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The Roman Republic and Empire Technological Innovations, and Goods

The Roman Republic and Empire Technological Innovations, and Goods

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Standards-Based SECTION Instruction 2 WITNESS HISTORY AUDIO Becomes Cornelius , a Roman , was known for his critical Standards-at-a-Glance characterizations of Roman . Here he describes how

• History-Social 2 the first emperor, Augustus , achieved that position: Students have learned about how the Greek “ Augustus won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with philosophers viewed the . Now they will cheap grain, and all men with the sweets of repose, and so learn the Roman views of law and identify grew greater by degrees, while he concentrated in himself the components of Greco-Roman . the functions of the Senate, the , and the . Augustus Caesar, Emperor He was wholly unopposed, for the boldest spirits had fallen of in marble and in • Analysis Skills in , . . . CS3 Students use a variety of maps and ivory cameo (above) ” documents to interpret movement, Focus Question How did the government of Rome develop including major patterns of domestic and into an ? international migration, changing environmental preferences and settlement patterns, the frictions that develop between population groups, and the diffusion of ideas, The Roman and Empire technological innovations, and goods. • English-Language Arts Writing 2.4 Standards Preview Rome began a small - in but ended up ruling the entire Mediterranean world. In the process the Romans estab- H-SS 10.1.1 Analyze the similarities and differences in lished traditions of government that continue to influence the Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman views of law, reason and faith, and duties of the individual. modern world. The story of Roman success starts with the geogra- Prepare to Read H-SS 10.1.2 Trace the development of Western political phy of Italy. The looks like a boot jutting into ideas of the and illegitimacy of tyranny, using the . The peninsula is centrally located in the Build Background Knowledge L3 selections from Plato’s Republic and ’s Politics. Mediterranean, and the city of Rome is in the center of Italy. That Ask students what they know about how location helped the Romans as they expanded, first in Italy and was governed. If needed, Terms, , and Places then into lands around the Mediterranean. have them preview the headings. republic Augustus Caesar Establishing a Republic L3 Set a Purpose Justinian Because of its , Italy was much easier to unify than ■ WITNESS HISTORY Read the selection . Unlike Greece, Italy is not broken up into small, isolated

aloud or play the audio. valleys. Its mountains, which run like a backbone down the length of the peninsula, are less rugged than the mountains of Greece. AUDIO Witness History Audio CD, Reading Skill: Understand Effects Use a chart

Augustus Becomes Emperor like the one below to record the effects of changes Finally, Italy has the advantage of broad, fertile plains, both in the in Rome’s government. north, under the shadow of the towering , and in the west, Do you think Tacitus approved of where the Romans settled. Farms in these plains supported a Rome’s becoming an empire? (Prob- growing population. ably not—he seemed to despise the first From to Republic emperor, and he was critical of other Effects Etruscan Rule The ancestors of the Romans migrated into Italy by about 800 B.C. They settled along the in small vil- emperors.) • • lages scattered over seven low-lying hills. There they herded and ■ • Focus Point out the Section Focus • farmed. Their villages would in grow into Rome, the city on Question and write it on the board. seven hills. Tell students to refer to this question The Romans shared the Italian peninsula with other . as they read. (Answer appears with Among them were Greek colonists, whose city-states dotted southern Section 2 Assessment answers.) Italy, and the Etruscans, who lived north of Rome. For a time, the ■ Preview Have students preview the Section Standards and the list of Terms, People, and Places. Vocabulary Builder ■ Have students read this

section using the Guided Questioning Use the information below and the following resources to teach the high-use word from this section. strategy (TE, p. T20). As they read, Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 7; Teaching Resources, Skills Handbook, p. 3

have students fill in the chart describing High-Use Word Definition and Sample Sentence the shift from monarchy to republic. , p. 25 n. any article that is bought and sold Reading and Note Taking is a commodity that people have valued since ancient . Study Guide, p. 8

20 Sources of the Democratic Tradition

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Etruscans ruled much of , including Rome itself. An aristocracy of nobles, led by a , controlled each Etruscan city-state. Teach

