music, dancing, art, history, moral The final terms of the agreement states philosophy, "Roman Antiquities," that Bancroft would remain for one year at geometry, trigonometry, Blair's Rhetoric, a salary of $1,600 and receive a note from reading of classics, mercantile arithmetic, Cogswell for his share of the assessed (Nye, 1964) chemistry, and Christian value of the school less outstanding debts. theology were courses offered as part of Ten years later Bancroft recorded on the the expanded curriculum (Hyde, 1970). face of the note, "This debt was never paid The rapid increase brought a sense of and its payment will never be asked” (Nye, security to Bancroft and Cogswell and 1964). with the opening of the 1824 term they felt After Bancroft's departure in 1831 sufficiently secure to negotiate for the Cogswell continued to operate the school, purchase of the school buildings and which he now leased from the Round Hill grounds. They succeeded in purchasing Corporation, a company chartered in 1829 the propriety for $12,000, $8,000 of which at the time of conflict between the two was a loan from the Harvard Corporation, founders, but financial problems soon made as an indication of its faith in the made it evident that the venture was school (Nye, 1964). limited. This financial stress came from As the reputation of the school two directions. First, the cost of operating spread, students came from twelve states the school could not be matched by the and four foreign counties to attend the three hundred dollars tuition, which was school established by Bancroft and even higher than tuition at Harvard. Cogswell. Round Hill was also visited by Second, the school was too successful. As distinguished guest from all over the a result of this success, students who world, including Lafayette (Nye, 1964). attended Round Hill School were so well Even as Round Hill School was in prepared that they could enter any its prime, interest in the venture began to institution of higher education such as subside on the part of Bancroft. As early Harvard at least at the sophomore level. as 1827 it was becoming obvious that he But the policy of such institutions was to was growing tired of school mastering require payment of tuition for years prior to

26 admissions. The result was double Charles Beck was born in payment for a student's education and the Heidelberg on August 19, 1798. After his thrifty New England families saw no father died, his mother married Wilhelm reason for such payment (Hyde, 1970). De Wette. The family moved to Berlin in Cogswell announced his intention 1810 where Beck met Friedrick Jahn and to give up the school in July of 1832. For a began attending the Hasenheide time, it appeared that financial backing Tumplatz, recently opened by Jahn. could be obtained but in the end the effort Beck developed more than the usual to secure such support failed. At the proficiency in all the arts of the Turner conclusion of winter term in April 1834 and became active in their political Round Hill School closed (Hyde, 1970) movement. Following the assassination and Cogswell moved to a position as head of Kotzebue by Sand in 1819, Beck's of a school for boys near Raleigh, North mother and step-father left Berlin for Carolina (Leonard, 1947). Basel, Switzerland (Leonard, 1947). Beck remained in Berlin for a while Physical Education at Round Hill and in 1822 was ordained as a Lutheran School minister at Heidelberg, later receiving his From the beginning the philosophy doctor's degree in theology at the and practice of Cogswell and Bancroft at University of Tubingen in 1823. Because Round Hill School reflected a harmonious of fear of political arrest, he left for Basel union of body and mind in education. to join his family and there met Charles Early information on the proposed Follen another political refugee. Because purpose and content of the program of the insecurity of their position in Basel suggests an emphasis on physical activity the two left, separately, for Paris in in the form of exercise and gymnastics. October of 1824. In Paris they met with When the school opened certain times of Lafayette, whom Follen had spent time the day were set aside for participation in with on a previous visit, and were urged to such activities and Cogswell and Bancroft go to America. Provided with letters of lead the students in exercise, running, introduction from Lafayette (Rice, 1958) jumping, leaping, and climbing. Bancroft the two left for America on November 5 built a half-mile running track which was and arrived in New York on December 19, used by the boys as well as mile runs 1824 (Leonard, 1947). through the woods (Nye, 1964). Three days after arriving in New In February of 1825 Charles Beck, York, Follen sent a letter to Lafayette, who a recent immigrant from Germany, joined was now visiting America, requesting the faculty of Round Hill School as advice. Lafayette suggested that the two instructor of Latin and gymnastics. The travel to Philadelphia, which they did, appointment of Beck marked three firsts in arriving there on January 12, 1825. the history of American physical Meanwhile in Washington D.C., Lafayette education: 1. Round Hill School was the was visited by George Ticknor whom he first school to have a teacher of physical sought to interest in the two German education; 2. First school to have physical refugees. After leaving Washington, education as part of the curriculum; and 3. Ticknor traveled to Philadelphia to look up The first introduction of German the two and subsequently sent a letter to gymnastics in America education his friend Bancroft at Round Hill School (Bennett, 1965). recommending Charles Beck get a position. Bancroft was already in receipt of

