Ethno-Politics in Slovakia: Explanation for the Persistent Success Of

CEU eTD Collection Ethno-politics inSlovakia:explanationforthe persistent success oftheethnic cardinvoter In partial offulfilment therequirements thedegree for ofMaster ofArts Supervisor: Professor Anton Pelinka Department of Political Science Political of Department Central European University Central European mobilization Budapest , HungaryBudapest , Martina Hodulova Submitted to Submitted 2010 By CEU eTD Collection to doso,was the exploitation andinvigoration of the ethnic core of thenational identity. whatenabled them hypothesis main claimsthat interpret myths.and The thenationalhistory tried togainpopular voters support andmobilize bytheconstant attempts re- theSlovak to opinion towards theethniccollective nationalism. Itdemonstrates how the Fico government pursued, andfurther claims Fico that the government(2006-2010) thepublic triedtoshift between civicandethnicconceptionofnationalism. tooscillate thegovernmentalelites and permits understanding, determines itspresent has been initiallydefined bytheelites in exclusive terms ofethnicity.Thissubsequently national identity,theauthorargues ofthemodernthat it analysis Slovak the formation on thepurposespolitical elitesofmobilization. for utilization ofthe ethno-politics, namelytheHungarian card, bythecontemporary Slovak ABSTRACT The paper classifies the Slovak governments according to the type of nationalism of type tothe according theSlovakgovernments classifies The paper The presented which paper themainfactors attemptstoidentify the allow for 2 Performing the socio-historical CEU eTD Collection REFERENCE LISTREFERENCE 4 INTRODUCTION...... ABSTRACT Contents of Table OCUIN...... 50 CONCLUSION...... 3.3 THE UTILIZATIOIN OF THE HUNGARIAN 47 CARD IN THE ELECTORAL POLITICS...... 3.2 THE ROLE OF THE HUNGARIAN 43 MINORITY...... IDENTIFICATION OF THE PRIME ACTORS AND 3.1 THEIR 34 STANCES...... III. THE FICO GOVERNMENT(2006-2010): 33 BACK TO ETHNIC NATIONALISM...... TYPOLOGY OF THE NATIONALISMS PURSUED BY 2.4 THE GOVERNMENTAL 32 ELITES...... THE CZECHOSLOVAK SEPARATON AND THE 2.3 POST-1993 27 ...... DEVELOPMENT THE LEGACY OF THE FIRST 2.2 STATE 25 ...... ENTITIES THE FORMATION OF THE MODERN 2.1 SLOVAK 22 NATION...... II. THE HISTORICAL LEGACY AND THE ETHNIC FOUNDATION 22 OF THE STATE...... NATIONAL IDENTITY AND 18 1.3 ...... MYTHS TYPOLOGY OF 1.2 14 NATIONALISMS...... THE CONCEPT OF NATION AND 1.1 10 NATIONALISM...... CONCEPTUAL 10 I. FRAMEWORK...... 3.1.3 SMER - 40SOCIALNA DEMOKRACIA [SMER ...... – SOCIAL DEMOCRACY] SNS [SLOVAK NATIONAL 37 3.1.2 ...... PARTY] LS-HZDS [PEOPLE’S PARTY – MOVEMENT FOR 3.1.1 DEMOCRATIC 36 SLOVAKIA]...... 2 ...... 52 ...... 3 CEU eTD Collection for Slovak the voters. The main aimis to answer the following questions: ethnicity of appeal continuous the explain to try will it analysis, socio-political a Performing thepurposes mobilization. of political for political elites by Slovak contemporary the formingnation group(Mesežnikov 2009). in political environment, dominantonly of wastheethnicity pillar which the the unchanging utilize socio- unstable the ableto thus Thewere national parties populist forminggroup. heterogenization of ideology The havenotcausedasignificant state. globalization processes of ethnic-based the national identity, of national andthepartial populism revival of right-wingthe nationalism very promoting the which remained the national identity in thenew external thus environment, providingarea afertile soil for the forces of the dominant nation-that Slovaksitthe foundproblematic re-define to their and ambiguous underdeveloped it out turned a morecivic However, form. into itself will transform that nationalism ethnic legislative against ethnicity-basedtools discrimination, the will the cause thediminishing of binding internationally of implementation the and multiculturalism of promotion active the structures, euro-Atlantic the into country the of incorporation after the that was anticipated history myths.and Although exhibiting elementsof ethnicthe understanding of nation,the it of the re-interpretation with the accompanied a majorof re-creation underwent process INTRODUCTION II. I. The presented work aims to explore the success of the utilization of the ‘ethnic card’ After the creation of an independet state entity in 1993, the Slovak national identity entity national Slovak in the state 1993, independet of an After creation the How was Fico government(2006-2010) utilizing wasFico How government(2006-2010) the Which factors allowed the national populists forces to successfully deploy the ethnicin card Slovakia 2006-2010period? the during myths and the and myths ethnic cardachieveto political mobilization ? and support 4 ethnic elements, national elements, CEU eTD Collection the electoral campaigns, have led to the shift of the mass attitudes towards the acceptance of acceptance massthe towards attitudes led shiftthe tothe of have electoral the campaigns, in suchastheits Hungarian card of utilization and ethno-politics, the governmental activities elections. presidential recent in most the significant tool of political mobilization of the Slovak voters, I will demonstrate its utilization a card ethnic the making electoral politics, for the relevant mostly became phenomenon re-interpretto national the history myths(Hoskingandand Schöpflin the 1997).Claiming attempts numerous by and policies specific of implementation bythe identity national the of understanding ethnic the re-enforcing been has government incumbent the that demonstrate nationalism as author the by classified be will It socialism. I will novel argue for qualitatively of nationalism after theSlovak fall wave occurring of identities (Smith 2009), and political cultural ofcollective types antecedent the connection to ‘defrosting‘ of nationalism the by regime Sovietthesis,the the although and acknowledging the initially reject to suggestion(1996) useHroch’s Iwill Republic. Slovak autonomous the of establishment the after emerging identity of new socio-political the foundations exclusive again steered the wheel towards the wheel towards the again steered government(2006-2010) ethnic Ficothe from towards the diversity actingelites, the political positive approach of a rather theeight-years arguingafter period(1998-2006) tested, that nationalisms pursuedby governmental the elites. Subsequently, willbe secondhypothesis the Although it is out of the scope of this paper, it can be further assumed that the By critically analyzing the events after 1989, I will first show the very ethnic and After validating this initial claim, I will proceed towards classifyingvalidating After towards thisinitial typesthe proceed of claim, Iwill (Greenfeld 1995) ethnic collectivist nationalism 5 collective, ethnic type of ethnic type collective, . The author will CEU eTD Collection my decision to usea my combinedapproach withto modernistdecision justify first will I identity, national and nation of terms the concerning ambiguity conceptual the nationalism, and of theory comprehensive a single Due absenceof to the paper. the Geofrey Hosking. and Schöpflin George Billig, Michael Armstrong, John of those namely issues, mythology Anderson Adrian national publications andthe addressingspecifically and Hastings, the the nationalism studies,interpretation of the suchnational history andas myths. Here,the I will drawclassics on the existing literatureperform andnot deploymentof do analysesof re- theoretical and ethnicdimension, the in of Anthony D. Smith, contributingshape present tothe factors identity of national regard the of utilization with the Ernst the discuss Gellner, briefly only both they However, politics. Slovak contemporary in the Benedictnationalism right-wing the and populism national of phenomenon the analyzed have who Affairs(IVO) Grigorij Mesežnikov andO ‘daily 1996) onthe natureplebiscite’(Renan of identity.the 1 the or nature, the classifying for crucial is distinction The nationalism. inclusionary civic, b.) and nationalism ethnic exclusionary, a.) nationalism: of typology following the advocate and provide will I Subsequently, nationalism. Slovak the for theory explanatory years; in past the society Slovak the penetrating successfully violence, involving national been theuseof physical the that shows has populism nationalistic discourse. The increased frequency of occurrence of ethnic-related incidents of ethnic-related of frequency occurrence increased The nationalistic discourse. According to the statistics of the official authorities, the number of the ethnic-related crimes has been of Reports on Displays of Extremism Increased Last Year, SITA news agency, June constatntly In 2, rising. 2004itwas1212009] 79; in2005;2006,; 188 in 155in 2007; 2008. 213in [SNSLP: Number The first chapter will define and clarify the basic conceptual The firstwill usedthroughout chapter conceptual basic andterms clarify define the by publications recent two of onthefindings rely largely will research The presented Đ ga Gyarfášová (2008; 2009) from for Public from Institute Gyarfášováthe 2009) (2008; ga 6 ethnosymbolism ethnicity ithas been winning its (Smith (Smith 2008) asthe 1 , CEU eTD Collection the formation formation the identity.of will that and political furtherthe was initiated I process the argue approved, initially thus excluding the existing ethnicminorities from their participation on legally and officially was group majority state-forming the of position dominant the that individualistic forms. By content analyses of the constitutional documents, I will further show ethnicnationalism(1995) its collectivistto as more democratic,opposed civic and the of concept the in identity national Slovak new the grounded elites contemporary the how Iwill nationalisms of nature found distinctive in the about typesof the Europe, demonstrate conclusion by Greenfield’s society. Supported contemporary the penetrate to nationalism developmentshow ethnic past enabled formation howthe the Slovak andto nation-state inin clarify the“role past of the 1999: 180) history creation of the the present”(Smith the of and myths events the of impact onthe identifying of the aim the with identity national contemporary Slovak modern the of perception of the nationalthe interpretation of the actions andidentity. political discourse of the incumbent governmental elites. Its main discusses redefinemyths thegovernmental national identity,to attempts for Slovak the and purpose is to willEurope(Hosking which beand inthefinal 1997).The Schöpflin concept utilized chapter, Eastern and in Central present myths national of ‘taxonomy’ the and background the interpretation of the national history, the third subchapter provides a theoretical tools of cultural reproduction(Bourdieu 1993)andmeans of standardization(Elias 1991)for the being myths of assumption initial the With identity. national the of definition the and formation the on impact their show and myths of taxonomy and function the clarify will part form prevalencein lastvery governmental nationalism,approach. specificThe of the the of The second chapter is going to examine the major landmarks of historical formation historical of landmarks major the examine to is going chapter second The 7 CEU eTD Collection 2 patriotism model US ‘flaggingof (Billig, thenation’3 1995)by the controversial adopting the toimplement attempts recent most andthe politics, in card electoral the called Hungarian utilization the policies, so- language the educational,the on of ‘mythomoreurs’ and cultural fosteringinterpret the historical myths and symbols re-defineto the national identity under the cover of re- tryingto some extent, to least at were, andLS-HZDS SNS, SMER, actors, governmental the the all that claim the validate to try will SlovakIt mobilization. political of tool the as 2006-2010 of period identity electoral the ofthe national during Slovak theethnicutilizing patriotism. elements were subjects governmental mentioned above the how examine generally will chapter The language the andthebilateral with neighboring Hungary.the andpolitics education relations matters, Theminority-related the specifically identity, national to relevant issues the on position chapter actors’ assess these to beanalyzed will of elites the discourse the and activities legislative the will manifestos, of throughout thelittlethis party the ‘Fico paper.Dueto government’ relevance discussas the to bereferred will and coalition the entered selected subjects three in 2006,the SMER [ demokracia SMER–Socialna the impactSlovakia Slovensko[ za Demokraticke Strana-Hnutie of the of theirnew appearance on the Slovak political scene, starting with the LS-HZDS – Ludova governmental elites nationalistic andre-enforced bydiscourse actions national-populistof the and political the Namely the LS-HZDS–Ludova Strana-Hnutie Slovensko[ za Demokraticke Strana-Hnutie Namely LS-HZDS–Ludova the internationally critized, regarded as undemocratic and not respecting the minority rights. Democratic Slovakia The final The final chapter ], the SNS – Slovenska Narodna Strana [ . 