A New Government The Romans drove out the Etruscans in 509 B.C. They set up a new government in which the people chose some officials. Establishing a They called it a republic, or “thing of the people.” A republic, Romans thought, would keep any individual from gaining too much power. Republic H-SS 10.1.1 L3 In the early republic, the most powerful governing body was the sen- Instruct ate. Its 300 members were all patricians, meaning they belonged to the landholding upper class. Senators, who served for life, made the laws. ■ Introduce: Key Terms Have stu- Each year, the senators elected two from among the patricians. dents find the term republic (in ) The consuls supervised the business of government and commanded in the text and explain its meaning. Rome’s . Consuls, however, could serve only one term. Also, they Ask How does a republic differ had to consult with the senate on major issues. By limiting the consuls’ from a monarchy or an aristocracy time in office and making them responsible to the senate, Rome had a of nobles? (People do not choose a system of checks on the power of government. The Roman or members of an aristocracy.) In the event of war, the senate might choose a dictator, or ruler who The (below) was a collection Is everyone in a republic consid- has complete control over a government. The law granted each Roman of buildings that stood at the of ered equal? (Not necessarily; the ple- dictator the power to rule for six months. Then he had to give up power. ancient Rome. Buildings included temples, beians in Rome had much less power Romans admired Cincinnatus as a model dictator. Cincinnatus organized , and the —the meeting place of the . The Twelve than the patricians, for example.) an , led the Romans to over an attacking enemy, attended Tables (inset) were displayed in the Forum ■ Teach Explain that after the Romans victory celebrations, and returned to his farmlands—all within 16 days. so that everyone would know what the laws were. overthrew the Etruscan monarch, more Common People Demand Equality The common people, or plebe- than 60 years passed before the rights ians, made up the bulk of the Roman population. Yet they had little influ- of the common people significantly ence on government. The efforts of these farmers, , artisans, improved. Ask How did the Laws of and traders to gain power shaped politics in the early republic. the help the plebe- The ’ first breakthrough came in 450 B.C., when the govern- ians? (It gave them the right to appeal ment had the laws of Rome inscribed on 12 tablets and set up in the Forum, or . Plebeians had protested that citizens could not a judgment handed down by a patri- know what the laws were, because they were not written down. The cian judge.) How did the Laws of the Twelve Tables made it possible serve as a check on the power of for the first time for plebeians to appeal a government? (They could veto laws judgment by a judge. that might be harmful to the plebeians.) Over time, the plebeians gained the ■ Quick Activity Invite the class to right to elect their own officials, called debate the Roman senate’s practice of tribunes, to protect their interests. The appointing a dictator in times of crisis. tribunes could veto, or block, laws harm- Encourage students to support their ful to plebeians. Little by little, Rome’s opinions with reasoned argument. You common people forced the senate to might extend the debate by asking choose plebeians as consuls and finally to open the senate itself to plebeians. whether this practice should ever be used in the present-day United States. A Lasting Legacy Although the senate still dominated the government, the com- mon people had gained access to power and won safeguards for their rights with- out having to resort to war or revolution. More than 2,000 years later, the framers of the United States would adapt such Roman ideas as the senate, the veto, and checks on power. Standards Check How did the differ from government under the Etruscans? H-SS 10.1.1

Solutions for All Learners Answer L1 Special Needs L2 Less Proficient Readers L2 English Language Learners

Have students scan this page to find nouns that name Use the following resources to help students acquire Under the Etruscans, a group of nobles, led by

Romans who held different levels of power in the basic skills. a king, controlled Rome. At first a group of republic. List their responses on the board. Ask them Adapted Reading and Note Taking patricians, the senate, controlled the Roman to describe each one briefly. Then have them create a Study Guide republic. Instead of a powerful king, however, two consuls with limited power ran the affairs diagram showing the powers of each of these Romans ■ Adapted Note Taking Study Guide, p. 8 in relation to the others. ■ Adapted Section Summary, p. 9 of government. Over time, the common people gained more influence in the government.

