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Political Dissent and Terrorism in Southern Africa

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Political Dissent and Terrorism in Southern Africa Political dissent and terrorism in Southern Africa Anneli Botha Institute for Security Studies ISS Paper 90 • August 2004 Price: R10.00 INTRODUCTION rily aimed at the colonial power, a ‘foreign enemy’. Since the end of colonialism governments and their The post-Cold War period has witnessed an increase citizens have been confronted by new forms of legiti- in conflicts within a number of African countries along mate as well as illegitimate dissent, often fuelled by a ethnic, religious or tribal lines. The continent has been desire for control over political power or ideological, undergoing a process of political transition from colo- ethnic and religious movements. nial, totalitarian and authoritarian rule to more demo- cratic political systems, often accompanied by consid- A better understanding needs to be developed about erable turmoil. Religious dissent, mainly in the north the nature of religious dissent and how it impacts on and the east of the continent, has sometimes contrib- stability and state security. In addition, more attention uted to the instability experienced during these peri- needs to be focused on state terrorism and on the often- ods of transition. It has increasingly also undermining impact that counter- become an important vehicle for voic- terrorism measures undertaken by states ing political grievances, something which have on human rights. In Africa, the has led to governments stepping up their State terrorism threat of transnational terrorism is a real- monitoring of religious dissent. In the and the ity, but state terrorism and the implemen- Southern African sub-region the difficult tation of democratic principles present relationship between mainland Tanzania implementation even greater challenges. In other words, and Zanzibar serves as an interesting ex- of democratic state terrorism, associated with a disre- ample of how political dissent can indi- gard for human rights and with the op- rectly contribute to acts of terrorism: sus- principles are pression of ethnic and tribal groups, pre- pects implicated in the US Embassy greater sents a much bigger threat than bombing in Dar es Salaam are said to transnational terrorism. Misconceived originate from Zanzibar. challenges in counter-terrorism measures can instead Africa than result in fuelling terrorism and providing Political and religious grievances within justification for the involvement of those a country tend to arise from authoritar- transnational associated with transnational terrorism. ian rule and repression, maldistribution terrorism. of resources, inequity and the absence Dissent has often led to violence and to of representation in the political system. acts associated with terrorism. This pa- The role of pressure and interest groups per aims to contribute towards a better in openly articulating political issues is a relatively new understanding of dissent and its role in democracy. The one in many emerging democracies. Such groups have challenge for governments is to manage dissent in such sometimes been regarded as a threat to state security, a way that it remains within levels that are regarded as especially when they are based on tribal, ethnic or re- legitimate and normal for healthy democracies and to ligious grounds. Many governments and security forces prevent it from developing into violence and terror- in Africa are attempting to develop an understanding ism. In addition to considering the Tanzanian example, of the nature and role of dissent and to develop best this paper also briefly looks at Pagad in South Africa practices that could effectively address it. and at the political situation in Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Mauritius. It concludes with observations on why The liberation struggles that were fought against colo- states react differently to dissent and points to some nialism constituted a form of dissent and were prima- pitfalls that ought to be avoided. Botha • page 1 Paper 90 • August 2004 UNDERSTANDING POLITICAL but regard dissent as either illegal or unjustified and DISSENT usually both. Citizens engage in dissenting behaviour for a variety of It is important to differentiate between levels of dis- reasons involving both the nature of the cause and the sent, thus enabling researchers and governments to nature of the government.=History has shown that dis- distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate forms sent has evolved especially against authoritarian or of dissent. This is significant especially since countries semi-authoritarian governments that refuse their popu- in both Asia and Africa are experiencing a period of lace access to political power or the space within which rapid political development. In the aftermath of 9/11 to voice their dissatisfaction with government policies there have been attempts to curb dissent because it and practices.=Dissent also forms when the position of has been equated with terrorism. The all-out protec- the dissenters is so far from established political norms tion of political power raises serious questions about that there is little possibility, if any, that society will adapt the right to govern. This recalls the philosophical rela- to and accept their values.=No action of the govern- tionship between government and the populace, the ment will deter them from pursuing dissent. Anarchists ‘social contract’ or the belief that political structures and religious extremists, for example, are likely to be and the legitimacy of the state derive from an (explicit dissenters in almost any society. Those involved in dis- or implicit) agreement by individual human beings to sent may wish to change policy or leadership, or to surrender (some or all of) their private rights in order change the existing political order. to secure the protection and stability of an effective social organisation or government. Although Hobbes, Most political dissenters aim their actions at a desired Locke, Rousseau, Hume and Hegel presented differ- outcome, but others may wish only to dissent, viewing ent versions of the contract and its terms,1 in philo- any existing order as wrong. The latter may be highly sophical terms it offers a background to alienated from their society, choose dis- the relationship between those in power sent as an expression of this and remain and the populace and thus to when re- dissatisfied with any outcome that brings bellion or dissent can be considered le- Governments’ stability. Such dissenters are so extreme gitimate. The basic principles of the ‘so- that governments rarely respond posi- cial contract’ can be summarised thus: challenge is tively to their actions. Governments were formed for only one to manage Types or categories of dissent include:4 reason—to protect individual rights to dissent in life, property and liberty. When a gov- • Indiscriminate pathological dissent: ernment fails to preserve these rights (not such a way This includes violent revolution/assassi- honouring its part of the contract), citi- that it does nation/bombing campaigns, motivated as zens have the right to overthrow it. Ac- much by hatred, revenge, or similar emo- cording to Locke: not develop tions as by a purposeful campaign to change government policy or actors. Re- whenever the legislators endeavour to into violence venge killings carried out for no other take away and destroy the rights of purpose fall into this category. people they put themselves into a and state of war with the people, who are terrorism. • Discriminate violent dissent: This in- thereupon absolved from any further cludes violent actions directed at chang- obedience and have a right to resume ing either a regime or its policy, such as their original liberty, and by the establishment the assassination of government officials, bombings of a new legislature provide for their own safety of government facilities and disruption of govern- and security, which is the end for which they ment public functions such as official public are in society.2 speeches. Dissent can be defined as an action to “express dis- • Passive dissent: Included in this type of dissent are agreement with a prevailing or official view”.3 It is a non-violent protest, labour and student strikes, broad term, covering a variety of political behaviours, marches, pressures or campaigns against a regime, including objectives and behaviour involving the use directed at changing its leaders or policy. of non-governmental channels to register opposition • Systemic dissent: This encompasses civil society to government decisions or government inaction. The opposition, the formation of illegal opposition par- question could, however, be asked: does dissent in- ties or groups, letter writing campaigns, etc. Such clude opposition? Although opposition is often associ- dissent may couple with semi-legal or legal opposi- ated with political opposition (challenges to the exist- tion and those engaged in it may move from oppo- ing order through legitimatised political channels, such sition to dissent. as creating a legal opposition party, running for politi- cal office against the ruling leader/party, or other legal Civil society is the aggregate of independent interest activity), opposition is a form of dissent. The difference groups existing within a country who may organise by is that regimes accept, or even encourage, opposition, affinity (women’s groups, labour unions, professional Botha • page 2 Paper 90 • August 2004 associations, religious societies), or merely temporarily The second level is the ‘comfort zone’ of usual activity, come together, as in a public
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