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The Socio-Technical Sustainability of Shelter Systems and Hardware in Remote Indigenous Australian Communities

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The socio-technical sustainability of shelter systems and hardware in remote indigenous Australian communities Kurt Walter Seemann BSc(Ind.Arts).Dip.Ed (Hons 2/1) THESIS Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Architecture, the University of New South Wales. Sydney, NSW, Australia [Conferred 13 May, 1997] The socio-technical sustainability of shelter systems and hardware in remote indigenous Australian communities Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no matter previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text. .................................. Declaration page: i The socio-technical sustainability of shelter systems and hardware in remote indigenous Australian communities ABSTRACT This study examines the sustainability of introduced shelter systems and hardware in remote indigenous Australian communities. European colonisation has substantially influenced the lifestyles of indigenous Australians through introduced technologies, training and development policies. Previous studies have focused on specialist approaches in health, economics and education. Little Australian research exists which integrates the underlying social, technical and contextual factors affecting the sustainability of introduced technologies. This study examines the thesis that to improve the sustainability of introduced technologies there is a need to develop a holistic understanding of technological activity. It will be argued that this holistic understanding begins with developing knowledge of how the abovementioned factors singularly and collectively influence the capacity of communities to manage introduced technologies. Cross-discipline research in small and remote settlements has been constrained by a dearth of appropriate theoretical frameworks. This thesis develops and proposes a framework that integrates selective aspects of Ekistic classification theory with socio-technical systems theory. The model emphasises research at the level of community functions. It defines these functions as socio-technical systems that are influenced by their greater settlement environment. The integrated framework of this study helped to identify new knowledge and data patterns while also confirming existing knowledge of shelter and training in indigenous Australian communities. Most communities struggled to learn from their technology choice and maintenance experiences. Many indigenous Australians Abstract page: ii adopted incompatible social organization patterns to that needed to sustain introduced technologies. These communities were organisationally and technically ill-equipped and poorly supported to manage their shelter systems and hardware. Several communities had difficulty reconciling traditional social organisation with introduced shelter management needs and vocational training policies. Many communities were attempting to function substantially below their critical minimum of occupational skills. As a result of the research it was recommended that communities and government develop principles of indigenous technological empowerment. These principles included a greater emphasis on skills development in technacy (holistic technological problem solving) and organisational (project) management as well as processes that foster innovations and local innovators rather than perpetuating specialist technical skills training alone. A case was found for government to develop policies and programs that supported local independent technology services similar to those in community health and education. Abstract page: iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are a number of people and organisations that I wish to acknowledge for their support over the years especially my wife Jane who has had much to endure. Jane has been unstinting in her encouragement and support while attending to her own professional demands and those of our daughter Freya, born during the course of this study. The moral support from my mother, sisters, niece and friends are also acknowledged and will not be forgotten. Appreciation is extended to Andre Burgess for being a reader and the staff at the Centralian College library, Alice Springs, for extending their professional services. This thesis could not have been written without the wisdom, guidance and encouragement of my supervisor and friend, Dr William Lawson. To Bill I owe many of my learning experiences. He has been a steady and reliable mentor from my undergraduate years through to the present not only in his capacity as supervisor and teacher but also as a personal friend and colleague. The opportunity to make a useful contribution within the development context that many remote indigenous Australian communities exist would not have been possible without my co-supervisor Dr Bruce Walker. Bruce not only provided me with invaluable fieldwork experience and insights on the tangible issues that confront indigenous Australians, but has always maintained the ethic where the outcome of theoretical research should be practical. He demonstrated that equal to the need to develop research competencies are the needs to develop professional skills and flexible work practices essential for affecting actual change beyond one’s research. I wish to thank James Bray and fellow staff at the Centre for Appropriate Technology, Alice Springs. The challenge before this research, development and training organisation is considerable and for them to maintain a leading profile in the field of indigenous development in remote locations with minimal resources is Acknowledgements page: iv testimony to their commitment and innovations. No doubt the collective wisdom of the organisation has influenced my thinking and interpretations in this thesis. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the assistance of the many Community Councils and Northern Territory Open College network for participating in the design, development, distribution and return of the survey questionnaire early in the study. To all the remote communities participating in the study and the many others in similar circumstances, I wish to extend my appreciation once again. Aspects of this study have provided the background research and basis for the Aboriginal Technical Worker (ATWORK) program that is gaining popularity among indigenous Australians in central Australia and recently in far north Queensland. It is my hope that the overall contribution of this study proves to be of some benefit to the abovementioned and other remote communities experiencing similar challenges to those discussed in this thesis. Acknowledgements page: v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapters Page CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: SCOPE OF STUDY 1 1.1. Background 2 1.2. Development precedents 4 1.3. The utility of systems theories 6 1.4. Need for this study 8 PART TWO: THESIS AIMS AND PROPOSAL 12 2.1. Field of study 13 2.2. Context of study 14 2.3. Research ethics 16 2.4. Main research question 17 PART THREE: DEFINITION OF TERMS 19 3.1. Terminology and concepts 19 3.2. Defining ‘technology’ 19 3.2.1. The Mechanistic interpretation of technology 22 3.2.2. Technology as economics 23 3.2.3. Technology: description and definition 24 3.2.4. Holistic technological competence: technacy 25 3.3. Defining context or enduser’s environments 26 3.4. Defining ‘development’ and ‘sustainability’ 28 Table of Contents page: vi CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY 32 PART ONE: BRIEF EVOLUTION OF DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE 32 1.1. First World development 33 1.1.1. Science and technology 34 1.1.2. Education 43 1.2. Third World development 51 PART TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 60 2.1. Ekistic theory 62 2.1.1. Ekistic classification theory 66 2.1.2. Ekistic functions 70 2.2. Systems theory 72 2.2.1. General systems theory 74 2.2.2. Socio-technical systems 76 2.3. Integrating Ekistic and socio-technical systems theory 80 2.3.1. Modelling human settlements as systems 80 2.3.2. Modelling community functions as socio-technical systems 83 2.4. Theoretical framework for a study of socio-technical systems in remote indigenous Australian communities 86 2.4.1. Classification of system level and goals 86 PART THREE: METHODOLOGY 88 3.1. Survey and fieldwork 90 3.1.1. Survey administration 90 3.1.2. Synthesis and observer bias 93 3.2. Data management 93 3.2.1. Selection and organisation 93 3.2.2. Reliability and validity 101 3.2.3. Survey respondent bias 101 3.2.4 Acquiescent responses 101 3.2.5. Missing data and data manipulation 103 Table of Contents page: vii CHAPTER THREE: FINDINGS 105 PART ONE: EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY FUNCTIONS - SUSTAINABILITY OF SHELTER SYSTEMS AND HARDWARE: 107 1.1. General development goals underpinning remote indigenous settlements 108 1.1.1. Nomadic and sedentary lifestyles - macro goals 112 1.1.2. Evolutionary forces on indigenous settlements - micro goals 131 1.2. Ekistic context factors 150 1.2.1. Population 150 1.2.2. Location 155 1.2.3. Economy 156 1.3. Socio-technical inputs 162 1.3.1. Education 162 1.3.2. Building materials 167 1.3.3. Tools and equipment 168 1.3.4. Shelter stock 170 1.3.5. Shelter amenities, appliances and accessories 171 1.4. Socio-technical processes 172 1.4.1. Indigenous and non-indigenous participation in technology maintenance 172 1.4.2. Indigenous gender participation in technology maintenance 175 1.5. Socio-technical output 176 1.5.1. State of repair of shelter technologies 176 1.6. Socio-technical feedback 177 1.6.1. Perceived appropriateness of shelter technologies 177 1.6.2. Perceived causes of shelter technology breakdown 179 PART TWO: EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITY FUNCTIONS - SUSTAINABILITY OF SHELTER SYSTEMS AND HARDWARE 181 2.1. Analysis of grouping variables 183 2.1.1. Grouping variable bias and likelihood of acquiescent response sets 185 2.2. Component analysis of socio-technical systems 190 Table of Contents page: viii 2.2.1. Inputs 192 2.2.2. Processes 209 2.2.3. Output 217 2.2.4. Feedback 221 2.3. Ekistic context factors 228 2.3.1. Population 230 2.3.2. Location 233 2.3.3.
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