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Ten Major Reviews About Positive Psychology Javier López-Cepero Borrego1, Eduardo Fernández Jiménez Y Cristina Senín Calderón

Ten Major Reviews About Positive Psychology Javier López-Cepero Borrego1, Eduardo Fernández Jiménez Y Cristina Senín Calderón

Anuario de Psicología Clínica y de la Salud / Annuary of Clinical and Health , 5 (2009) 47-53

Ten major reviews about positive psychology Javier López-Cepero Borrego1, Eduardo Fernández Jiménez y Cristina Senín Calderón

Department of Personality and Psychological Assessment and Treatment University of Seville, Spain

Received: 5 November 2009 Accepted: 4 December 2009

INTRODUCTION the one by Vázquez and Hervás (2008). Positive psychology has generated The Anuario de Psicología Clínica y de la increasing interest year after year ever since Seligman Salud has itself also collected related contributions, adopted the label as a psychological approach in such as the review carried out by Romero (2008) on 1998. This fact may be seen in the publication of emotional , and by Vázquez (2005) on registered titles which include this key term in the resilience after the September 11 and May 11 PsycINFO database, maintained by the American terrorist attacks. Psychological Association (APA). Figure 1 shows the Even though the study of positive number of journal articles and book chapters psychology was undertaken before the label was containing the term positive psychology in the key- coined, its use as a term is relatively recent and, so it word section, over the last few years. Apart from the is still too early, by consensus, to establish an agreed apparent decrease in the number of articles in the year definition. Nevertheless, the great proliferation of 2009, due to the time lag in catalogue updating, the schools of which name themselves as such scientific community actually manifests a growing within the area of scientific psychology makes it interest in this approach. obligatory to accurately establish what positive Similar to most advances in the science in psychology is and what it is not. A proposal, added in our field, the publication of comprehensive 2003, can be found in the PsycINFO Thesaurus, handbooks in Spanish has been rather belated in which draws to the factor common to all the comparison to that in English speaking countries. definitions likely to be found in the literature: In 2006, Vera carried out a bibliographical Positive Psychology: An approach to review showing this deficiency. Now, three years psychology that emphasises and positive later, we can state that Spain has started to overcome human functioning instead of focusing on the problem with the publication of monographic psychopathology and disfunction. issues in the Papeles del Psicólogo (2006) and So, positive psychology proposes a Clínica y Salud (2006) journals, which provide part different approach to guide research with classical of the bibliographic references for this paper; with the issues already addressed, for example, by Humanistic translation of handbooks, such as Carr’s in 2007, and Psychology. The main national and international with the publication of national handbooks, such as authors of the field, Seligman, Peterson, Csikszentmihalyi, Avia, Vázquez, or Hervás, some of whose works will be cited in this review, have pointed out that this epistemologic change is a crucial one. The change consists in giving prominence to positive , strengths and prevention, versus the most traditional view of psychology as a science focusing on inadaptation, weakness and illness. In any case, the methodological requirements and rigour are identical to those from other approaches in , namely quantitative and qualitative empirical endeavour. This distinguishes Figure 1. Publications in PsycINFO regarding positive positive psychology from any philosophical proposal psychology as a keyword. (Avia, 2006). In spite of having adopted terms such as , optimism or good mood, which may 1Corresponding author: Javier López-Cepero Borrego. lead to confusion, as they are deeply rooted in Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento philosophy and , positive psychology differs Psicológicos. Facultad de Psicología. C/ Camilo José Cela from them in the fact that, far from any dogmatism, it S/N, 41018, Sevilla (España). E-mail: [email protected] is founded on accurate research and is circumscribed to the professional and scientific world (Vera, 2006). López-Cepero Borrego, J.; Fernández Jiménez, E. y Senín Calderón, C.: Ten major reviews about positive psychology