2 . ].Slovakia under two Meciar’s goverments(1992-94, 1994-1998) was often will identify and discus the three main political actors with the order the with actors political main three the discus and identify will SMER-Social Democracy] SMER-Social People’s Party - Movement for aDemocraticPeople’s Party- Movementfor 8 Slovak National Party . After the electoral victory of People’s Party- Movement fora ] and finally, the finally, and ] law law on CEU eTD Collection nationalist spectrum. However, as on the Slovak political scene themanifestos themselves manifestos of governmental the areexaminedparties assess to their position declared the on Dzurinda Initially, and Dzurinda(2006-2010). party Fico II(2002-2006), I(1998-2002), the 1993 onwards, namely Meciar of: cabinets the I(1992-1994), Meciar the II(1994-1998), from constellations governmental by Slovak the nationalisms of nature pursued classify the and discourse analyses of variouscivil society and youth. documentsmedia, in independent and by initiatives recently protests number of the the demonstrated and most identity, sources.national the of satiety and alienation possible the finally, and animosity; ethnic First, it attitudes among themajority society projecting themselves in further incensement of the tries to identifyFico(Mesežnikov and Gyarfášová secondly,2008); raisingsalience the nationalistic of the and minister prime ofthe discourse in political the articulated been hasrepeatedly which patriot, national ‘good-bad’ spectrum the of on society Slovak the of polarization politics: firstly, the minority, andtheneighboringof state Hungary. from Hungarian coming ethnic both the ‘threat’ of perception the byre-creating nationalism reinforcebehasform Ficothe been government trying argued, the to exclusive of Hungarian the initiallyace, and exclude other of regime high-intensity the on focus solely will I minority, mentioned the with relationship the in mainly themselves projected have attitudes nationalistic salient As the distinction. identity(Mannova 2009)asithas always servedasareference pointof schmittianthe group majority the of re-definition the of element acrucial been always has minority The paper is mainly utilizing qualitative methods of research, primarily the content the primarily research, of methods qualitative utilizing mainly is paper The Finally, will work the some possiblepropose consequences of governmental the Although Slovakia is a multiethnic state with several minorities, the Hungarian the minorities, several with state multiethnic a is Slovakia Although ethnies 9 , namely the Romani minority. As it will us-them CEU eTD Collection in genetic kinship, race,nations”(Smith 2000: 64),and seeksthepsychological and appeal nationalism emotional of family and tribal ties,These are:a.) identified. customs, religion, language and territory(see on the initial understanding of the concept of nation conceptof the of initial on the understanding modernization theories genesis of the nation, these are the following: are the genesis of these nation, the the on Differing tenets. socio-historical their to according categories into three classified pursued:a.) nationalism type of the governments since following the 1993arethen classified categories, to proposed according to by elites,the andfinally, foreign Hungary. the policy towards course The five Slovak articulated myths the in mass-media, elites the by statements official implementations, their support of proposalsthe connected with national the identity issues, policy proposals and party initiatives, legislative proposed sources: available following the examining by identified being is spectrum nationalist the on position actual the relevance, limited very only have 1.1 I. ideas nation of based on the society.open nationalism b.) policies; protectionist in the reflected populism unitary ethnically totalitarianism, nation conceptof exclusive defined and advocating deploying CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK THE CONCEPT OF NATION ANDNATIONALISM NATION THE CONCEPTOF The numerous nationalismtheories field studies thecontemporary within of could be - liberal pluralism, deploying rather democratic, inclusive concept of a civic of concept inclusive democratic, rather deploying pluralism, liberal - and evolutionary evolutionary theories primordialism, collective, ethnic type of nationalism collective, ethnictypeof which literally advocates the “naturalness of “naturalness the advocates whichliterally 10 primordialism (Llobera 2003: 200). Moreover, dependingMoreover, 2003:200). (Llobera per se per , four main paradigms can bemain can four , paradigms and socio-biologicaltheories, collective, civic type of civic type collective, - monolithic - CEU eTD Collection belief (Smith 2000: 21). The ignorance of the external dynamics of dynamics of social external ignoranceprocesses The of the belief (Smith 2000:21). and cognition, identities -perception, cultural collective of sources subjective the reliance on undergo. must that theself-aware groups ethnic stages nationprimordialists is the perennialists, political birth andthe precededbyseveral of a territorial itsAs nationalism the unit, by gains dimension. flatly political promulgated the andsovereign of an autonomous achieve establishment the aretaken to steps further and elites thesocietal trough articulated are these after Only self-determination. or autonomy historical and emotional factors. This form of nationalisms can exist without the demands for of canbeperennialists, itself labeled as Itmanifests deeply-rooted nationalism. the in forms the 29). he that ethnic seesthe communities as and ethno-religious originsthe nations(2008: ofmany who seeks to point out the ethnic, cultural and political commons of the modern nations with symbolism creating national the communities(Anderson ‘imagined’ finally 2006);and d.) the 1990 Hastingsnationalism(see 1997,Hobsbawm 1997, GreenfeldLlobera 1995, 2003);c.) modernization period in modernization period 18 the “antiquity nations”(Smith of 2000: 64) or b.) 1973,1997,Grosby 2002; 2006,Shils 1957); van 1995,Geertz den Berghe 4 The perennialist struggle to prove that the origins of the collective identity and quasi-national attachment can 10 be back traced periods toearlier ofmedieval suchas the ages, 16 ethno-nationalism neo-perennialism th century (Reynolds 1984). However, the primordialist camp has been rightly criticized due to its overly its overly strong to due criticized been rightly has camp primordialist the However, Generally, the version of nationalism advocated by the primordialist and partly by the by partly and primordialist the by advocated nationalism of version the Generally, (2000; being (2000; 2008, 2009) novel approach themost coined byAnthony D. Smith or rather emphasizing the idea of conceptual bymergingof conceptual continuity the emphasizingrather idea the cultural nationalism th century century (see Smith 1999; 2000 4 with the socio-dynamic changes brought by the 11 modernism that emerges as a consequence of ethnic, the of asaconsequence emerges that , Gellneris 1983,Özkirimli 2000) that th with its instrumentalist view on view instrumentalist its with (Greenfeld 1992) or even as early as the , Reynolds 1984 perennialism , Hastings ethno- CEU eTD Collection consequence of modernity,its of consequence accompanying and social economic, and political processes modernists sociological explanations Marx(SpencerWeber, Durkheim of 2008:33),the andWollman or common legacy rich memories(1996)of its members. Havingbeenby influenced the communities’(2006),enriched by Ernest Renan’spresumption about possessionthe of a this paper willlargely stem from Benedict Anderson’s of‘imaginedconcept political (1984: 302). “feelings nordivide of couldcommunity neither [alone] create, the kingdoms ontheir own” political elites for nationalisms the As 1997). (see Hastings Reynoldsit, eloquently the put of importance the acknowledge the perennialists attachments, national of the ancient-origins behave analyzed to with regard of this boundless(Hobsbawm Despite claiming1990: 9). the therefore and period”, recent, historically and “a particular, bond to are Nations approach. the of flaw conceptual major asthe seen be can nations the of evolution and formation the explain to failure subsequent the and nations, the of formation the accompanying 5 symbolism labeledHis approach theoretical ethnocentrism’(2008:16). ‘inherent the incorporate with ethnicthe and ethno-religious communities(2008: 29). nations modern the of commons political and cultural ethnic, the pointout which seeksto national identity, (Gellner theory 2008)on D.Smith’s Anthony 1983,Smith Iwill utilize the Slovak imprint nationalism strong and the the of Pioneered by functionalist Ernest Gellner, who connected the rise of nationalism with the mobilization of the 1994; 2004, Gellner1964; 1973; 1983, Breuilly 1993; 1996; 2005, Hobsbawm 1990, Kedourie 1971). urbanization, industrializationand print-capitalism the causal nationthe role information(Connor 1990; nationalist elites and intelligentsia(1983), the modernists paradigm ascribes thetransformational processes of Leaning towards the modernist perspective, the understanding of nation in understanding term modernist the the the of Leaning towards perspective, Smith soundly amends modernistthe by approach correcting for the failure to However, to explain the pervasive role of the ethnicity in contemporary form of (2000) rightly moderniststhe tostretch (2000) rightly assumes that attempts generalthe concept prompt for the promptproper understanding of nationalism andnational identity as a 12 ethnonym - the ethnic self-consciousness ethno- 5 . CEU eTD Collection “Nations as a natural, God-given way men,as classifying of an inherent…political destiny, Renan inherent 1990,Özkirimli 1996, Hobsbawm any nation: 2000). Thereisnot nature to properly nationalismsunderstands as strategic tools of political mobilization(Hastings 1997, “imagined, andfelt willed, communities(22)”. the with (imagined)’ asbeing compatible rather elements ‘constructed and ethnic interconnected customsperceive and laws”(2008:On common 19). to contrary,the Itend theideaof the shared and observe culture, public adistinctive and disseminate create homeland, a historic with identify in and reside traditions, and values, symbols, memories, myths, shared cultivate Smith’s definition nation asof “named a and self-defined humancommunity members whose more“far community self-conscious than I findan noethnicity”(1997:2),serious objection to folklore, music, orpoetry”(Smith 2008: 20-23). customs, by (imagined) national “local the created the community choosing leaders dialects, ethnicmainly history, in the periods of national awakening, when intellectual the elites and the present linkages with linkages earlier the with present the He finally andpresentandflux connection continuous of future. past,that the the concludes universal byanalyzing general whichcanbeonly of a nation analytic category the done correct the for prompts thus Smith nationalisms. contemporary in the present necessarily are that identities(29) and ties ethnic of role the downplay to tend modernists the assumption, subtype of a generic nation, namely its form(13-18). Withcivic-territorial thisinitial of a nation to the whole historical community is void because it only represents a specific modernist Crucially important feature of modernistthe view is instrumentalism its which Although I must agree with Hastings that the general concept of nation has to embrace view. After all, Smith himself admits that the nations might be described as ethnies were done by the discovery and appropriation of 13 CEU eTD Collection nationalism. of forms ethnic worse, normatively the to birth gave and nations European Eastern of bases the on nationality with building operates that romanticandcultural the understanding nation the of granting national membership from traditionally with associated civic ‘good’ the nationalism orpatriotism,and it the derives nation-formation. The nation-formation. the of concept of understanding very the to according nationalisms of types two between 1.2 round”(10). noted by Hobsbawn,per se “[n]ationsnation Slovak before the have appeared must nationalism Slovak the that bepresumed itwill do acceptingparadigm, Furthermore, 2008: 15). modernist actual potential the nation”(Smith or not make statesunity, and identity on behalf of a population, some of whose members deem it toconstitute an and autonomy, the maintaining and attaining for movement nationalisms ideological “an as nationalism Slovak but the other way which are being formed, created and interpreted by andwhich formed,are being interpreted created ruling the leadership political are amyth…”(Gelnner 2006:47).Both nationthe and the national identity are flux entities 6 Gellner, himself, ascribed the crucial role to the ‘high culture’(140) which “pervades the whole society, whole the “pervades which culture’(140) ‘high to the role crucial the ascribed himself, Gellner, sovereign"(2006: 6) national communities. possible forthe modern waves of nationalisms to ‘imagine’ the “bothinherently limited and societies. Benedict Anderson replacedindustrial the industrialismmodern for with condition the idea economic ofand print-capitalism social which necessary the as has made it communication standardized of need the and homogeneity cultural the He suggested polity”(18). by that besustained to needs and it defines andsoitcan beonly recognizedandinterpreted 1990).As retrospectively(Hobsbawn TYPOLOGY OFNATIONALISMS The classic theories of nationalism, slightly tinged by normative elements, distinguish elements, normative by tinged slightly nationalism, of theories classic The In lines with