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INFOGRAPHIC Independent Practice SPQR Link to Literature To help students senatus populus que Romanus better understand , have them “The Senate and the ” read the selection from ’s The History of the Decline and Fall of the and complete the work- sheet. Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 11 Like the rulers of Ancient Rome, the creators of the United States Monitor Progress Constitution created a republic—a ᭣ Chief governing body that consisted of 300–600 ■ system of government in which sover- As students fill in their graphic orga- officials and ex-officials eign power is held by those eligible to nizer, circulate to make sure they Aristocratic who served for life unless understand where to look in the text Elements vote and political power is exercised by expelled by Censors. The for the main ideas. For a completed ver- representatives chosen by those citizens. Senate controlled and foreign affairs, debated sion of the graphic organizer, see The concepts of checks and balances between branches of government, the and proposed laws, and Senate Note Taking Transparencies, 50A veto, and limiting terms of office are advised the Consuls.

■ Check to see that students have cor- also borrowed from the Roman Republic. rectly answered the questions on the worksheet.

2 Consuls 20 2 2 Censors 8 Chief officials who presided Financial officers Officials who over the Senate and assem- Officials who Chief law officers who served in the administered the blies. Consuls initiated oversaw public who took over for Monarchical treasury or with city of Rome itself legislation, served as the chief contracts, Consuls when they Elements army commanders including its public generals of Rome’s armies, and collection, and were absent from making payments buildings, conducted civil activities within conducted a Rome. Praetors to troops and aqueducts, public Rome. The consuls could veto of citizens also governed the ordering supplies games, and each others’ actions. to create voter . and equipment. religious festivals. lists.

Democratic Elements

10 Tribunes Assemblies Assemblies

10 Tribunes Thinking Critically Officials elected by plebeians to protect their lives and property and to propose legislation. Tribunes could veto (, “I forbid”) the act of any official or the 1. Identify Main Ideas Cite three Senate and could arrest other officers, including the Consuls. examples of checks and balances in the Roman Republican government. Assemblies 2. Identify Central Issues List three All full Roman citizens were members of the assemblies and could vote when institutions created to protect present. The assemblies accepted or rejected laws passed by the Senate, declared Plebeians. H-SS 10.1.1 war, and elected all officials.

Link to Civics

Civic Responsibility Male Roman citizens voted dropped his ballot into a large urn. In modern Ameri- Answers in assemblies on proposed laws and on candidates for can elections, voters no longer use wax. The method Thinking Critically high office. At first, voting was public, but starting in varies by polling station. Voters mark an x on a 1. Tribunes could veto the acts of the Senate; the B.C., citizens used secret ballots—small paper ballot, pull a lever in a voting machine, punch a assemblies accepted or rejected the laws of wooden tablets covered with wax. Each citizen card with a pin, or use a computerized voting method. the Senate; censors could expel people from scratched a letter representing “for” or “against” on As in Rome, however, American citizens still use secret the Senate. the tablet to support or oppose legislation, or wrote ballots to cast their votes. 2. Tribunes, assemblies, and the Laws of the the name of a candidate for election. Then the citizen Twelve Tables