The topics encompassed by positive psychology are very diverse and its young age may Vázquez, C. & Hervás, G. (Eds.) (2008). Psicología make it difficult to list all the points of interest. A positiva aplicada. Bilbao: DDB. possible procedure to systematize them can be found Summarizing the contributions of this in some studies by Seligman (2000, 2006), who handbook far surpasses the size of this paper. classifies them in relation to the time when the However, we would like to draw attention to the fact is carried out, namely past, present and that this work is an indicator that publications on future. Thus, we see concepts referring to acts carried positive psychology in Spanish have overcome the out by people concerning past time experiences, such drawbacks pointed out by Vera (2006). as , resistance, post traumatic growth, Given the fact that most of the book is satisfaction, personal fulfilment and pride; to the devoted to intervention, it is worth noticing that it present time, such as happiness, rapture or , and, starts out by exploring the theories put forward to finally, those focusing on future time, such as account for the changes and limits that the study had, optimism and . In addition to this, by using by updating a previous text (Vázquez, Hervás & Ho, another systematization axis on this pragmatic focus, 2006). In coherence with the aim of giving maximum it can be noticed that, even though most of the former scientific rigour to research in , constructs appeal to psychological experiences the authors discuss two empirical studies. restricted to specific vital experiences (variables of Their first review makes reference to the state), positive psychology emphasizes a series of concept of hedonic adaptation proposed by Diener, dispositional constructs (variables of trait) which are Lucas and Scollon (2006). These authors carried out a shared cross-culturally, such as character strengths follow-up study and compiled information on the and . participants’ degree of vital well-being several years, However, accurate classification of the before and after, going through some given positive contributions to positive psychology may be rather events, such as marriage or negative ones, such as complicated. Firstly, we find texts which cover the widowhood. Their main finding it that, with the above characteristics but do not add the passage of time, people return to a degree of well- corresponding label. As is to be expected, the being similar to their initial ones. This study supports pioneers of the approach, such as Goleman (1995) or the idea that, at least partially, the degree of well- Csikszentmihalyi (1990) started to work from this being is stable in time, possibly due to biological perspective before it had been named as such. questions. This base level is called the point. The Secondly, these signs of identity may appear second research plays down the weight that this set implicitly in some handbooks and guides centred on point has by providing a wide review of evidence on professional practice, but without any conceptual its stability or change. They argue that well-being is introduction that clearly states their part in this form affected 50% by the set point, 10% by life of work. Thus, we can find Spanish contributions circumstances, and 40% by voluntary, and therefore such as those by Moreno in the field of infertility modifiable, activities (Lyubomirsky, King & Diener, (2009), which integrated optimism and happiness in 2005). In this way, the authors conclude that even her outline for supervision and intervention. though the improvement of well-being is limited by This paper describes ten reviews which biological factors, it is possible and, in fact, is well have been selected for their relevance and which documented. may be of interest in a first approach to the field of The remaining chapters are organised knowledge encompassed under the umbrella term of around the possibilities of intervention from positive positive psychology. A first group has two texts that psychology (clinical, community and education), and may be used as a general introduction, namely the about specific contexts, namely (with elderly people handbook recently published in Spanish by Vázquez and organizations), something which makes the study and Hervás (2008) and the introductory article that a guide for intervention, especially attractive for Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi contributed to in the those professionals looking for a first contact with the monographic issue published by the American area. in 2000. A second group brings together four monographic texts dealing with some of the Seligman, M. E. P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). main issues of positive psychology, namely Positive Psychology: An introduction. American happiness, flow, optimism, hope and resilience. To Psychologist, 55, 5–14. conclude, four papers on assessment and intervention This text is an introduction from Number 1 in positive psychology are reviewed: one article about of Volume 55 of the American Psychologist journal, the creation of the currently most often used which monographically addresses the approach of assessment instrument, Virtues in Action or VIA-IS, positive psychology in fifteen articles. The study by Seligman, Park and Peterson (2004); a cross- shows positive psychology as a renewed emphasis cultural study in which more than 100,000 subjects around an object of study largely dealt with in the participated; a case of positive in the past, in order to shift the focus of attention from the depressive spectrum, and a community preventive psychopathological issues framed in the deficit model intervention manual. Even though we are aware that towards the study of the strengths and virtues of the this panorama might not be exhaustive enough, we human being, as well as on those factors that promote hope that this selection will provide a reasonable personal fulfilment and prosperity in the community. overview of the current state of positive psychology.. The text organizes the subsequent articles into three thematic axes. In the first section, a Group 1. Introductory studies to positive evolutional perspective points to the influence of psychology genes (phylogenetic determinants) and memes (social