27 a letter from DeWette recommending his "pitching the bar", and dance were also stepson when he received Ticknor's letter. part of the program of physical activities at The letter from Ticknor secured Beck the Round Hill School (Bennett, 1965). appointment of instructor of Latin and In response to numerous requests gymnastics at Round Hill School Beck translated Jahn's Deutsche (Leonard, 1947). Turnkunst of 1816 and turned it over for Leonard, as previously noted, publication in January of 1823. The credits Ticknor with securing Beck's translation appeared as “Treatise on position at Round Hill School. Another Gymnastics” and mentioned Round Hill possibility is that Lafayette may have School as the first school to introduce also been instrumental in this process. gymnastic exercise. The book also Bancroft had met Lafayette while visiting indicates that the gymnastics at Round in Paris, as a Harvard scholar, Lafayette Hill were of the informal type advocated by had later visited Round Hill School, and Jahn rather that the formal gymnastics Beck had a letter of introduction from later arranged by Spiess (Bennett, 1965). Lafayette. Lafayette may possibly have Beck's tenure at Round Hill been a link between Bancroft and Beck. ended in 1830 when he left to take In February 1825 Beck left for part in the establishing of a school Northampton, Massachusetts. When he for boys at Phillipstown, New York. arrived at Round Hill School be began to Two years later he was elected to plan for the Round Hill "gymnasium" the position of professor of Latin at which was to be a miniature Hasenheide Harvard (Leonard, 1947). Tumplatz. Ample room for the turnplatz was to be found on the northwest side of Outdoor Education at Round Hill Round Hill in an area of from eight to ten School acres, bordered on the west side by a Another aspect of the educational brook. In this area vaulting horses, program at Round Hill School which until horizontal balancing beams, mast, bars, recently had been overlooked was the ladders, and other pieces of apparatus of development of the area of outdoor the type found in the German turnplatz education. The introduction of this were placed. Plates from Beck's experience into the arena of American translation of Jahn's “Treatise on education is usually credited to Frederick Gymnastics” indicate activities such as Gunn, founder of the Gunnery School in high jumping, wrestling, pole vaulting, Connecticut. However, research done by broad jumping, and exercises with ropes Bennett indicated that this distinction as part of the program (Gerber, 1971). properly belongs to Cogswell and Round The whole school was divided into classes Hill School (Bennett, 1972). and each class received an hour of The founders of the school, instruction, three times a week from Beck. Cogswell and Bancroft, were ardent In hikers while in Europe. Cogswell, addition to the German system of having an interest in botany and gymnastics, the boys also participated in a mineralogy, did a great deal of walking variety of other activities. Swimming, ice in search of specimens. skating, sledding, wrestling, boxing, Once Round Hill School was open hockey, football, possibly baseball, in 1823 the founders wasted no time archery, marbles, horseback riding, putting their ideas into practice and that