22 Sources of the Democratic Tradition

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From Republic to Empire From Republic As Rome’s political system evolved at home, its armies expanded Roman Reading Skill: Identify Cause and Effect to Empire H-SS 10.1.1 L3 power across Italy. Roman armies conquered first the Etruscans and Complete a chart like the one below as you then the Greek city-states in the south. By about 270 B.C., Rome con- read this section. Instruct trolled most of the Italian peninsula. Rome then began to build an ■ Introduce: Vocabulary Builder empire around the Mediterranean Sea. Causes Effects From Have students read the Vocabulary • Republic • Continuing Conquest Rome’s conquest of the Italian peninsula • to Empire • Builder term and definition. Ask them brought it into contact with Carthage, a city-state on the • • to predict what kinds of northern coast of . Carthage ruled an empire that traveled over routes into the stretched across and the western Mediterranean. Roman empire. Between 264 and 146 B.C., Rome fought three wars against ■ Teach Point out that Roman expan- Carthage. Rome won the first two of these . In the second, however, the Carthaginian general led his sion greatly increased trade, but it also army, including dozens of war elephants, on a destructive ram- created strains within Roman society. page through Italy. In the , the Romans com- Ask How did continual warfare pletely destroyed Carthage and established themselves as affect the plebeians? (They made up masters of the western Mediterranean. the army of citizen-soldiers, fighting While Rome fought Carthage in the west, it was also without pay and thus gaining little expanding into the eastern Mediterranean. There, Romans from the success and wealth they confronted the Hellenistic rulers who had divided up the brought to Rome.) How did the rise of empire of . One by one, , professional armies affect Rome? Greece, and parts of Minor surrendered and became The Punic Wars (Soldiers became loyal not to the state Roman provinces, or lands under Roman rule. Other regions, like , The Carthaginian general Hannibal, shown but to their commanders, allied with Rome. By 133 B.C., Roman power extended from to here on an elephant, invaded Italy during which allowed generals like Julius Cae- Egypt. The Romans justly referred to the Mediterranean as mare the Punic Wars between Rome and sar to gain .) nostrum, or “our sea.” Carthage. ■ Quick Activity Use the Numbered Economic and Social Effects Conquests and control of busy trade Heads strategy (TE, p. T23) and ask routes brought incredible riches into Rome. Generals, officials, and traders students to discuss the following: Some amassed fortunes from loot, , and commerce. A new class of wealthy have said that the Roman landholders emerged. They bought up huge estates and forced people who empire really began with Julius Cae- were captured in war to work on the estates as slaves. This use of slave sar. Do you agree? labor hurt small farmers, who could not produce as cheaply as the estates could. Compounding farmers’ problems, huge quantities of grain pouring in from conquered lands drove down grain . Expansion created further strains within Roman society. Rome could not have grown without its army, made up of loyal citizens who fought without pay and supplied their own weapons. Yet these citizen-soldiers gained little from Rome’s success. Addressing plebeians, the Roman trib- une Gracchus pointed out this injustice: Primary Source The beasts of the field and the birds of the air have their holes and their hiding “ places, but the men who fight and die for Italy enjoy only the light and the air. . . . You fight and die to give wealth and luxury to others. You are called the masters of the world, but there is not a foot of ground that you can call your own. —, ” and his brother hoped to improve the lot of the plebeians. The social reforms they tried to enact included distribut- ing land to poor farmers and using public funds to buy grain to feed the poor. Senators did not like these reforms and saw the Gracchus brothers as a threat to their power. The brothers, along with thousands of their

History Background

Tricks and Tactics In the , Han- south. The army went on to win three great nibal led his army on a daring march from Spain against the Romans over the next 15 years. Lack of across and into . The general and supplies and reinforcements hindered Hannibal’s his dozens of elephants and thousands of soldiers progress. In the end, the Romans outflanked Hannibal forded and crossed mountains, including the by sending an army to attack Carthage. When word of towering Alps. The narrow, icy trails and blinding this reached Hannibal, he and his troops returned snowstorms of the Alps took a huge toll on Hannibal’s home to defend their city, where the Romans finally forces. However, this bold maneuver surprised the defeated them. Romans, who had expected an from the

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Independent Practice followers, were killed in waves of street violence set off by senators and their hired thugs. ■ Have students fill in the

chart showing the causes and effects of Julius Caesar’s Rise to Power Soon Rome was plunged into a series the shift from republic to empire. of civil wars. At issue was who should hold power—the senate or popular Reading and Note Taking political leaders looking to enact reforms. During this time the old armies of citizen-soldiers evolved into professional forces, loyal first to Study Guide, p. 8 their commanders, not to Rome. One of those military commanders, ■ Have students access Web Code mzp- Julius Caesar, emerged from the chaos of civil war to take of the 0122 to take the Geography Interac- republic. tive Audio Guided Tour and then By 51 B.C., Caesar had completed his conquest of , the region that answer the map skills questions in is now France. Fearful of his political ambition, the senate ordered the text. Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome. Caesar defied the order and marched his army toward the Roman . The brilliant general ■ Have students fill in the Outline Map crushed the army sent to stop him and then swept around the Mediterra- The Roman Empire at Its Height and nean, suppressing rebellions. Later, upon returning to Rome, he forced label various parts of the empire and the senate to make him dictator. Although he kept the senate and other the goods that flowed into Rome from these regions. Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 15 For: Interactive map Roman Empire, A.D. 117 Web Code: mzp-0122 Monitor Progress

50˚ N ■ As students fill in their charts, circu- B RITAIN late to make sure they understand the Roman Empire, A.D. 117