ethnocentrism,Smith’s paper this will the 18 perceive French concept ius sanguinis ius ius soli . On the contrary, the so called so the contrary, . On the , is supposed to be characteristic for the Central and , found, in is predominantly Western Europe, 14 German model th and 19 6 . of nation- th century CEU eTD Collection popular mobilization(Smithpopular Western formsto the Contrasted 2008: 17). nationalism,of the customs, nativist history with nation-centricthe view andinterpretation history the of and presumedor genealogical ties, vernacularincluding culture indigenouslanguage,religion and real the emphasizes nationalism ethnic younger historically the cosmopolitanism, rational and with ethnicity and nationality 1966). (Pflanze contrary of concept contrary the Europe, Eastern and in central entity, political the within nations the of development the Westernagainst pattern conflict theexistingandfoundits in state While expression field”(54). cultural world Europe, we have observed mostly non-political elements. It often “grewinand inprotest startedand was theas nation politicalunderstood union incitizens,of of the Easternparts to build reality political tothe wasmorenation connected theidea of Europe, Western while in the on thenon-Western nationalism lacked in the“roots socio-political 2003:55).Thus,reality”(Snyder freedoms.The individual of and citizenship totheWestern rational concepts rather opposed as basedrights on concept”(55) collectivity folk irrational, unit around pre-civilized centering andhistorical shared culture’(Smith 2008: 6). principle(Renan 1996) where the members are ‘bound by together a myth of common origins, see nation asaspiritual the to tends inevitably nationalism European and Eastern by historically bourgeoisie.civil-political promoted organic The approach strong Central the the reflecting 2008:6), association (Smith a contractual political of anexpression nation as voluntarist As opposed As to opposed Western-typethe ofnationalism, which had in its roots civilliberty the According to Held, in the non-Western type the nation perceivedasa“political Held, in thenation was type non-Western According to the The conceptual base for the above stated dichotomy is the theoretical distinction of and organic nation-state nation. The more voluntaristic Western nationalism understands the understands nationalism Western voluntaristic more The nation. was deployed, strictly connecting the cultural-political entity 15 state-nation concept that allowedfor the that concept CEU eTD Collection study, these types of nationalism can be classified into three majorinto categories. canbe three classified ofnationalism types study, these her to According spectrum(21). civic-ethnic on the nationalism of nature the sets and nations” other relative to status nation's “perception a of the determines subsequently placement This onthebasis onthe symbolicdifferences map(1995: 21). position the societies of of define the managedto Liah Greenfeld determinism, geographical the rejecting However, and closed, ethnic exclusionary nationalism which can be found in contemporary Europe. of revival attempts the (Kohn formerthe 1953). of conflicts the and determinism biological and its historical for characteristic became nation of thus concept closed ethnically The needs’(57). for national the history of the ‘utilization extensive in allowedbased thefor the ethnicity Snyderrace origins(Kohn 2003:55)which andcited on citizenship,individual andrights’, thenon-Western while collective world rights turned to history, and tends to be exclusive toward alien elements. language ancestry,based based common and genetic ties culture, on (presumed) the diversity; and b.) the ethnically closed type of national identity, which stems from the kinship idea identity based onthenational of is community,civic willing toacceptthecultural that Greenfield 1995) concept of concept the conclusions, his to According evolved. nationalisms non-Western and Western the addressed byKohn’s analyses comparison socio-politicalthe and of in environments which nation. of mission certain with moreof perception mythsthe a andidealizedfuture non-Western incorporated one Kohn’s dichotomy is often projected in the various forms of open civic, inclusionary Kohn argued that the West has embraced the ‘legal and rational concept of The above described dichotomy and its relation to national identity was profoundly was identity national to relation its and dichotomy described above The subjective-political is in: further reflected a.)theidea ofinclusive,and open democratic and objective-cultural 16 nation (Kohn 1953,Brubaker 1992, CEU eTD Collection different time periods starting from fromwill from different time initially the periodsstart starting 1993.It assumption the that identify nature of goingnationalisms by elites in to Slovak pursued governmental the the is chapter second the typology, Greenfeld’s Following elements. certain prevalenceof the distinguish hand,for On of purpose the needis and possibility paper, this to other the a there 2000:21). identities’(Smith collective cultural to attachment popular of deepersources the uncover to trends and evolutionary distinctions must simplistic ‘set aside onethe therefore elements, collectivist and individualistic or ethnic, and civic of mixture a of comprise consistently, ratheritis or redefined asinner freedom as or recognized necessity” (1995:20). non-acquirable category. Thefreedom of individualin the this nationalism of type is denied determined, entirely independent of individualvolition,the making thus it inherent an and countries. soviet element ethnicity of as the criterianational of membership,be mainlyfound andisto in post- in originated youngestadds Russia andhistorically represents the form. negativethe It nationalism “anti-Western” so-called the nationalism, of This type state. of citizen the his basisthe in of membership anethnic being than group(nationality) rather perceived as a ison classified being individual criterion, the based ethnicity On the on when contrary, the membership, the national of criteria civic the by enriched when However, socialism”(19). or democracy having andnon-equalitarian authoritarian favoring features, the “political culture of populist and elements comprising its of interests the to superior individual” collective “a of kind however it is quite rare. More spread is the spread More rare. is quite ithowever compactfreeIt can of andequalindividuals”(21). be mostly found in societies, Western the elements, which stemming thenation ofTudors, as“social from Britishthe tradition defines On one hand, itis admittedly true that most of the empirical cases of nationalisms The first and the chronologically oldest one is the one oldest chronologically the and first The collectivist civic nationalism collectivist Collectivist, ethnictype ofnationalism collectivist nationalism 17 acknowledges the freedom freedom acknowledgesof individuals.the the individualist nationalism sees nationality genetically seesnationality as taking the nation as some as nation the taking with civic CEU eTD Collection such homelands, and the world of national homelands, bereproduced.”(1995: 8) within worldthe ofnations. And,only if people believe they that have national identities, will as emotionally: typically,itmeans being within situated ahomeland, which itself is situated “Having national physically,involves identity a beingalsolegally, situated socially, as well (1992). The psychological importance of national the identity is in captured Billig’s work: mass-communication” modern is of audiencecivic channels beingthrough the and spread filtered byhistoriography originates and It inthe reflection. of consciousness an educated identity “an intellectual as supposingconstruct theappropriation ofcultural heritage was that Habermas national 1983; the 1996). defines identity(Gellner collective historical-cultural it with andreplaced traditions one destroyed cultural heterogeneity and1988:6), plural difference(Handler ethnic and local the overridden had sameness national the nationalism, of identity (Hobsbawm, 1990. However, as a supranational communities. consequence of the preponderantlevelsdifferent of self, from ranging family membership,local regions, nationsgroups, to doctrineperceived membership in social andgroups(Hogg Vaughan 2002), eachindividual ofhas the through formed be to are which identities, socio-political of multiplicity the Assuming interactions. social in different themselves manifest and exist do which identities of levels 1.3 collectivist nationalism modern modern Slovakin nationalism, present as 20 the NATIONAL IDENTITY AND MYTHS AND IDENTITY NATIONAL The According to the social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1986), there are different national attachment must not exclude, nor be always superior to the other circles other the to superior always be nor exclude, not must attachment national , enforced by exclusivethe nature of Slovakthe national identity. 18 th century, can be classified as canbeclassified century, ethnic CEU eTD Collection 1982: 130) that has the ability to superimpose has ability 1982: 130)that the to identity of certain ‘aninstrument transfer’(Armstrong to groups, attributingqualities certain cognitiveself-definition’of (Schöpflin canbeseen as an 19). Myth ‘instrument 1997: determine thefoundations of being,their own their own systems of morality and values.” one of the ways in which cultural reproduction(Bourdieu 1993)during andafter formationthe nations.the of “Myth is collectivities – in of as effective tools act information(Elias 1991) of storage and of means ofstandardization this context especiallyformation and evolution national the of entity expressed through national the Thesemyths. nations – establishTheirinevitable is cultural source thehistorically determined setof beliefs the about and variable of properties; theyarerather andcontextelicitation(Brubeker time 1996:56). across 7 2008: 40)which uses thenational symbols, anthems and ceremoniesits for sacred As rituals. device which sets the system moralityof values in and society the (Schöpflin 1997:19). is It a also members. its among coherence for the establishing forcrucial community every accuracy. powerof myths The liesin intellectual their and cognitive monopoly iswhich truths”(Schöpflin very actual allowingto overshadow the historical content 1997:19), the validated historically than rather – „perceptions they the events offer these interpret description of the historical events, they of representation complexity the of 1946: 5). reality (Cassirerthe rather tell the participantscommunication gaps by ‘establishing theillusion of community’ by providing asimplified how to understand the myths mitigate identities, national re-creation) of Inthis 1997: 22). process creation(or of and During the periods of the national awakening and consolidation, the myths were deployed overcometo the building example. nation- French the with as such nation, to-be ofthe heterogeneity linguistic and cultural and differences Nationality and national identity are not fixed or indelible, objectively ascertainable objectively indelible, or fixed not are identity national and Nationality For the modern nations, myths represent the ‘political religion of people’(Smith the of religion ‘political the myths represent nations, modern the For of function the serve not do myths that understand initially to important is It 19 7 a new identity to the older ones(Schöpflin CEU eTD Collection ‘shared history of sorrow’ and the redemption for the powerlessness; c.) the myth of myth c.)the unjust for powerlessness; of the andhistory redemption sorrow’ the ‘sharedof of redemption from stemming Christian the understanding of suffering pinpointing the myth the b.) territory; the of sacralization and inhabitants autochthonous the with connected territory of myth a.) namely: are These Europe. Eastern and Central in found usually analyses in their book in their analyses notion of people rooted in historictheir homelands(Grosby 2002). the to leads then territory national the of sanctification and naturalization The landscapes. and of connection the representing 2008:43) the ‘ethnoscapes’(Smith of creation andthe features presentin national mythology are the ‘territorization of identity’(Armstrong 1982) 1990), the latter one refersWhile the former oneto includes a the mythspecific of creation, foundation or common ancestry(Connor aim or quest ethnic election. myth of andthe of myth origins the addressedthrough which areprimarily of the chosen ethnic entity.following community,nationhood: of dimensions history territory, and destiny(2008:40) Prevalent Ingle 1999: 18)in this civil religion. members. The national flag serves the function of the of function the serves flag national The members. issymbolsassure ‘flagged’(Billig being the that 1995)toits continuos daily allegiance of 1992).ThemodernKatz nation politics’(Dayan and has thusbecome acommunity shared of ‘ceremonial re-articulate socalled the thetrough myths 1997)to ‘mythomoteurs’(Hastings symbolically participate affectlife‘(Marvin in or serious the Ingle 1999)allow and the to behavior patterned appropriately of performance[s] ‘voluntarily the as rituals national the ‘members of need community the without toreturn 1988:20).Similarly, ritual’(Kertzer the to the myth among the symbol recall can the to reference only pure the is that