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“Times Are A' Changing” “Times are a’ changing” The Folk Mass Movement of the 1960s in the United States Kinga Povedák is a research fellow at the Research Group for the Study of Religious Culture (Hungarian Academy of Sciences-University of Szeged). She studied European Ethnology and American Studies. Her PhD thesis was on the debated popular Christian music among Catholics,focusing on and analyzing the peculiarities of vernacular religiosity during the socialist times through the study of the origins of the movement in Hungary. Her main fields of interest include popular religiosity of the postmodern times, modernism and Catholicism, and most recently the musical worlds of Pentecostal Romani communities. The cultural revolution of the 1960s resulted most outstandingly in the musical paradigm, having the most explicit capability articulating the feelings of the beat generation and their desire to rebel against their parents’ conformist, authoritarian and conservative middle class values. As János Sebők notes stressing the important role of rock, the rising generation did not only mean music, but a lifestyle, a way of life and rebellion. It was the aesthetic means and sound of dissociation and detachment, it was a creed, a form of behavior and a world view.1 The rebellion, however, did not only add up to atheism but resulted in a spiritual awakening, an opening towards so far obscure – and, therefore, even more appealing - exotic eastern philosophies and religions. The hippie movement was captivated by Rousseau’s back to nature philosophy as a quasi-religious new ideology/way of life, utopian and egalitarian communes and the rejection of consumer society. Eastern religions and cults appeared and in many cases musicians were the promoters. Santana was a follower of Sri Chinmoy, The Beatles and the Beach Boys made Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and his Transcendental Meditation Centre well-known. Jay R. Howard and John M. Streck note that “Guitarist John McLaughlin amended his name to Mahavishnu John McLaughlin after meeting up with Sri Chinmoy; Carlos Santana billed himself as Devadip Santana for a number of years. Pete Townsend and Ronnie Lane became devotees of Meher Baba; Seals and Crofts advocated the Bahai faith; Richard Thompson became a strict Sufi; and Rastafarianism […] became a household word with most American rockers thanks to the emergence of reggae music.” 2 Along these spiritual affiliations, we know that the Osmonds, coming from Salt Lake City, were Mormons and two members of The Shadows, Hank Marvin and Bruce Welch, belonged to Jehovah’s Witnesses. Several performers, however, have songs with content related to Christianity. Therefore, we cannot unambiguously state that during this period there was an 1 János Sebők, A Beatlestől az új hullámig. A rock a hetvenes években (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1981): 372. 2 Jay R. Howard and John M. Streck, Apostles of rock. The splintered world of contemporary Christian music (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1999) “TIMES ARE A’ CHANGING” - 93 obvious turn away from Christianity. Cliff Richard, an Anglican, for instance, openly evangelized during his performances. Even behind the Iron Curtain, where not only rock and roll or hippie culture from the West but religious renewal were also considered as a threat to the system, the sudden influx of religious content in rock music lead to indignation by some. The journalist Péter Tardos in 1972 wrote with a rather negative overtone, complaining that more and more records come out with religious themes: “Johnny Hallyday’ song on Jesus Christ in number one on the charts. He awaits some kind of a contemporary Messiah. Jeremy Faith’s Jesus is a hit in France and England »Jesus, Jesus come back to us/ For the marijuana/ For the words we say/ For the people thinkin’/ The world is OK/ Save us, save us hallelujah…« In London, the band Nazareth was formed and the Superstar is filmed in Nazareth, the Holy Land […] Quintessence band’s new song mentions Sweet Jesus […] and George Harrison sings in My Sweet Lord: I really want to see you/ I really want to be with you.3 Bob Dylan in his album New Morning sings of the Father of the Universe, José Feliciano, the blind Puerto Rican singer sings the songs from his land: Come Down Jesus. The well-known folk- rock band, The Birds has Jesus is Alright in their standard repertoire. The French electronic composer, Pierre Henry composed the record ceremony for Spooky Tooth. Galt McDermot, the composer of Hair is preparing to debut the Divine Hair Mass in a New York Cathedral. Händel’s Messiah’s rock version is coming out from OAK records condensing the Bible into 26 rock opera hits. The record is entitled the Truth of Truths.” 