R

h N i causes and effects of the shift from n e R W iv e republic to empire. For a completed r C E a version of the chart, see G sp A S AUL i tla a nti n Note Taking Transparencies, 50B Oc c S ea e n PS a L Sea ■ Check students’ Outline Maps for accu- A lack D B P a YR nub racy. Administer the Geography Quiz. 40˚ N ENE e River MT ES m S. antiu SP CO IA Byz AIN RSICA ACEDON Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 16 e M Tig Rom R ri O s R IN i M v IA e AS r N ew C artha ge Athens 10˚ E tioch IA An YR E 0˚ S u Carthage 20˚ E p h ETE ra CR S s tes iver YPRU ascu R 10˚ W C Dam a e a n S e M e d i t e r r a n BIA 30˚ E ARA yrene C dria Conic Projection Alexan 0200 400 mi GYPT E 0200 400 km N

i le R iv Sea er ICA s AFR Thebe

Map Skills Through wars and diplomacy, system of (above) linked distant 2. Regions What territory was the Roman republic gradually gained control parts of the empire. added to the Roman empire as a of lands around the Mediterranean Sea. At 1. Locate (a) Spain (b) Gaul (c) Carthage result of the Punic wars? its height, the Roman empire included lands (d) Egypt (e) Macedonia 3. Summarize What techniques did in , Africa, and Asia. An extensive the Romans use to keep peace and order throughout the empire? Answers Map Skills 1. Review locations with students. History Background 2. parts of northern Africa and Spain 3. The Romans launched public works programs to Julius Caesar Julius Caesar’s bold rise to power academies today. When Caesar crossed the — employ the jobless, gave public land to the poor, echoed his boldness on the battlefield. His brilliant the river separating Gaul from Italy—he said, “alea and granted to many people in the conquest of Gaul made him enormously popular. iacta est,” or “the die is cast,” meaning there was no provinces. Augustus cemented the allegiance of Romans thrilled to reports of his many , which turning back. Today, people use the phrase crossing and provinces to Rome by allowing them a added great riches and huge territories to the empire. the Rubicon to mean making a fateful decision from large measure of self-government. Trade and In nine years of campaigning, Caesar lost only two which there is no turning back. In this way, Caesar’s travel flourished because the pro- battles. His tactics in Gaul are still studied at military legendary boldness lives on. tected travelers on the vast system and kept pirates at bay.