itandassumed Schöpflin nationalthe noted, mythsare inliturgies ‘encoded rituals, and symbols’(1997: 81) More light More on taxonomy the myths wasshed byHoskingof andSchöpflin’s profound the reflecting mainly are myths that suggests myths on analyses Smith’s Anthony Myth & Nationhood (1997), where the authors identify myths identify thatare authors wherethe (1997), 20 durkhamian totem and totem object(Marvin ethnies CEU eTD Collection “continuing power of myths, symbols and memories of myths,“continuing of memories ages and of symbolsethnic chosenness, and power golden the about observation by Smith’s strengthened further are mobilization electoral at aimed controls‘who themyths’(Schöpflin 1997:22-24)must beregardedas vital. Attheir 1988:21). this the importanceshared symbols’(Kertzer ‘community of of point, to effectively use the political ability dependsentities their on political the success of electoral Thusthe public mucheasier. rituals and symbols in the the to message thedesired of transmission the makes myth electoral where 1988) the purposes(Kertzer rhetoric when addressing mobilization electoral the for especially Smith), Kertzer, Armstrong, Cassirer, myth in (Schöpflin, politics therole acknowledge central Many of Boyer 2003). authors feedbackindividual onthe level produce desiredthe to bonds of solidarity(Schöpflin 1997, because crucial mythmustthe among resonate public,induce and the further kind some of Katz,solidarity(Dayan 1992).The and role ofthechannelsin communication is this process bring about sense the ofmembership andleadtothestrengthening organicthe of solidarity ‘commandingthrough attention simultaneously’universally and and subsequently ‘keep the totem systems alive,effective by andever-present’ promoting the mechanic process(Schöpflin, utilization the mass media.1997:22-24) thought communication of These (28-35) shared descent. and kinship of myths j.) and antiquity, and ethno-genesis of myth the i.) foundation, of myths rebirth and stemmingrenewal Christian from andParousia; palingenesis and additionally, g.) valour military myths actions f.) tyranny connected with andoppression; past against of the religious having notion a chosen of group mission accomplish;a certain to e.) myth of the treatment is similar, history of unjust oppression; d.) the myth of election applying the The thevital about inconclusions myth of the contemporary discourse role political standardization myths the control who elites political the exclusively is almost It 21 CEU eTD Collection is crucial for the construction and re-construction of the national identity. Myth aftermaththe of Coldthe War and demise the of Sovietthe empire”(1999:19). historic homelands [being]largely forresponsible the mass appeal in of ethnic nationalism of the 19 andsocial historical developments specific heterogeneity as aconsequence the of retained its ETHNIC THE AND LEGACY HISTORICAL II. THE from myth conceptualized the of citizenship. they other, groupscut-off from can selected the identity the formation by excluding them illusion ofcommunity’(Cassirer 1946:5);on by ‘establishingthe between the ethnics the mitigate the communication gaps to Ononehand,they have the power sword. double-edged a anew superimpose represent identity to the National myths older 1997). ones(Schöpflin identityor as‘instrument groups, hasof 1982:130)that theability transfer’(Armstrong to seen an cognitive self-definition’ of as certain qualities attributing ‘instrument certain to and the deformed social of development Slovakthe society during the modernization period state the of character multiethnic The i.e. Czech Republic. the society, of the homogenization by the solvedquestion extent, ethnic the great tothe thus, more ‘successfully’ and executed were minorities national the of expatriation and assimilation the where countries, neighboring The Slovak Republic is an ethnically and religiously heterogeneous country which has 2.1 FOUNDATION OF THE STATE OF THE FOUNDATION It has been argued that the role of myth and its perpetual and re-creation itsmyth has role perpetual the andreproduction beenof It argued that th and 20 THE FORMATION OFTHE MODERN NATIONSLOVAK th century. Its ethnic heterogeneity, in particular, makes it different from from makes itthe different in particular, ethnic heterogeneity, Its century. 22 per se can be can CEU eTD Collection started to operate tohelp to started operate to and introduced national finally,the press military was service the schoolsestablished, were first the national edification of the spreading purposes For the and architecture. art traditions, in folk- the renewedinterest literature, vernacular birth the of the nation experiences the folk in literature, songs andpolitical agenda; becameprojected contemporary importance the naturalization and sanctification of (Grosby sightsthe 2002) and venues historicalof ethnographichistorical and Slovak research on identity national made, amassive was which form began into 19 only the nations’, European ‘new the of group the to belongs nation Slovak modern the countries, memory. cultural of the identity by construction of collective the reassurance in constant needthe the of resulted has thus 48) centuries (Zajac1996: pasttwo of the 8 inappeared 17 re- and only Ages, of Middle the period whole the during existed practically nothas century, immemorialemphasizing 1982) identity’(Armstrong the ‘territorization wasputon importance the of nature of the indeal feel makeof homeland. people their the Great to national rooted awakeners ancient Slovak territory which ceased to exist in the late 9 19 the in born Slovak Austro-Hungarian monarchy. the or landlords local their to ties the trough according themselves identifying than rather when lieges Austro-Hungarian the to perceivestarted themselves as having anational identity The Slovak national awakeing, triggered by the Enlightenment movement in Europe, represented the the period represented in Europe, movement by Enlightenment the triggered awakeing, national Slovak The comprised of three phases, the 1780-1820, the 1820-1835 and finally 1835-1848.the formationof the of the modernSlovak lasted nation, from the 1870’s until 1848/49 the revolution.It The first official demarcation Slovakthe of territory only in occurred 1840, however, the Compared to the constitutive nations of the neighboring Central European post-Soviet nationsCompared neighboring Central constitutivethe of the European to ethnoscape th th century, it century,was literally born during that period. Itwas inonly this period; century. During the period of century. During the period of Slovakthe national awakening (Smith 2008: 43) had been identified 43) hadbeen (Smith earlier2008: and by promulgated the imagine th the nation among the masses. the among nation the century. The Slovak national identity century. The Slovaknotonly national was re- 23 8 , when the first the when , th CEU eTD Collection one. It can be claimed that due to the negative mythological depiction of the common shared thecommon of depiction mythological negative the due to that can be claimed It one. Hungarian Slovak the andmajor the territories, included state ethnic territory two proposed becausehad delimitborders the becomevery to the It difficult demarcation appeared. century, resulting inthefirstrequirements for autonomy, problem the territorialthe of common monarchy was referred toas‘the 1000year yoke’. whentheinto period of political was projected contemporary discourse oppression the and forsorrow the redemption powerlessness of history shared the stressing redemption the of myth the induced that anthem national newof the in text the demonstrated concisely nation was the memory of from collective the public consciousness( SchöpflinThe 1997:26). elimination of commonthe shared history Slovak national enabledawakening of theexclusion certain events and historical truths from mutually both penetrated andthe language diverse hadassimilated, and andHungarians cultural Slovaks elements years,which ethnically the of during thousand period almost acknowledge the significant to inevitable itis causes, historical entity. the real state Disregarding multiethnic in resulted territory apartof becoming of that presentstrength and Slovakia the military itmonarchy is ambiguous; however, probably lack still wasmost political of the organization Hungarian nascent the into incorporation gradual their and Moravia Great of power-structures Slavic old the of downfall the of reason historical The tribes. Magyar nomadic the of arrival still western the Slavic tribes hadinhabited theCarpathian basin some before centuries the nation-states, their established later have they peopleswhere of territory the autochthonous 9 The revolutionary text of the anthem composed is specifically aimed against the Hungarian oppression. Hungarian the against aimed of is specifically composed text anthem the The revolutionary It must be noted though, that neither Slovaks, nor the Hungarians had been the been had Hungarians the nor Slovaks, neither that though, noted be must It When the When the of period the during intelligentsia national the by created myths the Nevertheless, pan-slavism ethnies started to shape the national identity in the beginning of in 19 the of shape the beginning national identity to the started . 24 9 . Similarly, the myth of unjust treatment and th CEU eTD Collection legitimate. justified, Slovaknor asthe‘Trianon manifested nor secession syndrome’, was Slovaks for first the time in history.modern their According Hungarian tothe view, generally the lobby of the influential diaspora in the US, an independent state entity was assigned to the and efforts diplomatic Czecho-Slovak joint the of success the to and due power-structures, 12 identity. national Hungarian from co-nationals stem ideological these origins themodernunderpinning Slovak 11 intertwined identities and ties ethnic nation significant the disregarded Slovak history, the 10 schmittian traditional the Thus identity. national Slovak the of construction the in elements Hungarian for place Ruthernians and the Moravians, other mixed Slovak-Hungarian andWhile dual-identity(Piscova Buncak2000:300). the the opposed strongly and identity Hungarian external the excluded strictly tribes, Slavic the Czechs. the nation, itsturned Hungary, back to and formed ajoint union political with morea culturally distant This perception has been shaping the mutual relationships since then, and still resonates on the Hungarian the on resonates still and then, since relationships mutual the shaping been has perception This In 1918, the representatives of the Slovak League and Czech National Association in the US decided to sign to US decided inthe Association National Czech and League Slovak ofthe the representatives 1918, In The contemporary documentation about the Slovak ethnic territory says that the Slovaks had been widely been had Slovaks the that says territory ethnic Slovak the about documentation contemporary The minority inSlovakia. Hungarian the towards stance their and subjects nationalist far-right the among mainly scene, political T.G.Masaryk, the Chairman of of Czecho-Slovakthe presence National the Councilwith state, independent an in Slovaks and ofCzechs union the about agreement Pitsburgh the spreading and the Hungarians started to adopt their customs and traditions, and after the generational change, these themselves generational the completelyafter and assimilate traditions, with and the Slovaks.customs their adopt to started Hungarians the and spreading 2.2 After the end of First World War, as a consequence of the demise and of the Habsburg The preponderant concept of concept The preponderant 12 THELEGACY OF THE FIRST STATE ENTITIES 11 us-them distinction and exclusionary attitudes towards former the towards attitudes and exclusionary distinction pan-Slavism ethnies 25 were at least partially included, there was no advocating the similarity and the bond of bond the and similarity the advocating 10 , CEU eTD Collection their citizenship and basic political rights and sent to the working sites to Czech Republic. sites to workingto the andsent rights basic political and their citizenship of were deprived minority Hungarian of the members the measures’, ‘internal called of so the Hungarians(Piscova andBuncak 2000).During the period of within1945-48, the framework culminated in national cleansing from ‘nationally unreliable’ Germans and former dissolved monarchy. Austro-Hungarian and state religiousthe republican -asopposed andto the the values absolutism of democratic possessing terms, humanistic in rather ‘Slavicism’ of concept autonomist the defined elites political contemporary the gap, thecultural mitigate To nation. Czech Protestant rather the from and Slavs, the of part Orthodox the from both Slovaks of distinction historical the out Christianity pointed of tradition the emphasizing Magyars. Paradoxically, barbaricto the old asopposed tribes Slavic old of the and advancement consecration religious emphasize further identity in the 19 national and nation Slovak the of renewal and rebirth of myth the by supplemented logically labeledbeing than other by term the ‘1000 yearyoke’. Themyth of was ethno-genesis The period withincentury). was state common officially regardedasaninterruption, not the MoraviaNitra(9 of Principality and the Great of ‘golden thetimes’ pre-Hungarian stressed of the Frank merchant Samo (7 entities, Empire suchasthe quasi-state oldSlavic tothe territorial of roots the possession the past. The ancient nature of the shared common the of elements the excluding totally consolidated, identity national Slovak 13 Methodius Byzantine mission of Constantine the Philosopher and Methodius, from the approval of the Slavonic translation of the Bible and liturgical books by pope Hadrian II, and from the sending of Methodius as an as of Methodius sending the from Archbishop and to Nitra II, in 870A. D Hadrian pope by books liturgical and Bible of the translation The pan-Slavic ideology lead to the oppressive ‘Czechoslovak nationalism nationalism that ‘Czechoslovak oppressive the to lead ideology The pan-Slavic of the fullyautonomisttimes,was concept whenthe only It the post-war during 13 was translated into the myth of election and historical chosenness, and was to was and chosenness, historical and election of myth the into translated was th century. The Byzantine mission of Constantine the Philosopher and ethnonym th century). The myth of the old history of ethno-genesis of history old the of myth The century). was embedded in myth the of foundation, tracking 26 th CEU eTD Collection nationalism(Breuilly newly formed1993, Greenfeld1995),the its Slovak to republicreturned civic thecollective of principles the embrace to nation decided Czech homogenous ethnically identities. more Paradoxically,national the toward re-definition approach while the of their when both successor in1993, Czechoslovakia of periodthe split of the back be to language traced can identity or countries, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, took a very different definition of schmittian directing the (Zajac1999), between Czechs andthe Slovaks the ethnic conflict states. separate The establishment of autonomousthe Slovak Republiceliminated the possible the Czech and Slovak political elites decided to abandon the common republic and opt out for the peakafter regimewhenfall in tothe Sovietthe came tensions 1989, federalism.of The asymmetric under the on andlater state-entity, in common nation the role of Czech the years developed of 1968whenexperiencingafter dissatisfaction the with only dominantthe Slovak national identity. Still, the autonomist concept of the national identity further of the understanding ethnic of of attemptrejection first the represents It Germany. with Nazi collaborating government fascist national own one’s against act arevolutionary represented against tyranny and oppression can be identified inthe Slovak National in Uprising 1944 that from located Hungary,Slovakia to andviceversa. ‘mutual exchange of population ’in 1946,when inhabitations thousands of were forcefully re- furtherThe fusion borders was with ethnicborders thethe beof state to achievedbythe 2.3 During the Second World War, the myth of military valor connected with past actions past with connected valor military of myth the War, World Second the During The tradition of utilization of the issues of ethno-national character suchas ethnic the character issues of ethno-national of the of utilization The tradition them THE CZECHOSLOVAK SEPARATON ANDTHEPOST-1993 SEPARATON THE CZECHOSLOVAK DEVELOPMENT even more to the Hungarian minority. Hungarian the to more even 27 CEU eTD Collection democratic opposition, repeated attempts at obstruction of the free media, large-scale media, free the atobstruction of attempts repeated democratic opposition, for the “lack of respect by the characterized was Slovakia(HZDS) Democratic for Movement Theenvironment. periodMeciar’s of twothe (1993-1998) underthe rule governments of (Western) democratic international the of isolation the finally, and multiculturalism, and state-entity own with experience of lack the elites, post-soviet the and society alsoof Slovakbecause of the 1997) demoralization the report states”(OSCE independent “has newly formeditself from newly state negatively postcommunist, other distinguished The 2008). basedconcept(Mesežnikov asanethnically nationality redefined the Slovak therightsinitially of regimerecognized notobserving asanon-democratic minorities, the past(Auer 2004: 131). past(AuerThe pro-nationalist 2004: Me naturally prone to extremist nationalistneighboring Hungary, and the damageitson international reputation. ideologies with bilateral relations of the worsening tensions, ethnic levels of increased experienced also due to the very problems as2000).As mobilization a (Podoba consequence, strategy Slovak Republic lack of democratic non-ethnic pushedforthe of ethnicization groups interest transitional diverse period, Republic During identity national in1993amajorof the the re-articulation occurred. political after andso transition(2003:1), creation the of independentthe autonomous Slovak community and national AsAnnie parties. populist Coombes soundly noted, changingthe of definitions national of the activation experienced forms, Slovakia civic andto patriotic transformation homogenization identity. national the of of Instead weakening ethnic the itsanddimension for 1993hasbeen emancipation after the andthepolitical profounddevelopment significantshare of population being of a differentethnic origin. of The consequence the very roots 19 of the very roots The Slovak nation whose ‘political ambitions were frustrated for was centuries’ frustrated were ambitions whose ‘political The nation Slovak and nation th century nationalism - the ethnic conception of a nation a nation - despite a of conception ethnic - the nationalism century , and the new public histories the, and occurduring newpublic the periods of usually 28 þ iar cabinet(1993-1998), internationallyiar cabinet(1993-1998), CEU eTD Collection concept depicted the Slovaks as a community bearing the shared history of sorrow seeking a bearingsorrow of depicted theSlovaksasacommunity sharedhistory the concept deployed(Schöpflinexculpate for 1997)to the unpleasantphenomenon.innocent The victims farmers andbuilders, and and themyth unjusttreatment of oppression was of nation a became nation Slovak the monarchy, Austro-Hungarian the within achievements present already complex inferiority the onlystrengthened history shared the of expatriation profound in the Slovak The past. mythopoeicthe the of reading whichcaused various initiatives actively pursued society. history for formation the of Slovakthe national identity, political the and elites supported integrity importance the acknowledge andand of Central Austro-Hungarian European the the Without a past for national our existence (The andstatehood” Slovak Constitution, 1993). that would monarchy of the „centuries of historical struggle Austro-Hungarian as refers tothe the period acknowledgeinto Preambleconcept wassymbolically the embeddedConstitution newSlovak which of the 19 ofthe national awakeners of revolutionary rhetoric thethe to returning legacy historical common the of commonnon-acknowledgement the favored and Hungarians 'myth suffering' the1997) under rulestressing of Slovaks(Schöpflinthe of of the The override elitespolitical tried the to responsibility guiltby constantly and collective Republic. First leaders the of past semi-fasistsic of glorification or forceful re-slovakization Me tolerance. of ethnic policies the advocated interethnic issues,and the rather scene was opposition the on divided nationalism. corruption in economic policies, andrecurrentinstigation of ethnocentric 14 This features are, to some extent, observablewith the current Fico government(2006-2010) þ iari.e. governments(1993-1998), in formthe of rejection of for responsibility the the Instead of accepting the multicultural perspective of history, which would rightly two first the with observable was clearly past historical the to approach Selective 14 ”(Auer 2004: 131) However,”(Auerat 2004:131) thismust point,be it noted political the that 29 th century. The'1000-year yoke’ CEU eTD Collection only one century, the Slovaks formed part of five constitutional entities, namely the Austro- the namely entities, constitutional five of part formed Slovaks the century, one only liberal non-liberal and between of democracy regimes and 2006(2009).In course 1990 the totalitarianism,limited national democracy, totalitarianism communist and arotation of fascist pluralistic democracy, semi-authoritarianism monarchistranging from to regimes, political past the of instability the been had ideology etatist and populism national solidarity(Schöpflin in 1997: 22) emergingthe Slovak society. establish and memories, support and to screen certain out Hungarians,undesired – the to exclude publicandto others the ethnic the enough among establishresonance to strong elites political itallowed that1993, factors were mainlynationally the oriented socio-historical the heterogeneity individualsthe of form that dynamicnationalthe entity(Zajac 1996). After the latter stressed one the tobedefended, has that individual as acollective nation Whileformer sawthe the conception. monolithic andpluralistic of the classical conflict the by represented identity, national the of understanding ethnic and civic the between oscillating myth of newthe from Slovak conceptualized citizenship. them the supported cuttingthe minority off Hungarian of the from identity by formation the excluding actively (1993-1998) Meciar governments two further The separation. led to subsequently negative emotions of sidethe majority(Schöpflin of Slovakthe 1997:24-27)and was devised specifically for intra-community itintensifiedcommunication, and mobilized the language mythicized new the As Slovakia. Southern of territory in the living minority ethnic livingHungarian minority inled the the Republic, Slovak animistic to perception largest the the and Hungarians foreign the between non-differentiation deliberate the and oppressor seen as longthe historical awaited necessity. Identifying the neighboring Hungary as the forredemption powerlessness, the and the final creation Slovakof the Republic in1993 was As observed by Mesežnikov, a significant factor contributing to the acceptance of the acceptanceof the to factor contributing asignificant by Mesežnikov, As observed has been Slovak state, society the autonomous the of very Since the creation 30 CEU eTD Collection identity. Due to the monarchic legacy, the religious affiliation in Slovakia did not provide a not did inSlovakia affiliation religious legacy, the monarchic the to Due identity. the Hungarian particularly 'others', exclusion further the of tool of the became elites, political contemporary minorityin stated the after by 1993, articulated renewed previousthe Slovak chapter, myths the and theAs already ‘the others’. and nation titular between the state the of ownership the of duality Roma people, perception the ledof has to 2004) definition(Dimitrijevic, foundational ethno-nationalist from theSuch 1997). sorrow’(Schöpflin history of and ‘shared sharingthe presentstate the next formation membersthe national minoritiesliving of groups who werealso and ethnic intheterritory of of theemphasizing the strugglenational for our only existence includes the Slovak‘us’, people, not national historical reference identity. The of national the source ultimate asthe ethnic Slovaks the the titularproclamation further anchored elites enforced bytheactions of of political position ethnic living groups in Slovakthe Republic…”(The Constitution,Slovak 1993). This initial members with and minorities of national “We, Slovakforming the People...