4 In Essen Jesuspilts, while in London the Godspell biblical themed rock operas were performed in 1970.5 The obvious climax is the musical Jesus Christ Superstar by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice. The plot is loosely based on the Gospels’ accounts of the last week of Jesus’s life. The authors began working on it in 1968, and it was performed in 1970 in London where Ian Gillian, later singer of Deep Purple, played the leading role, Jesus. The musical also debuted on Broadway, New York, in October 1971. The Jesus Christ Superstar album in 1971 led the billboard list, and the film directed by Norman Jewison was nominated for two Golden Globe awards.6 The website for the musical production has aptly commented on the world-wide success of Jesus Christ Superstar as follows: “A global phenomenon that has wowed audiences for over 3 It is worth noting that the song was used in churches and during masses as well; cf. Sebők (1981), 45. 4 Péter Tardos, Beat-pop-rock (Budapest: Zenemű Kiadó, 1972): 54-56. (Translated by the author.) 5 Sebők (1981), 45. 6 http://www.jesuschristsuperstar.com/ Accessed: December 2, 2015. 94 - IN GOD WE TRUST? 40 years, Jesus Christ Superstar is a timeless work set against the backdrop of an extraordinary and universally-known series of events but seen, unusually, through the eyes of Judas Iscariot.”7 The explanation for success is, however, more complex. Along the popular musical style, the representation of Jesus was in line with the ideals of the hippie counterculture movement preaching of love and understanding and of dying a martyr’s death.8 This also implies that the young realized that the hippie- movement’s social ideas brought back early Christian ideas into popular culture. In the western and primarily American “secular” popular culture, mainly in music in the 1970s, the religious (Christian) content remained and was strengthened. Although there was no obvious reception from the then state socialist Hungary, the secularized consumers, surprisingly, did not critique the religious content, rather the unauthentic religious content and associated industry and business-like attitudes were criticized: “It seems that today the success of the bizarre Jesus-themed hits proves that young people – at least those who submit themselves to the enjoyment of drugs and, loosened in their spirituality, first started following Krishna’s teachings, the fashion of the time – now call for a new spiritual opium. Jesus has become fashionable among hippies, although mostly in appearances. They have pinned a large yellow disk on their jackets proclaiming »Jesus is love«, but easily exchange it the next day to a different, more appealing slogan. […] Never so many Christs as today…”9 The Hungarian state socialist reception is definitely an interesting detail, however, in this paper I focus on how the folk revival songs and rock music invaded American Catholic churches. How could this happen? As Mark Oppenheimer noted in his book Knocking on Heaven’s Door, “[…] Catholics had the most standardized liturgy of any American religion, a Mass fashioned by Rome”10 An obvious prerequisite was that along with the spiritual awakenings and cultural revolution of the 1960s, a general religious awakening took place along with the charismatic renewal movements and the reforms of Vatican Council II taking place within the Roman Catholic Church. The spiritual / musical revolution obviously built on the fashionable musical styles, primarily on the American folk-music inspired movement containing strong political messages, and beginning with the 1970s also built on rock. The merging with secular styles resulted in later Christian rock being only distinctive by its Christian lyrics. 7 http://www.jesuschristsuperstar.com/ Accessed: December 2, 2015. 8 Sebők (1981), 44. 9 Tardos (1972), 54-56. 10 Mark Oppenheimer, Knocking on Heaven’s Door. American religion in the age of counterculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 94. “TIMES ARE A’ CHANGING” - 95 FOLK PROTEST SONGS WITHIN THE CHURCH WALLS: THE FOLK MASS MOVEMENT Vatican Council II and its liturgical reform – “the chief ambition of Catholic liberals and the chief fear of Catholic traditionalists”11 - had an inspiring effect on certain individuals among the faithful who immediately grabbed their guitars in the name of “active participation” and began composing songs of various quality as a church music vacuum was experienced: 12 “So much changed so fast. On one Sunday in 1964, Catholics worshipped as they had for 400 years: in silence, on their knees, looking up to the altar to their priest as he prayed softly in Latin, his back to the congregation. The next week, this same priest faced the people, addressed them clearly in English, and even encouraged them to sing together. Accustomed to silence, American Catholics joined in song reluctantly, if at all. That, too, changed when young musicians brought their guitars and enthusiasm into the liturgy. Suddenly, the Church was rocking as Catholics discovered the unifying power of congregational singing.”13 Naturally, the young generations hastily turned to the ambient musical cultures which in the 1960s meant folk and rock in the United States.
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