28 included hiking, camping, and outdoor Summary experiences as a means of enhancing The failure of Round Hill School education and promoting physical vigor. was economic rather than academic. Cogswell would lead the boys on long From the educational prospective the hikes to interesting places and to meet experiment was a great success. Boys famous people. On some of the longer who participated in the Round Hill journeys wagons would be provided to program were provided with a learning carry supplies and part of the group. experience which placed them ahead of Nights would be spent camping out after their peers in terms of academic enjoying a meal secured in a neighboring achievement. They were motivated by a village. Cogswell on occasion gave program which refused to accept corporal lectures along the way on geology. punishment as a necessary part of An interesting part of the school learning. The Round Hill curriculum environment was “Crony Village” which emphasized and provided for a was a series of small huts dug into the harmonious balance between the side of the hill and having low chimneys development of the body and the mind as and front doors with a lock and key. The well as the spirit of the students. This fact building materials were brick, wood, and is substantiated by the emphasis placed dirt and these huts built by the boys in on a variety of learning experiences within groups of two or three, provided many the school curriculum, the hiring of a happy hours. Food was an important teacher of gymnastics and the promoting concern for the boys and they trapped, of such physical activities by the founders hunted with bows and arrows they had of the school, and the regular daily made, and cooked animals they could devotional services and organized secure such as rabbits, squirrels, birds, Sunday religious service attended by and woodchucks. In addition to this meat students of the school. they also had vegetables from their The ideas of Round Hill School gardens, the tending of which was a part were carried past its closing date in 1834. of their program. Some twenty years later George Crony Village came to a sudden Shattuck, a student at Round Hill, sought and sad end however. One of the boys a school similar to his alma mater for his flirted with a neighboring farmer's son. Unable to find one he founded St. daughter and a complaint was made. The Paul's School in Concord, New boy was expelled and Cogswell ordered Hampshire based on the Round Hill idea. Crony Village be demolished. Other schools followed suit and to some Other activities of an outdoor degree ensured the perpetuation of the nature included skating and coasting in educational theories of Cogswell and the winter, swimming in the summer, Bancroft (Gerber, 1971). horseback riding as well as cultivating The practice of gymnastics was gardens and cutting firewood in winter. introduced to American schools at Round Bennett concludes that the school Hill. Once the seed had been planted by camping and outdoor education the educational approach of Cogswell and experience at Round Hill School is well Bancroft and brought to bloom by Beck and documented. the introduction of German gymnastics, the practice grew and spread through schools far and wide. The idea eventually spread to the college and university level and

29 programs were offered at Yale, Amherst, viewed as a reflection of academic failure. Brown, Williams, and even Harvard. The In fact, just the opposite was the case as system or the approach was not always the indicated by the advanced academic same but the validity of the body and the standing awarded to Round Hill students mind had been established and the entering such institutions of higher program at Round Hill had provided the education as Harvard and Yale. The real foundations. problem was with Round Hill's break for Round Hill School succeeded in the regular program prescribed for introducing the educational theories of college preparation. The unfortunate Europe, namely those of Pestalozzi, result was students were prepared Fellenberg, and the German Gymnasium, academically in advance of their peers. to American education. The introduction Placing such students in the established was completed in a manner which system which made no provision for demonstrated potential and once the door innovation and academic achievement was open there was no turning back, beyond the standard level, resulted in American education was required to increased monetary expenditures on the move forward. For years American part of the students' parents for the education had wandered along seeking accepted level of college education. relevance, dominated by the symbol of Parents were paying for their sons' American scholarship, Harvard College. education twice. Round Hill School was A move in the right direction came with ahead of its time in providing a quality the emphasis toward the academy as a education for students. Its failure reflects replacement for the Latin school and the the inability of an inflexible system to grammar school. But what was needed to accept quality above the standard level. really push American education forward into the nineteenth century was the References revolution brought on by innovative ideas. Bennett, Bruce L. (1972) "Camping The only source of such ideas, accepting and Outdoor Education Began the fact that America was moving rather at Round Hill School," in slow in developing its own, was Europe George W. Donaldson and and at the peak of European education Oswald Goering (Eds.), was Germany. Cogswell and Bancroft Perspectives on Outdoor became the activating factor, through Education ... Readings. Round Hill School, to bring about the Dubuque: earliest reforms in American education W. C. Brown Company along the lines of the European system. Publishers. The Round Hill experiment was a major Bennett, Bruce L. (1965) "The contributing factor to the development of Making of Round Hill School". an American educational approach to Quest, vol. 4, 53-64. meet the requirements of a young nation Gerber, Ellen W. (1971). Innovators entering the nineteenth century. and Institutions in Physical There is no doubt that financial Education. Philadelphia: indebtedness lead to the decline and Lea and Febiger. closure of Round Hill School. The Hyde, William J. (1970). The Round indebtedness incurred during the final Hill School 1823 to 1834, An years of operation should not however be Early Experiment in American Physical Education.