24 Sources of the Democratic Tradition

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features of the republic, he was in fact the absolute ruler of Rome. Roman Law H-SS 10.1.2 L3 Between 48 and 44 B.C., Caesar pushed through Instruct a number of reforms. He launched a program of public works to employ the jobless and gave public ■ Introduce Ask students to describe land to the poor. He also granted citizenship to the concept of justice by making up sit- many people in the provinces. uations in which a person receives jus- Caesar’s enemies were jealous of his power and tice. Ask How does the law relate to worried that he planned to make himself king of justice? (The law is, in part, a system Rome. Saying that they needed to save the repub- that aims to deliver justice.) lic, they plotted against him. In March of 44 B.C., ■ Teach Explain that Roman law devel- as Caesar arrived in the senate, his enemies oped and grew along with the republic stabbed him to death. Out of the power struggle that followed, Caesar’s grand-nephew Octavian Beware the and empire. Ask What was the differ- Julius Caesar was murdered emerged the winner. ence between the civil law and the by his enemies in the Senate on the fifteenth law of nations? (Civil law applied Emperor Augustus Caesar The senate gave the triumphant Octa- of March in 44 B.C. In the earliest the Ides occurred on the fifteenth only to Roman citizens. The law of vian the of Augustus, or Exalted One, and declared him first citizen or thirteenth of each month. Legend has it nations was designed to apply to all of Rome. Augustus Caesar made sure not to call himself king, a title that when he saw his friend raise his people.) How did Justinian’s Code that Romans had hated since Etruscan times. Yet he exercised absolute he gasped the words “You, too, my improve the state of Roman law? child?” power and named his successor, just as a king would do. (By bringing together all the various Under Augustus, who ruled from 31 B.C. to A.D. 14, the 500-year-old strands of Roman law and legal writ- republic came to an end. Romans did not know it at the time, but a new ings, it created an orderly system of age had dawned—the age of the Roman empire. Through firm but moderate policies, Augustus laid the foundation for principles that could readily guide peo- a stable government. Although he left the senate in place, Augustus cre- ple many years later.) ated an efficient, well-trained to enforce the laws. He opened ■ Quick Activity Display Color Trans- high-level jobs to men of , regardless of their class. In addition, he parency 4: The Key Principles of cemented the allegiance of cities and provinces to Rome by allowing them Roman Law. Use the lesson suggested a large measure of self-government. in the transparency to guide a Romana The government that Augustus organized functioned well discussion of the basic principles of for 200 years. This span of time is known as the period of the , Roman law. or “Roman Peace.” During that time, Roman rule brought peace, order, Color Transparencies, 4 unity, and prosperity to the empire. Roman lands stretched from the River in the east to Britain in the west, an area approximately Independent Practice equal in size to the present-day continental United States. Invite pairs of students to write a modern- During the Pax Romana, the Roman military maintained and protected a network of all-weather roads, and Roman fleets chased pirates from the advertisement promoting Justinian’s seas. Trade flowed freely to and from distant lands in Africa and Asia. Code over the existing Roman law code. Egyptian farmers supplied Romans with grain. Merchants carried ivory, Vocabulary Builder Their advertisements might take one of a , and other commodities from other parts of Africa; spices, , and commodity—(ka MOD e tee) n. any variety of forms, from posters to television precious stones from India; and silk and other goods from faraway China. article that is bought and sold spots. People, too, moved easily within the Roman empire. They spread ideas and knowledge, especially the advances of the Hellenistic east. Monitor Progress Some of Augustus’s successors were weak and incompetent. Others As students create their advertisements, ruled wisely. The emperor , for example, codified Roman law, circulate to make sure they are including making it the same for all provinces. The emperor , who enough details about Justinian’s Code. read philosophy while on military campaigns, came close to Plato’s of a philosopher-king. His show his Stoic philosophy and commitment to duty: “Hour by hour resolve firmly . . . to do what to hand with correct and natural dignity.” Standards Check How did the Roman republic become an empire? H-SS 10.1.1

Solutions for All Learners Answer L4 Advanced Readers L4 Gifted and Talented Territorial expansion created strains within

Ask students to conduct research to determine if the imports and exports. Have them list the top five Roman society. The power struggle between trade items that brought wealth to Rome continue to imports and exports for ancient Rome and modern the senate and reformers led a period of civil do so today. Advise students to consult encyclopedias, Italy. Discuss with students what might account for wars. Julius Caesar used military force to quell world almanacs, and world economic reference the similarities and differences between past and the rebellions and gain dominance. After his for information on ancient Rome and modern Italy’s present trade patterns. death, Octavian emerged as a strong leader with kinglike power over what had become a vast empire.