[t]ogether group: nation- the of affiliation ethnic the stresses explicitly preamble the 1993, of Constitution new despite comprising of a variety of ethnic minorities. When examining lines the opening of the established as a country with a dominant titularpromoted by the radical political forces such as the Slovak National Party. ethnic entity majoritythe community lensthrough the and of ‘separatism’ –a popularview particularly a religious denomination and to delivered interpreted constantly was and emotions, negative automatically triggered Hungarian minority achieveto some form cultural,of educational linguisticor powers the from attempt every a consequence, As integrity. territorial and sovereignty national the with approach led regard to increased protectionist to and borders the of re-drawing entities state the of instability This modern Czechoslovakthe Republic. Slovak and Republic second the State, Slovak first the Republic, Czechoslovak first the Empire, Hungarian As a consequence of all the above stated factors, the Slovak republic was initially was republic Slovak the factors, stated above all the of As aconsequence 31 CEU eTD Collection identity, puttingmuch emphasizes tothe democratic values multiculturalism.and national the of interpretation civic the rather promoted elites governing of the discourse described settled,approach and inter-ethnic asfirmly the not the could political situation though, Even was observable. diversity ethnic the towards approach a positive Coalition]), ma -Strana party(SMK minority Hungarian embracing in as Herzegovina. and Bosnia conflict violent and cause extreme separation ethnicity to overlapping cleavage wasthereligious nor However, of Switzerland. case successful the as such division) linguistic the rather (or ethnicity the for cleavage cross-cutting sufficient a.) nationalism they have overall to twocategoriespursued proposedby Liah Greenfield(1995): spectrum. asses on Hungary, nationalistposition theirthe actual to towards course policy finally, foreign by and elites, the articulated the media, myths the mass- in elites the by statements official implementations, their and proposals policy issues, identity national the with connected proposals the of support party initiatives, legislative position on nationalistthe examinedthesources and such spectrum, the as proposed declared assess their asses to the to manifestos the party of analysis content the performed have I coalition. governmental in the present parties the of position actual the and declared 2002), Dzurinda andhas II(2002-2006), Fico been (2006-2010), done bycombining the namely cabinetsof:the (1992-1994), Meciar I (1994-1998),Meciar IIDzurinda I(1998- 2.4 collective, ethnic typeofnationalism collective, The five Slovak governments since 1993 havebeen classified according theto type of The following classification of the Slovak governments dating from The following from classification of Slovakthe onwards, governmentsdating 1993 DuringDzurinda eight-years the 2002-2006) of two the governments(1998-2002, GOVERNMENTAL ELITES PURSUEDBYTHETYPOLOGY OFTHENATIONALISMS -monolithic totalitarianism, exclusive deploying 32 ć arskej koalície[Party of Hungarian of koalície[Party arskej CEU eTD Collection Table I. : Classification of theSlovak governments according to the type of nationalism pursued and promulgation of and promulgation inof ethnicthe nationalism theirmanifestos minority-related issues.adirectsupport absence of their Despite ethnicand the onthe stance ideology and adjacent of radicalism, their degree to according Slovakia], for aDemocratic LS-HZDS – Social Democracy], the SNS of namely Ficothe government(2006-2010), – SMER Sociálnathe [Direction- demokracia – Slovenská Národna Strana [Slovak National Party], and the III. THEFICOGOVERNMENT(2006-2010): BACK b.) 15 FICO DZURINDA II DZURINDA I II MECIAR MECIAR I GOVERMENT Except the SNS, which does traditionally incorporate the nationalistic discourse into their manifestos. TO ETHNIC NATIONALISM TO ETHNIC protectionist policies protectionist concept of ethnically defined nation and advocating unitary in populism the reflected inclusive concept of a civic nation based on the ideas of open society nationalism of civic type collective, This chapter will discuss and critically evaluate the position of the three mainactors three the of the position evaluate andcritically will discuss This chapter ď udová Strana-Hnutie za Demokratické Slovensko[People’s Party Party - Movement Slovensko[People’s zaDemokratické Strana-Hnutie udová (2002 - 2006) (2006 - 2010) (1998 - 2002) (1994-1998) (1992-1994) PERIOD Collective, ethnictype civictype Collective, Collective, ethnictype Collective, ethnictype TYPE OF NATIONALISM PURSUED TYPE OF Collective, civictype Collective, - liberal liberal deploying democratic, rather -pluralism, 33 15 , the work claims that all of CEU eTD Collection Slovakia’s constitutional system andimportance of abiding by the principles of constitutional foundation of liberal-democratic democracy, of quality regime, the of type tothe related in projected historic“the mythologizing, appropriation andnegligence syndrome issues of model HZDS, exhibit a clearpreferenceof ethnic nationalist identity, of and national the LS- former namely SNSand the parties, Union. European two The to the period accession populists’, and SMER asbelonging tothe second wave of populism soft formed inthepre- populist,with LS-HZDSandSNSbeingthe classified as generation, first the ‘hard- with Hungary. diplomatic tensions the regarding policy decisions the foreign finally and making of policy steps concrete the of evaluation politics, electoral in factors the mobilization card asthe Hungarian so-called of the utilization ethnic-tensions, politics by analyzing stance on their political number discourse, the of with causes connected Slovakthe national identity through historicaldeploying new narratives, myths and symbolic 2008). andGyarfášová radicalism(Mesežnikov ethnicthe of identity, understanding although varying national the with degreeof coalition aretryingparties shift to nationalthe andconsciousness public the opinion towards and the political towards nationalthe identity minority-relatedand issues, bilateral withrelations Hungary, discoursenationalism of the 2006-2010, they accepted eitheror directly assumptions the promoted of the party elites. period electoral the andduring elements nationalistic parties ethnic embracedthe the have I further support the claim that all three 3.1 All the three parties of the Fico government(2006-2010) canbenational as described of All Fico government(2006-2010) the threeparties the re-define to actors main governmental three ofthe attempts the examines The chapter IDENTIFICATION OF THE PRIME ACTORS ANDTHEIRSTANCES ACTORS OFTHEPRIME IDENTIFICATION (Greenfeld by shallThis be 1995). argument supported governmental the stances 34 collective, ethnic collective, CEU eTD Collection Etatism isgovernment shouldproclaimed that be“thefather of 2008 SME daily). all citizens”(25.1. also projectedFicoopenly Robert Minister, Prime the leader, and SMER’s for example party elites, in isthe differently views accentuateda differentdegree and in parties, showsto activities although etatism etatist considered their of the far-right(13). Etatism is minorities. ethnic mostlynationalist embrace would which citizenship observable of myth conceptualized uniting the of its implementation the has rejection expressed of the SNSpolitical which discourse Ficois the clear governmentIt that cosmopolitan majority the population(17). members of sees of thethe meaninggroups, especially Hungarianminority; the andfrom secondly, and civic oriented ethnic other from firstly, themselves: distinguishing from stem mainly should Slovaks the of which of to specific identity,according national re-patriotization the understanding the ethnic in ‘patrioticproposed from by model’ governmentemanates promoted the avery 2010. The attempts, anew law on patriotism following the USmodel ‘flagging the nation'of was and to make upis only awayfrom one step national in cited unconsciousness”(Fico Mesežnikov 2008:16), for the lack which Slovakia by indifference, of cancer “beingengulfed the about hisconcerns expressed of the ‘nationalFico Robert Minister Prime their homeland. to citizens Slovak of the attachment the and patriotism of feelings the strengthen to initiatives legislative outburst’,various proposing been have after a numberSNS. right of unsuccessful far- the particularly mentioned parties, above two of agenda the nationalistic overthe picking ithowever, of has electoral the period during 2006-2010 continually been adopting and nationalism, ethnic the of promulgation onthe moderate direct been morehas SMER main theelectoral the In thebeginning rulingperiod, party, of 2009). liberalism”(Mesežnikov Except exhibiting features of national all populism, of coalition the can be parties incumbent victory, SMERandSNS, parties, two Since the the2006parliamentary 35 CEU eTD Collection inAs and 1993. it itself promoted whothe was HZDS implemented actively the ethnic splitHZDS achieved the federation of creation and the Slovakthe of autonomous republic the on point party’sthe agenda. entering In 1992, after the governmentas amain force, political became society.the main Thedivision Federal the among Republic of Czechoslovak the its leader,Vladmír Me in position, power the incensement the Seeking Slovakia). Democratic for HZDS(Movement Violence)againstintogroups, split two onethem forming of anewpolitical the party, kind of separatist attempts. kind of separatist againstany be as value interest protected Slovaknational to utmost the autonomous state and the position moderate holdmoreon to a bedefined currently can separation, Czechoslovak the 16 crucial element process the ofidentity and state-building(Mesežnikov and Gyarfášová 2008). most the be to consider they which ethnicity the of account the on regime the of quality downplay democratic the they to tend minority-protection, ethnic of the average standards from the more radical ideasthese passively adopt or legislativesteps, concrete launch identity national and of the right wing Slovak National understanding ethnic the advocate ideologically directly They either with etatism. connected Party. Furthermore, stressing the above- Referring to the the initiatives for cultural autonomy self-governmentand of the Hungarian minority on Southern Slovakia etatist After the first freeAfter the first movement in1991 elections, revolutionary the VPN the (Public In sum, all governmental the of doexhibitsubjects features of national populism 3.1.1 scale. LS-HZDS [PEOPLE’S PARTY – MOVEMENT FOR DEMOCRATIC FOR –MOVEMENT PARTY [PEOPLE’S LS-HZDS SLOVAKIA] þ iar utilized the Slovak national identity issues to promote promote division issuesthe iaridentity to national Slovak utilized the 16 Vladimír Me þ iar’s LS-HZDS, that has been the main actor of 36 CEU eTD Collection discriminatory rhetoric. SNS considers itself to be a successor of the historic national party national historic of the be asuccessor to itself considers SNS rhetoric. discriminatory isandit tobe considered a radical force,and using right-wing chauvinist political is lower compared to the SNS or SMER.”(2008: 12) SMER.”(2008: islower SNSor the compared to messages fit that descriptionthe national of althoughpopulism, frequency their intensity and party the observed “regularly conveys that further and Gyarfášová respectively. Mesežnikov SMER and more SNS twoactive partners, other the of policies the approving a passiverole, plays in rather it which coalition, populist be national the apartof it to continues orientation, LS-HZDS present, at Although, issues. mentioned opposition between 1998 and it2006, muchmore hasbecome on moderated abovethe internationally criticized for not respecting the rights of the Hungarians and the Roma. official xenophobic discourse. During both Meciar’s governments, Slovakia was often both Meciar's was governments regarded asdiscriminatory andincluding almost adversarial, 15). Thus, despite the party's promulgated name, politicsthe towardsethnic minorities of fromfundamentally leaders’(Mesežnikov different andSNS of those Gyarfášová 2008:11- not were and issues other state the of character legacy, the historic Slovakia’s relations, governments(1992-1998), the party's ideological profileviews and 'inter-ethnictheir on statehood’, ‘nationally nationalism.ethnic oriented’ concept of collective, tothe its ideology correspondents identity, national of the perception or ‘pro-Slovak’. During the period of the two Me 17 The party changed its name from HDZS to LS-HZDS after the internal split. internal the after LS-HZDS to HDZS from name its changed party The The Slovak National Party belongs to the very far right on the nationalist spectrum Since therapid decline invoter support and in long-term isolation party’s the the Up to today, HDZS tends to present itself as the ‘architect of itself asthe‘architectindependent presentSlovakia’s of tends Up totoday, to HDZS 3.1.2 SNS [SLOVAK NATIONAL PARTY] [SLOVAK NATIONAL SNS 37 17 is not officially promoting nationalistic promoting officially not is þ iar's CEU eTD Collection constantly forth the puts question ethnicthe of Hungarians’loyalty theby state to interpreting and Slovaks of ethnic state national a being Republic Slovak the theideaof promulgates publicly ethnicSlovaks. TheSNS the group, dominant the dangerto minority asthe groups the by portraying Hungarians) others(the ethnic the of myth the deepen and promulgate to try 1988: 21)from who control position the themyths(Schöpflinthose, of They 1997:22-24)). Slovak people.” for government Slovak Slovaks. arethe “We asfollows: goes of 2006 manifesto party the identity society’s political10). organization”(2009: with and conceptsof voters authoritarian nationalistparty views primarily appeals to The minorities. ethnic of members and representatives political against aimed statements their for becomeincessantly and tone aggressive notorious rhetoric, offensive confrontational have leaders SNS minority communities. and population majority between the interactions in of civil terms particularly of systematic undermining dialogue, to the contributed policy. cultural and education in the mainly rights minority the affecting proposals legislative the through way negative the in Hungarians ethnic the of situation alter the to it several attempts pursued 2002, until national parliament in representatives the 19 Me Serving in two the 2006). nation.'