30 Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Massachusetts. Leonard, Fred Eugene. (1947). A Guide to the History of Physical Education. SAVE THE DATES Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger Morison, Samuel Eliot.(1937). Three Centuries of Harvard, Spring Conference 1636-1936. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. April 21-22 Nye, Russel B. (1964). George Bancroft. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., Rice, Emmett A., John L. Hutchinson, Fall Conference and Mabel Lee.(1958). A Brief November 5-7 History on Physical Education. New York: The Ronald Press Company.

31 Should Youth Athletes Be Involved in Structured Sports Training Workouts?

Andrew Shirek and Brad Strand, Ph. D.

North Dakota State University, Department of Health, Nutrition and Exercise Sciences

Introduction in classes as a result of engagement in Many parents have a major physical activity (Coe, Pivarnik, misconception that working out; or more Womack, Reeves, & Malina, 2006; Fox, specifically, weight training, will stunt Barr-Anderson, Neumark-Sztainer, & their child’s growth and have dramatic Wall, 2010; Ratey & Hagerman, 2008). negative effects to their bodies (Wallace The remainder of this article & Wallace, 2007). When training youth discusses the myths and common athletes, gaining size may not always misconceptions of resistance training happen, especially if they are and the positive health factors of prepubescent athletes; however, they working out and exercise for youth will be receiving a possible positive athletes. Within this paper the term neurological effect (Wallace & Wallace, youth is defined as the period of life that 2007). Their neurons will fire at a more includes both the prepubescent and efficient rate, which is very beneficial adolescent years. In addition, resistance because training the neurological training is defined as a specialized form connection is most effective at a young of conditioning that is used to increase age and harder to effect as the athletes one’s ability to exert or resist force become older. (Faigenbaum, Kraemer, et. al, 1996). Working out is not just using The paper concludes with a dumbbells and barbells. It also includes commentary on the appropriate and a variety of movement skills such as; safe manner to train and progress with speed mechanics, acceleration and youth athletes. deceleration mechanics, agility mechanics, jumping mechanics, and Myths of Resistance Training most importantly joint mobility exercises There are many myths and non- that are crucial to developing skills in credited statements that people make any sport. about youth athletes and resistance Working out and participating in training, not only regarding children, but exercise has a far greater impact then also about specific sports and positions just in sports. It has been shown that within a sport. For example, swimmers schools that have a structured physical often avoid resistance training due to education program, one that involves the belief that resistance training will exercise and not just learning the add mass, hypertrophy, and slow down dimensions of a volleyball or tennis one’s swim time because of drag. court, have generated tremendous Peltier, Strand, and Terbizan (2008) impact on education in the classroom. described other common resistance More specifically, studies have shown training myths which include: that students who were below average • Training youth athletes will fuse in test scores achieved average or their epithelial plates together above scores and had more enjoyment resulting in fractures.

32 • Ligaments, tendons, and bones high blood pressure and high are not mature enough. cholesterol, risk for cardiovascular • Damage may be done diseases, type 2 diabetes, respiratory psychologically. issues, joint programs, fatty liver None of these myths have any disease, and social and psychological supporting scientific evidence but have problems (Swallen, Reither, Haas, & simply been passed down from scared Meier, 2005). parents and uninformed coaches Resistance training can increase (Wallace & Wallace, 2007). Nor has it the fat-free mass and decrease body fat been found that resistance training is percentage helping to decrease the anymore harmful then any other sport. negative health factors that come along When training a youth athlete, “current with overweight and obesity (Cullinen, & research findings indicate a relatively Caldwell, 1999; Kravitz, 1996). In low risk of injury in children and essence, resistance training offers the adolescents who follow age-appropriate benefits of weight loss and increasing resistance training guidelines, which energy expenditure. An increase in include qualified supervision and resistance training has shown an instruction” (Faigenbaum, 2010, p.2). In adaptation to the size of the heart and fact, resistance training is a much less an increase in the left ventricular wall dangerous activity compared to some thickness (Kravitz, 1996). The increase other popular sports. For example, the in heart size due to resistance training sport of soccer has an injury rate of 6.20 allows for lower blood pressure, injures per 100 hours, football has a rate decreased resting heart rate, and lower of 0.10 injuries per 100 hours, and total cholesterol (Kravitz, 1996). resistance training has a rate of 0.0035 Resistance training has many more injuries per 100 hours (Hamill, 1994). positive health benefits for youth athletes beyond just helping them Positive Health Factors improve their sport skills (Peltier, Strand Approximately 17% of children & Christensen, 2008). and adolescents from ages 2-19 are obese (Ogden, Carroll, Kit & Flegal, Safe Training 2014). These figures have nearly tripled When planning a resistance from 1980 (National Center for Health training program there needs to be a Statistics, 2012). With a growing number long term plan relative to where athletes of obese children and adolescents these need to be in order to succeed in their numbers will carry over into their adult sports. Doing a ‘work out of the day’, or lives. Unfortunately, children who are W.O.D., is very common in a current overweight and obese are more likely to training trend called “Crossfit”. However, become overweight and obese adults this program does not involve long term (Serdula, Ivery, Coates, Freedman, planning and does not consist of a Williamson & Byers, 1993). With progressive training program. overweight and obesity on the rise, our Youth athletes must be coached health cost will increase because of the through a timely training program where related health problems that correlate the athlete can focus on simplified from unhealthy lifestyles. With unhealthy exercises, master the exercises, and lifestyles come unwanted health issues, then move on to the next progression