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Greco-Roman Roman Law Civilization H-SS 10.1.1 L3 “Let justice be done,” proclaimed a Roman saying, “though the fall!” Probably the greatest legacy of Rome was the establishment of jus- Instruct tice through the law. During the Roman empire, the institution of laws fostered unity and stability. Many centuries later, the principles of ■ Introduce Have students read the Roman law would become the basis for legal systems in Europe and Primary Source on the next page. Dis- Latin America. cuss what it means to say that law is an “eternal principle.” Ask Did Two Systems During the republic, Rome developed written laws. expect Roman emperors to act in Beginning with the simple rules set forth in the Laws of the Twelve accordance with the law? (He Tables, the Roman code of laws grew over time with the addition of implies that no human was above the numerous rules and judges’ opinions. The resulting system of law, known law.) as the civil law, applied only to Roman citizens. Roman expansion created a problem. Newly acquired territories had AUDIO Witness History Audio CD, their own customs and rules, so Rome needed a new system of law that Cicero would apply to both citizens and foreign subjects. Gradually, a second ■ Teach Ask What is Greco-Roman system of law emerged that suited the Roman sense of justice. Romans civilization? (a blending of Greek, based this new system on the laws of nature, arrived at by using the Hellenistic, and Roman traditions) human ability to reason. For this reason they believed it to be a legiti- Why didn’t Greco-Roman civiliza- mate system of law that could apply to all people. They called it the law tion disappear when the western of nations. Roman empire collapsed? (Other The inspiration for this law of nations came largely from Stoic philoso- phy, especially its concept of . From this concept, later think- cultures, including the Christian Justinian and Theodora , the , and the Justinian’s code of laws served to transmit ers developed the principle of natural rights, a key idea in the American Muslims, preserved it.) Do you think Roman law and legal writings to Western Declaration of Independence. Europe and eventually modern international Greco-Roman ideas survive today law. His wife, Theodora, was a tough Common Principles As Roman law developed, certain basic principles in our culture? (Students should real- politician and co-ruler of the Byzantine evolved, many of which are familiar to Americans today. An accused per- ize how vital those ideas were to later empire with Justinian. son was presumed innocent until proven guilty. The accused had the European culture, which is the primary right to face the accuser and offer a defense against the charge. Guilt had source of modern American culture.) to be established “clearer than daylight” through evidence. Judges were allowed to interpret the laws and were expected to make decisions. ■ Quick Activity Have students create a diagram to show where Greco-Roman Justinian’s Code The collapsed under the civilization came from. Their diagrams pressure of Germanic invaders in the . By then, Roman power had should show that Greek, Roman, and concentrated in the east, in what we call the Byzantine empire. The Byz- Hellenistic traditions went into Greco- antine empire reached its greatest size under the emperor Justinian, Roman civilization. They should also who ruled from 527 to 565. Justinian is best remembered for his reform show Egypt and as of the Roman law code. sources of Greek culture and Greece, Early in his reign, Justinian set up a commission to collect, Persia, Egypt, and India as sources of revise, and organize all the laws of ancient Rome. They pro- Hellenism. duced the Body of Civil Law, popularly known as Justinian’s Code. This massive collection included laws passed by Roman assemblies or decreed by Roman emperors, as well as the legal Independent Practice writings of Roman judges. Have students describe an artifact that Justinian’s Code had an impact far beyond the Byzantine would represent Greco-Roman empire. By the 1100s, it had reached . There, civilization. both the Christian church and medieval monarchs modeled their laws on its principles. Centuries later, the code also Monitor Progress guided legal thinkers who began to compile the in use today. ■ As students describe their artifact, circu- Standards Check late to be sure they are including details What lasting principles of law did Romans from Greco-Roman source cultures. develop? H-SS 10.1.2 ■ Check Reading and Note Taking Study Guide entries for student understanding. Careers

Lawyer Over time, Roman law became quite com- the legal profession attracts many college graduates. Answer plex. No longer was a basic knowledge of customary They attend a school of law, often followed by an law enough to allow the ordinary citizen to conduct apprenticeship in a law office. Finally, to be admitted An accused person was presumed innocent legal transactions. Some patricians who had studied to the law profession, candidates must pass a special

until proven guilty; the accused was allowed to the law for their own benefit began offering their ser- examination. , or attorneys, have a duty to face the accuser and offer a defense; guilt had vices to others. In the later Roman empire, these law- make the best case for their client, but as “officers of to be clearly established through evidence; yers first began accepting fees for their work. Today the court,” they also have a duty to be true to the law. judges could interpret the laws and were expected to make fair decisions.

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Greco-Roman Civilization Assess and Reteach As a follower of Stoicism, the Roman philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero held public figures up to a high moral standard. As the republic declined, Cicero Assess Progress L3 attacked ambitious men like Julius Caesar. When Caesar came to power, however, he forgave Cicero, noting that it was “more glorious to have ■ Have students complete the enlarged the limits of the Roman mind than the boundaries of Roman rule.” Section Assessment. Both kinds of Romans—Stoics and generals—had a lasting impact. Through ■ Administer the Section Quiz. war and conquest, Roman generals carried the ideas and other elements of Roman civilization to distant lands. Yet the civilization that developed was Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 3