(SNSManifesto, Slovak motherland of Party sovereign constructive the and of the stateindependence independent itsSlovakia concerning asthe confessed support existedthat until 1938 andclaimsis it the'only real political which haspower always 18 SNS party manifesto “Some malleable model of a citizenof the world with no linkage withthe family, town, nation and state, in2006 and the activities of minority-friendly Dzurinda's government. enterprise, national orstate institutions is being created” (Party Manifesto, 2006:1) reference to the situation The SNS openly opposes the conceptualized myth of national The citizenship myth civic SNS openly and conceptualized the of opposes Mesežnikov“throughout arguesthat its modern of existence, activities SNShavethe 18 and promotes the concept of the ethnically-defined nation(9). The opening lines Theopening nation(9). of ethnically-defined the conceptof andthe promotes 19 Leaders of SNS try to address the community of shared symbols(Kertzer of community address the to SNStry of Leaders þ iar's period of having duringthe its governments 1993-1998, and 38 CEU eTD Collection version of the collectivist nationalism. collectivist the of version approves discourse party’sthe position on far-rightthe spectrum,fully promoting the ethnic political similar and These, attack. Hungarian potential the of Slovak the protect to in order army the ability of increasecombat to the budget military the for theexpenditures increases cessation withdraw forof the and urged from Slovak suggestedto agreements, the Budapest ambassador the diplomatic bilateral basic the of elimination his harsh forproposed known rhetoric, repeatedly ties leaderaims. isand whoaccused ofthe Ján Slota, notoriously chauvinist of SNS, revanchist withthey that forces Hungary. political Hungarian the with representation political Hungarian ethnic Slovak He the of connection the also emphasized continuously party the and Hungary, and Slovakia between recently proposed thatterms of andlanguage”(Mesežnikov 2008:10). culture Slovakiain fatherland their consider Hungarians ethnic which Hungary, with ties maintaining and regional language, education,field of culture, useof political development representation, in the rights minority Hungarians ethnic of implementation “complicate would that proposals affiliation, during the electoral of period SNS has2006-2010, frequently legislature submitted Party 2010)for the Slovakas Republic.Manifesto period'(SNS ‘devastation government the in Coalition Party]) national the openlylabeling8yearsassembly, of Dzurinda Ma party SMK(Strana ethnic Hungarian of former the and SNSalsoautonomous efforts. strongly tooutlaw,opposed, presence even attempted the and pure separatist asbeing political representation Hungarian of the all proposals the The participation in the government has been negative on the bilateral relations bilateral the on negative been has government the in participation The Despite claiming the democratic equality of the citizens and neutrality of the ethnic 39 ć arskej Koalície Hungarian Koalície [The arskej CEU eTD Collection national identity(see Smith’s discussion on of Slovak concept the for ties theethnic of importance the disseminate it to seeks now and duringyears ideological thefouridentity.orientation hasshifted, in However,party’s power 2010)manifestos(2006, specifically mentions anykind of ethnic conception national the of theparty of Neither issues. national on the moderate itwas still, pro-Slovak, was rather 2006electionsthe magnitude SMER's orientation different to declared prior concepts. and spectrum is close as alldominant position of SMER. of them havewing SNSin former toexclude nationalistic order the andtoassureparties governmental the advocated membershipthe Robert Ficoaccept intheof Party Socialists, right- the European decided to nationalism innegative resulted reaction of international suspension of the community and subsequent the in some nationalist nature(Mesežnikov 2009:10).Although cooperation the extremistwith the SNS form despiteandgain appealing achievemobilization, topics support being messagesof of to one them the the in theelectoral after victory 2006. LS-HZDS the SNSand the with coalition a formed party the government, Dzurinda to the left-wing the ideology, social-democracy pro-national and Acting orientation. asthemain force opposition promoting force political a into solutions' pragmatic of party ‘non-ideological from a ideologically developed Fico. The party Robert minister, leaderand theprime current DEMOCRACY] –SOCIAL [SMER DEMOKRACIA -SOCIALNA SMER 3.1.3 Still, it must be noted, that the ideological stance of the three parties on the nationalist the on parties three the of stance ideological the that noted, be must it Still, Generally,benational characterized SMERcouldas utilizinga party populist the is a The SMER-Social Democracy ethno-symbolism 40 rather newrather party, in by established 1999 its ). CEU eTD Collection emphasizing theethnonym part(Smith 2000). mainly myths. national toalter by the and Hehas donesovariousstressing attempts of identity, national the has Fico during government the the period of 2006-2010 pursued Acceptingitsfrom aandandpromoting creation exclusivedefinition ethnic the re-creation. excluded been have which minorities, national the over nation majority the of dominance The 1995). identity national isbased onthevery subsequently of ethnic the concept as nationalism(Greenfeld is collective the ethnic be understood to by government, Fico the orientation. nationalist far-right the to pro-national from ranging voters the attract to interests and identity national the of protectors embracing the agenda of the SNS the of agenda the embracing progressively been also have They frequently. more rhetoric nationalistic wing right the citizens among his own voters and the bad ones on the opposition side. 21 of division societal new the creating Fico started is that clear It identity. national the of conception ethnic the promoted and adopted leaders have how SMER’s demonstrates state, the to disloyal being media for Slovak identity.”(MesežnikovRepeatedly fate orfind independent the attacking state their2008). homeland’s their with identify to unable are who kibitzers media [and] homeless “spiritual eliteparty discourse 20 It was mostly observablewith the initiatives of SMER regarding the law on patriotism(2010), which was dual-citizenshipethnic Hungarians, proposal SlovakRegarding the forprimethe Ficoof the minister of the law, whichwas later on adopted, giving SMER the full credit forits adoption. refused to sign the bill and returned it to the parliament. Subsequently, SMER came up with itsownversion originally adopted inthe proposedby SNSparliament. and the request of On Fico, Robert President the bezpecnostna-hrozba.html Republic. (SME TV), available at: http://tv.sme.sk/v/15368/fico-zakon-o-dvojitom-obcianske-je-vazna- officially labeled the dual-citizenship proposal by the HungarianFIDESZ a ‘security threat’ forthe Slovak As previously established, the modern Slovak nationalism(Hroch 2000) aspromoted modernthe As previously nationalism(Hroch established,Slovak With upcomingthe elections of political2010, the elites of SMER starteddeploying The reluctance to promote the civic form of national identity projected itself initself the identity projected national civicform the promote of to The reluctance 20 . According to Fico, the Slovak media have become a shelter for media havebecomeashelter Fico, the Slovak . According to 21 , and subsequently positioned themselves intothe themselves , andsubsequently positioned us and 41 them , identifying thegoodpatriotic Slovak CEU eTD Collection establish genealogical ties with earlier the with ties genealogical establish 22 politics. symbolic and tools legislative the utilizing myths national the re-create narratives, re-write also role historical to the SMER ethnicthe of Slovaks. started defenderthe of nationalissues into identity the sharper the himself became hehasrepeatedly and positioned scupper.Fico’s Slovakthe Robertto rhetoricParty, National towards which SMER istrying embraced of the rightmoreside theanddiscourse has agenda spectrum they to shifted as 1990’s. Slovaks’ into the history schoolbooks - a very similar initiative to Meciar‘s govermentattempted toimplemented policies in fieldthe in of education would that embedthe term ‘oldthe myth the makedisseminate him amongand government Fico public,the the resonate standardization(Elias national for history. to interpretation the 1991) of the Inorder cultural reproduction of Slovakthe nation(Bourdieu 1993) andmeans of 1997: 19).Themyth inhabiting oldthe of GreatMoravia the Slovaks only servesasa tool of truths(Schöpflin thehistorically theperceptions validated of rather but historical accuracy, ‘ahistorical’(Kovac 2010). Moravia,’ Slovaks from Great publici.e. speeches, whenthe keptprime minister referring Fico totheold Slavs asthe ’old http://www.sme.sk/c/3670504/fico-nadalej-hovori-o-starych-slovakoch-nie-slovanoch.html, 9.1.2008 slovakoch-nie-slovanoch.html#ixzz0pfw4ioa9Fico na slovakoch-nie-slovanoch.html#ixzz0pfw4ioa9Fico antiquity of Slovakthe nation. Available at : http://www.sme.sk/c/3670504/fico-nadalej-hovori-o-starych- At the 15th anniversary of the establishment of the Slovak Republic, the prime minister held a speech on the The Fico governmental repeatedly attempted to appropriate the ethnic history and history the ethnic toappropriate attempted repeatedly The Ficogovernmental In sum,it thenationalismcan be 2006,SMER’s position the since arguedthat on the not is which myth of function main the understood soundly Fico that seems It 22 although labeled historians the such term as ‘politicized’ and ethnies 42 ć alej hovorí o starých Slovákoch, nie Slovanoch, nie Slovákoch, o starých hovorí alej . This was observable during the numerous the wasobservable. This during CEU eTD Collection electoral politics. electoral leaders in togain order forpolitical itssupport proposals, butalso asamobilization intool Party, however, since has shifted on SMER nationalismit scale,the beingisby its utilized as Hungarian the ace. Until had brought2006 itup by beenmostly rulingSlovakthe National dichotomy ethnic the Slovak society (Mesežnikov 2008). Thetypical identity the of expression utilizingpolitics, of the ethnic-openness subsequent the myths and narratives, historical of interpretation character of The identity determinespolitics the understanding of fabricthe of society, defines the the system interest(2009). topolitics of asopposite inan identity discourse, andpublic political politics of government, the of comeback the observes Gyarfášová opinion, public the in trends recent the analyzing the perception support(Mesežnikov 2009b). of the nation voter's in bringing termsof gains mobilization solid hastheof potential tool that as civic orincludes'Hungarianobserved, bilateral the card', that is the political a strong relations, ethnic, As the office. assumed Mesežnikov government since several incumbent the occasions perception theof politics, so called ‘identity politics’ manifested itself(Ciganik 2001)has on ethnic The minority. Hungarian the at aimed mainly relations, inter-ethnic the of perception a confrontational lead to have They discourse. nationalistic the of more acceptance towards in both gaining the support of majority the voters andingroup shifting the public opinion 3.2 THE ROLE OF THE HUNGARIAN MINORITY While during the elections of While during theoverriddenis of elections by 2006 socio-economic was the division, be effective to proven have populists national the by deployed strategies Mobilization us , the Slovaks,against, the 43 them , the Hungarians, will be further referred to CEU eTD Collection representation. Through the utilization of the same label ‘the Hungarians’, the governmental the Hungarians’, ‘the label same the of utilization the Through representation. of linguistic rights, education and schooling system,culture and the activities of politicalthe 1993 stem issues,from minority-related such the as thelegislature dealing with execution the countries. Vice versa, almost all the diplomatic tensions between Hungary and Slovakia since neighboring two the between relations bilateral the and minority Hungarian the of problems state. the integrity of territorial aims the endangering separatist and Hungary neighboring tothe being of connections accused is minority parties the representation of pro-Slovak voters. Promulgated by the official discourse of the party, the political andpower his has advertised distrust becomemain the tool of mobilizationpolitical the of of Slovakthe National continually Ján Party, Slota warns against minoritythe gainingparties efforts of attaining various forms autonomy arebeing Theof assuspicious. perceived leader whose representation, political Hungarian the with negative qualities the connecting years, state’ or‘dangerous for the state integrity’ – an idea harshly by promoted far-rightthe SNS. which inthenumberof theHungarian resulted minority clichés about the being ‘disloyal to historical burden their as ethnic perceived being areusually relations confrontational dueto ‘imaginedterritory’(Mannovaby someinter- authorsasa‘virtual or region’ 2009).Thetense labeled being countries two the between oscillating been often was which Slovakia Southern of territory in the dispersed mostly is and Slovakia, in minority ethnic largest the forms historical of andsocial developments 19 the position of the Hungarian minority in Slovakia which is a consequence of the specific 23 Reference to attempsthe of the re-drawing Southern borders between Hungary(i.e. Slovakiaand the Vienna Arbitration in 1938), and the claims for autonomy for the concerned territory. concerned the for autonomy for claims the and 1938), in Arbitration The main ethnicthe problem of stemsin reconciliation the intertwined nature of the oflast course the society over Slovak the penetrated have successfully These clichés To understand the significance of the Hungarian ace, one must thedistinctive clarify ace,one theHungarian of significance understand the To 44 th and 20 th century. The Hungarian minority Hungarian The century. 