33 until they master all the steps. An (de Salles, Simão, Miranda, da Silva example of an athlete learning to back Novae, Lemos, & Willardson, 2009). squat would progress in this order; first Athletes also need mental breaks learn how to counter balance squat, in order to think about the exercise they then proceed with dumbbell or goblet just performed, especially if there are squat, then front squat, and finally when corrections to be made. Research has all is mastered and performed correctly, indicated that the rest interval between a back squat. Table 1 provides sets is an important variable that affects guidelines and safety measures as both acute responses and chronic suggested by Faigenbaum (2003). adaptations to resistance exercise programs (de Salles, et al., 2009). If Female Resistance Training one’s goal is to add hypertrophy Resistance training for young (increase muscle size), the female athletes is just as significant, if recommended rest intervals are 30-60 not more significant, than it is for young seconds, as opposed to training for a male athletes (Mannie, & Wakeham, one reputation maximum when the rest 2000). Female athletes, as reported by period is 3-5 minutes (de Salles, et al., Mannie and Wakeham (2000) naturally 2009) carry less overall muscle and possess shorter muscle bellies due to the fact Safe Training Environment that women tend to have lower muscle- Providing a safe environment is to-body fat ratios than men, have only the number one priority when about one-tenth of the testosterone developing a training program for an (muscle-building hormone) of men, and athlete (Borkowski, 2007) as anyone are smaller than men. When designing a who performs resistance training, resistance training program for female including adults and youth, has a athletes the program must include knee- chance of being injured (Peltier, Strand strengthening exercises as female & Christensen, 2008). Instructors must athletes have a much higher occurrence ensure that there are spotters present of sustaining a knee injury then male and alert during any time when need. athletes (Mannie, & Wakeham, 2000). However, using a spotter on Olympic Including exercises such as one leg lifts is unnecessary and can actually put squats and appropriate landing the spotter in a dangerous position. mechanics help work proprioception and Borkowski (2007) commented, prevent the knee from caving in “Instructors should check to see if the resulting in knee injuries user: sets him/herself for the exercise, starts in a controlled manner, stops for a Adequate Rest Intervals moment at the top of his/her lift, returns While athletes are undergoing a the weight in a controlled manner, training program, there must be an knows how to secure weights (free and emphasis on proper and adequate rest machine), knows how to put weights on, and recovery. Without adequate rest take off, and store” (p.73). Athletes must between sets and exercises, the body understand that lifting heavy weight is will not be able to replenish the energy not the most important thing, and systems to allow an athlete who is sometimes using overly heavy weight training to continue to grow and develop can cause damage to an athletes’