not simply Roman. It blended Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman achievements. ■ To further assess student under- The Stoic philosopher Cicero firmly Roman Culture In its early days, Rome absorbed ideas from Greek col- standing, use believed in the idea of natural law, as onists in , and Rome continued to borrow heavily from Progress Monitoring Transparencies, 2 expressed in Rome’s law of nations. Greek culture after conquering Greece. To the Romans, , litera- ture, philosophy, and scientific represented the height of cultural Primary Source Reteach achievement. Their admiration never wavered, leading the Roman poet This, then, as it appears to me, has If students need more instruction, have to note, “Greece has conquered her rude conqueror.” “ been the decision of the wisest phi- them read the section summary. Just as the had once absorbed ideas from Egypt and Mesopota- losophers—that law was neither Reading and Note Taking mia, the Romans adapted Greek and Hellenistic achievements. The a thing to be contrived by the genius L3

blending of Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman traditions produced what is of man, nor established by any Study Guide, p. 9 known as Greco-Roman civilization. Trade and travel during the Pax decree of the people, but a certain Romana helped spread this vital new civilization. eternal principle, which governs the Adapted Reading and L1 L2 Note Taking Study Guide, p. 9 Philosophy Romans borrowed much of their philosophy from the Greeks. universe, wisely commanding what The Hellenistic philosophy of Stoicism impressed Roman thinkers. Stoics is right and prohibiting what is Spanish Reading and stressed the importance of duty. They also showed concern for the well-being wrong.” L2 —Marcus Tullius Cicero, of all people, an idea that was later reflected in Christian teachings. Note Taking Study Guide, p. 9 On the Laws, Book II AUDIO Preserving Greco-Roman Ideas When the western Roman empire Extend L4 collapsed, the Christian church preserved some of its culture in its teach- ings. The Byzantine empire also carried forward achievements in law Ask groups of students to locate instances and other areas. Still, many ideas were lost to western Europeans for where Roman civil law has affected mod- centuries. Fortunately, the Muslims saved much of this learning. Fasci- ern legal systems. Each group should nated by Greco-Roman ideas, Muslim scholars translated the works of research civil law in one modern country Aristotle and other thinkers into Arabic. In this way they preserved (such as France, Germany, Spain, or one of Greco-Roman ideas in philosophy, mathematics, and science. their former ) and then present the results of the group’s research to the class. Standards Check What cultures contributed to Greco-Roman civilization? H-SS 10.1.1

Standards Monitoring Online Answer 2 For: Self-quiz with vocabulary practice Web Code: mza-0122 Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman cultures

Terms, People, and Places Comprehension and Critical Thinking ● Writing About History 1. What do each of the key terms listed at 3. Draw Inferences Why did the Quick Write: Write a Conclusion Use the beginning of the section have in Romans reject the Etruscan monarchy biographical information from the section Standard Assessment common? Explain. and establish a republic? to draw a valid conclusion about a histori- H-SS 10.1.1 2, 3, 5 4. Express Problems Clearly Why did cal figure. For example, draw conclusions the Roman empire need two systems of about the real political goals of Julius H-SS 10.1.2 4 2. Reading Skill: Understand Effects law? Caesar or whether Romans benefited E-LA W 2.4 Quick Write Use your completed charts to answer 5. Distinguish False From Accurate from having Augustus rule as an emperor. the Focus Question: How did the gov- Images How accurate was Horace’s Then write your conclusion in a persuasive ernment of Rome develop into an comment that “Greece has conquered paragraph. empire? her rude conqueror”?

erful rulers continued to expand their is, because the Romans so thoroughly Section 2 Assessment realm, creating an empire. adopted Greek ideas.

1. They all relate to Roman government. 3. The Romans thought the king had too ● Writing About History 2. Rome started as a city-state controlled by much power. They wanted to make some Responses should show an understanding of an aristocracy and led by a king. The political choices themselves. how conclusions can be drawn and pre- Romans overthrew this monarch and 4. Their civil law applied only to Roman citi- sented in a persuasive paragraph. established a republic that expanded into zens. They needed another system to neighboring lands. Roman expansion cre- apply to the foreign subjects who came ated strains in Roman society that even- into the empire through conquest. For additional assessment, have students tually led to civil wars and a powerful 5. In terms of territory or political control it access Standards Monitoring Online at . The republic waned as pow- is not accurate, but in terms of culture it Web Code mza-0122.

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