23 CEU eTD Collection poses a threat to interests a 2008:19). interests of country such(Mesežnikov poses the to threat as public affairs [or holding inadministering Hungarians ethnic of the participation the that with hisargument electorate public offices]ethnicliving Hungarians inconvince Slovakia. Hetried to the pro-nationally oriented would be risky for the proposal FIDESZ’s on dual-citizenship whichwouldHungarian also grant citizenship to Slovak government and it former opposition of sharing the power with the Hungarian political representation. SMER deployed“They it SMK! the devise gave powerto again! will They the do ”accusing hiscampaign of Asfrom gainingpower. Hungarian electoral ethnicapart SMK, the party, 2010, which Robert Fico and hierarchy values’(1997:22). status of entered the indeed, reinforce or, solidarity memories, establish certain screen out ‘exclude others, the with Fico its has governmentnationalisticthe andstances discourse through pursued a strategy to the devise words, Schöpflin’s In Slovaks. the to ‘threat’ a representing others, ethnic the as minority calling for to re-enforce citizenship’, andhasinsteadbeeninitiating myth the steps Hungarian the of the prevention myth of unifying‘conceptualized implementation the the of has government rejected of Fico the that It hasbeenshown campaigns. in iselectoral the neededespecially mobilization the which against object become the to tends minority Hungarian the society, Slovak divided the in myths, national the interpretation of right forces.the With political nationally-oriented the theethnic Hungarian utilizing as forcard respectively, card,the a possible mobilization tool community. ‘bigcompact Hungarian’ image of a non-existent the presumed ties the creating Hungary, of citizens the with Hungarians ethnic equalizetheSlovak onpurpose elites At the time, Fico strongly profited from the dispute triggeredThe anti-Hungarian by the Hungarian approach was demonstrated during the electoral campaign of The nature of complex problematicand inter-ethnicthe relation for provides space the 45 CEU eTD Collection of of sidethe majority(Schöpflin of ethnic the andled1997: 24-27) tofurther separation. intensified mobilized advantagenegativeemotions given of subjectsthe and nationalistic the shared symbols. Thelack inter-community communication hasamong the societal groups minority in tokeep group order mythicizedthe within language the national community of Hungarian excluded the cutwith off tocommunication the has attempted government languageisolationism integrative instead model of the of dual-language schooling, Fico the in Slovakia. minorities ethnic of members bythe discrimination perceived of level a high showed surveys recent contrary, the On minorities. ethnic towards policy soundnesshigh-standards domestic publicaboutthe of the and convinced the successfully taken and steps the governmental discourse the However, in minority the politics. reciprocity historical the comparisonevents, justifiable,hardly isjust as for calls the Slovak-Hungarian the and numbers the account into Taking reference. its as inHungary minority Slovak the taking approach thecomparative applied repeatedly implementation,government Fico’s right traditions. multicultural long with democracies liberal in Western deployed ones the over standards home the of supremacy the claimed government Slovak standards. The European levels’ ‘high outreaching the the Hungariansout pointing government has advocatingrelatively been high-standardsethnic repeatedly the of the 24 In 2004 Fico stated: “Legal and actual situation of members of ethnic minorities in Slovakia is generally above-standard and may serve as an example for the whole world.”(see Mesežnikov 2008). Mesežnikov world.”(see whole the for example an as may serve and above-standard Further fostered by the legislative steps, such as the implementation of the politics of politics the of implementation the as such steps, legislative by the fostered Further Fico the implementation, their and rights minority Hungarian the Regarding 46 24 Still, when assessing the minority the assessing when Still, CEU eTD Collection times openly accused her of anti-Slovak intentions. her of anti-Slovak timesaccused openly connection of the opposition candidate Radi candidate opposition the of connection 26 Gašparovi incumbent topresident close actors the political in lesser cameof the secondround. The ace evil. deployment Theexpected Hungarian the because for thefirstand were voters decide time putinto not 2004 the for position the the to citizenship. of concept minorities, for civicunderstandingthe questions the of appealing of and ethnic diversity the towards rather positive approach andexhibited issues onthe national neutral stance Gašparovi Radi Iveta andtheopposition candidate by government, supported coalition the round: the presidentialmajor had campaignof made2009, which candidates the two second itwhoto incumbent president occurred. and reconciliation tensions ethnic the Ivan Gašparovi and thecivicmitigation certain thus promoted 2006), of form was of nationalism collective success. claimthe Thissupports Dzurindaduring 2002- that two governments(1998-2002, the already the 1999andduring campaign, the 2004electoral withhowever, not a significant strategy political nationalisticthe of oriented subjects. TheHungariancardup wasbrought POLITICS 3.3 THE UTILIZATIOIN CARDOF THEHUNGARIAN IN THE ELECTORAL 25 Theofficial statement of the deputz leader of SNS, Anna Belousovová, avaliable at: Ivan Gašparovi Ivan samostatnej-sr-hlasala-ze-jej-vznik-je-hrozbousns-mobilizuje-volicov-v-2-kole-prezidentskych-volieb/ http://www.sns.sk/aktuality/anna-belousovova-prezidentom-sa-nemoze-stat-kandidatka-ktora-pred-vznikom- Initially, the 2009 presidential elections were different from the previous two of of from 1999, previousthe two electionsInitially, weredifferent 2009presidential the The revival of the ethnic nationalism The demonstratedutilization of means of ethno-politics in all kind of elections became a traditional itself in the most recent þ clearly presented himself as a pro-national asapro-national candidate, himself presented clearly þ entered the election with the devise “I think nationally, I feelsocially”. nationally, “Ithink devise the with election the entered 47 þ ová with the Hungarian minority and several and minority Hungarian the with ová þ 26 , a former member of Me The representation of SNS, declaringits þ , started tooveremphasize the , started 25 his rival, Radi þ iar’s HZDS, þ þ ová. While ová. ová, held a CEU eTD Collection in its full intensityup brought be to 'only intensity low of 'regime in the years for held inbeen has card theHungarian right time. As it provedIvo Samson, the lessersalience 2009). According effectiveness to (Mesežnikov and to be a good mobilizationHungarian ace was brought up alsoinstrategy the following VUC and the EP elections, although with and a example of the persistent candidate. opposition the significance forvote minority to theHungarian mobilized asit effect has the hand, incident adverse the and power of the ethno-politics in Slovakia. The potential voters of Radi voters potential the discouraged and media campaign negative the into run presidential the transformed step victory. This strategic case of her electoral in southernpartof the Slovakia the autonomy to appeared in some areas of Southern Slovakia declaring Radi declaring Slovakia inSouthern some areasof appeared strategy.mobilization of the citizens categorization the condemning foreign affairs of minister new the despite outcome electoral and the his FicoSMER’s leaderandthe prime about alsothe minister concerns expressed repeatedly candidates, both ontheissue,moderate they however, support toGašparovi declared their as wellallegedly claimingautonomy of Slovak regions.Southern SMERandHDSZ weremore as the utilization Radi accused SNSopenly leader of the Slota, 'richelectedby Bratislava andtheregions minorities'the Hungarian by governed the of be thecannot president Slovak that stressing ethnicanti-campaign extensive an organized nationalists card as for Gašparovi support the The deployment of the Hungarian ace in the presidential elections was the paramount The tensions culminated a week before the final polls, when a set of leaflets falsified asetof when final polls, the before a week culminated The tensions þ , struggled to push the campaign into the sphere of push spherethe into The ethno-politics. campaign the of to , struggled þ ová who were susceptible to the inter-ethnic relations. On other the On relations. inter-ethnic tothe were susceptible who ová 48 þ ová of the cooperation with SMK which was which SMK with thecooperation of ová þ ová’s intention of the intention of granting ová’s þ . Furthermore, . 27 . Ján CEU eTD Collection governmental governmental elites in toshiftorder publicthe opinion. type of nationalism andgroups excluding membersthe minorities from of its the formation; and current b.)the separate into nation – political the dividing isethnically-based which identity, national Slovak of the nature theinitial stemsfrom: a.) electorate Slovak contemporary the among ethnicity intensity pattern will repeat itself in the next elections. (Samson Ivo 2010). is itlow-high probably the elections, that inthemost marketing step previous presidential It has been argued throughout this paper that the persistent power of the appeal to of power appeal the persistent the this that paper hasIt beenarguedthroughout collective ethnic nationalism collective ethnic 49 – that is –that being trough by pushed the CEU eTD Collection government(2006-2010) tosteer ethnicity wheelthe to again. Fico for the identity allowed national andthe non-consolidated structures Atlantic anidentity byeuro- vacuum the accession the created Dzurindato governments(1998-2006), nationalism,overemphasizing the ethnic of instead dimensions strengthening the civicmodel of and how after the eight-year period of national reconciliation of the two the categories of: categories a.) the andaccordingDzurinda (2006-2010) Fico to Dzurinda II (2002-2006), 1998), I (1998-2002), from namely 1993 onwards, of: cabinets Meciar the Meciarthe I(1992-1994), II(1994- identified and thenationalisms classified by pursued Slovakthe governmental constellations contributingand shaping to the nature of modernthe Slovak national identity. Subsequently, I electoral of period 2006-2010. utilize for purposes during political mobilization Slovakia] the ethnicity the theconcept of to for aDemocratic - Movement Party Slovensko[People’s Demokratické za Strana-Hnutie SNS – Slovenská Národna Strana [Slovak National Party], and the LS-HZDS – andthe Party], National [Slovak Strana Národna SNS –Slovenská the Democracy], [Direction-Social demokracia namely SMER–Sociálna parties 2010), the common identity formation, theincumbent subsequently allowed Fico government(2006- the from minorities national the excluding concept, model dominant-nation exclusionary in Slovak 1993.The Republicof emerging autonomous the establishment the after ethnic collective nationalism national identity, and after thehistorical examination of its formation, the author claimed that CONCLUSION It was demonstrated how the two Me was how the two demonstrated It By performing the historical analyses, the work thework hasBy crucial the factors analyses, historical examined the performing The presented paper provided a socio-political of nature paperprovided Slovak the the analysis asocio-political of The presented collective, civic nationalism collective, accompanied the foundations of new the identity political 50 and b.) þ collective, ethnicnationalism iar were goverments(1993-1998) ď . udová CEU eTD Collection nationalistic and national populist discourse among the contemporary Slovak society. the of acceptance tothe contribute factors which question: open leaves an work the support’(Mesežnikov 2009: 31) and methods of drum as themeans elements nationalism ethnic voter to up whichsubjects will ‘prefer a political appeal based on a combination of mobilizationpopulist will themainremain mobilization intool thehands of nationally political the oriented itelections 2010, is predictable andethno-politics that ethnonym(Smith the appeal to 2008) in with settings, strategy upcomingthe contemporary socio-political Slovak parliamentary the presidential elections 2009. periods, and it was demonstratedwas as in gained mainly identity. these It national intensity pre-electoral argued that steps the on the deployment Slovak the to as athreat of Hungary state neighboring the and minority Hungarian the of the so callednational Hungarian myths, symbols andace rituals. in Thethe suggested outcome was the successful depiction of terms and sought to deepen presentthe to terms and sought undertaken numerous attempts to re-define themodern national identity Slovak in ethnic shown parties, the that namely have SNSandthe SMER, period the during of 2006-2010 Arguing that the Slovak national identity isArguing the that Slovak in process identity itsof still (re-)construction, national the As theidentity politics resonates among the widepublic,itproved tobe asuccessful Finally, by performing the analyses on the discourse of the political elites, I have of I politicalthe elites, discourse Finally,by performing onthe the analyses schmittian 51 us-them us-them antagonisms by utilization the of CEU eTD Collection on on Nationalism." 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