34 growth (Borkowski, 2007). Athletes must Interval between sets in strength be able to use appropriate weight that training. Sports Medicine, 39, they can move through a full range of 765-777. motion for the acceptable amount of Faigenbaum, A. (2003). Your resistance sets and reps required (Borkowski, training. President’s Council on 2007). Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest, 4(3), 1-8. Conclusion Faigenbaum, A.D (2010). Resistance All coaches using resistance training among young athletes: training with youth athletes must hold safety, efficacy and injury themselves to a very high standard. prevention effects. British Journal Progressive resistance training is for of Sports Medicine, 44, 56-63. athletes of all ages and when the right Faigenbaum, A., Kraemer, W., Cahill, progression and adjustments are made, B., Chandler, J., Dziados, J., it is very safe. There are many positive Elfink, L, et al. (1996). Youth health factors that result from youth resistance training: Position resistance training that can lead to a statement paper and literature positive involvement in physical activity review. Journal of Strength and in the future. Female athletes can Conditioning Research, 18(1), benefit from resistance training and 162-166. rigorous training programs as well as Fox, C. K., Barr-Anderson, D., male athletes with a special emphasis Neumark-Sztainer, D., & Wall, M. on knee strengthening and landing (2010). Physical activity and sport mechanics. team participation: Associations with academic outcomes in References middle school and high school Borkowski, R. P. (2007). A weight room students. Journal of School safety checklist. Coach & Athletic Health, 80, 31-37. Director, 77(1), 71-74. Hamill, B. (1994). Relative safety of Coe, D. P., Pivarnik, J. M., Womack, C. weightlifting and weight training. J., Reeves, M. J., & Malina, R. M. Journal of Strength and (2006). The effect of physical Conditioning Research, 8(1), 53- education and activity levels on 57 academic achievement in Kravitz, L. (1996). Resistance training: children. Medicine & Science in Adaptations and health Sport and Exercise, 38, 1515- implications. IDEA Today, 14(9), 1519. 38-46. Cullinen, K., & Caldwell, M. (1999). National Center for Health Statistics Weight training increases fat-free (2012). Health, United States mass and strength in untrained 2011: With special features on young women. Journal of the socioeconomic status and health. American Dietetic Association, Hyattsville, MD, U.S. Department 98, 414-418. of Health and Human Services. De Salles, B. F., Simão, R., Miranda, F., Mannie, K., & Wakeham, T. (2000). Da Silva Novaes, J., Lemos, A., Strength training for female & Willardson, J. M. (2009). Rest

35 athletes. Coach & Athletic Serdula, M. K., Ivery, D., Coates, R. J, Director, 70(5), 6. Freedman, D. S., Williamson Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., & D.F., & Byers, T. (1993). Do Flegal, K. M. (2014). Prevalence obese children become obese of childhood and adult obesity in adults? A review of the literature. the United States, 2011-2012. Preventive Medicine, 22, 167- The Journal of the American 177. Medical Association, 311, 806- Swallen, K. C., Reither, E. N., Haas, S. 814. A., & Meier, A. M. (2005). Peltier, L., Strand, B., & Christensen, B. Overweight, obesity, and health- (2008). Youth resistance training: related quality of life among A review, The Journal of Youth adolescents: The National Sports, 4(1), 18-23. Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Peltier, L., Strand, B., & Terbizan, D. Health. Pediatrics, 115, 340-347. (2008). Resistance training in a Wallace, K. L., & Wallace, B. J. (2007). physical education curriculum: Raising the bar: Pushing away Implementation and training the misconceptions and pulling guidelines. Missouri Journal of out new ideas regarding youth Physical Education, Recreation strength training. Physical & and Dance, 18, 70-78. Health Education Journal, 73(4), Ratey, J., & Hagerman, E. (2008). 16-22. SPARK: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. New York: Little, Brown and Company.

Table 1: Guidelines and Safety Measures ______• Provide qualified instruction and supervision • Ensure the exercise environment is safe and free of hazards • Teach youth the benefits and risks associated with strength training • Begin each session with a 5 to 10 minute warm-up period • Start with one light set of 10 to 15 repetitions on a variety of exercises • Include exercises to strengthen the lower back and abdominals • Progress to 2 to 3 sets of 6 to 15 repetitions depending on needs and goals • Increase the resistance gradually as strength improves • Focus on the correct exercise technique instead of the amount of weight lifted • Strength train two to three times per week on nonconsecutive days • Listen carefully to each child’s concerns and answer any questions • When necessary, adult spotters should be nearby in the event of a failed repetition • Focus on participation with lots of movement and positive reinforcement • Keep the program fresh and challenging by systematically varying the training program ______

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