48 Anuario de Psicología Clínica y de la Salud / Annuary of Clinical And , 4 (2009) 47-53 and cultural determinants) on people’s ontogenetic has been invested. Part of this explanation is based on development as a substratum that allows living the term flow, developed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990), positive experiences. In the second section four and which is analysed below. positive personal traits are described, namely The second part of the book offers a general subjective well-being, coming from cognitive and view on its main strengths and summarizes the affective self-assessment of existence; optimism, a classification developed together with Peterson in dispositional construct including cognitive, affective 2004 (see the article by Seligman, Park & Peterson, and motivational issues which is also affected by 2004; in this text). The last third of the book is issues in the social and cultural context; happiness, in devoted to an analysis of strengths in everyday which the author proposes three promotional factors, situations, such as the work context, living as a as are religious faith, a certain income level and good couple or bringing up children. interpersonal relationships; and self-determination, a construct in which personal needs for competence, Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). El flujo. In E.G. and belonging merge. In the final group of Fernández (Coord.), Emociones Positivas (pp. 181- articles people’s characteristics of excellence are 193). Madrid: Pirámide. discussed, such as , exceptional intellectual This recent publication on positive abilities in childhood, and talent. emotions, coordinated by Enrique Fernández Abascal, Finally, a series of challenges that positive includes a chapter on flow written by Mihaly psychology needs to tackle in future research is Csikszentmihalyi. The text is an up-to-date emphasised, namely adopting an evolutional summarized version of his best-seller Flow: perspective to study all of these positive ThePsychology of Optimal Experience, published in characteristics; going deeper into the neuro-scientific 1990. and community aspects of this approach, and Csikszentmihalyi uses the term flow to refer distinguishing the mechanisms by means of which to a subjective experience that takes place when people’s positive resources cushion and prevent the someone is involved in an activity to such an extent development of psychological problems. that is he or she is not aware of time, tiredness or what surrounds him or her. The activity itself is Group 2. Platitudes of positive psychology satisfactory and the individual is not worried about how little he or she is going to achieve from it. Seligman, M. E. P. (2006): La Auténtica Felicidad. During the activity, a feeling of control is (1st reprint). Barcelona: Vergara. experienced over what is being done, all resources for This work deals with the concept of attention are completely implicated in the task and happiness, one of the first objects of study for negative feelings or are excluded. positive psychology. Seligman presents an overview In order for flow to take place, the activity of the topic by combining data coming from research needs to have a set of aims to guide the behaviour and studies and passages extracted from his personal give it a purpose, to provide immediate retroactive experience, which is especially relevant given his role information about the correct progress of the task, as a pioneer during his presidency of the American and to establish a balance between the challenges and Psychological Association. the abilities perceived and so avoid or The book is divided into three parts. The , among other feelings. The experience of first of them deals with different aspects of positive flow appears as a result of the interaction between a from evolutionary and present-day points of high skill and a high challenge. In this state, view. Constructs such as optimism, resilience or concentration and self-esteem are enhanced. happiness, among others, can an important role The findings of studies on flow indicate that in survival, as they modify the possibility of success it is a powerful motivating force. During the in face of important challenges. In this way, they are experience of flow, intrinsic takes place. characteristics perpetuated by natural selection. This is a state in which people show interest in the Nevertheless, as argued by Seligman, eudemonia or activity they are performing just for the sake of doing happiness can be understood as the result of a it, without necessarily expecting an external reward function which combines more stable inherited terms in exchange, in such a way that the experience itself and questions affected by voluntary actions, and are, becomes both the means and the aim. In addition to thus, modifiable. Hence, positive emotion can be this, emerging (or unpredictable a priori), motivation studied from a personal time perspective, as it is also involved. This manifests itself when, due to combines assessment of the past, current behaviour the interaction with the environment, new aims are and future expectations, all of them improvable by found in a new activity, or in one which had means of cognitive changes. previously been unattractive. Seligman reflects on the possible To conclude the chapter, Csikszentmihalyi confusions that the term happiness may bring about. speaks about culture and defends the role whereby So, he separates , immediate and transient, flow develops in it and the importance of society from gratifications, which allow one to achieve providing flow experiences in productive activities. eudemonia or authentic happiness. In spite of the Otherwise, people will look for flow in activities label chosen, the real thing is that happiness does not which are disruptive, rather useless and, so much depend on the enjoyment as on the consequently, disturbing. commitment with the activity, on fascination or concentration. Thus, is not always Bonanno, G.A. (2004). Loss, Trauma, & Human pleasing and an example of this is illustrated by the Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human ending of a project on which a great amount of work Capacity to Thrive After Extremely Aversive

49 López-Cepero Borrego, J.; Fernández Jiménez, E. y Senín Calderón, C.: Ten major reviews about positive psychology

Events? American Psychologist, 59, 20-28. motivation to follow these ways. This article is a very complete and Another interesting contribution is the obligatory reference point for the study of resilience concept of expectationism, which derives from the in face of loss and other potentially traumatic events. hypothesis of risk homeostasis by Wilde, which is It starts by setting out the difference between also described in the same chapter. Expectationism recovery and resilience. Recovery refers to the makes reference to the preventive damage and process by which the normal performance of a person prejudicial strategies that people implement in turns temporarily into a threshold or subthreshold function to the that they give to their future. psychopathology, six months after which it gradually These strategies have a bearing on their life styles returns to the pre-event level. By contrast, resilience and, hence, modify the probability to have accidents, reflects the ability to keep a steadily healthy level of suffer from diseases or assume risk-taking mental and physical performance after a stressful or behaviours. traumatic event has taken place. This is an interesting One of the factors that promote the putting distinction, as many trauma theoreticians think that into effect of these strategies is the anticipation of those people who do not show distress in face of incentives in face of the merely immediate reward, losses or traumatic events react in a pathological way, since the coming gratification contributes to when the fact is that they may have overcome such increasing the subjective value of the future and so trauma by setting up an adaptative, healthy and can modify the risk threshold assumed by the person. positive adjustment process. This idea is especially interesting to prevent risks or For some time, all those individuals who accidents, for example, at work. went through a traumatic situation under this premise In conclusion, it is argued that optimistic were submitted to psychological intervention. In this and hopeful people live longer, enjoy better mental way debriefing was created as a therapeutic and physical states, recover more quickly after intervention, in other words, as a brief and early illnesses or operations, persevere in face of preventive strategy that was used after a traumatic challenges and are more competent at work and sport. event with the aim of facilitating, evoking and discussing this event. The application of this Group 3. Assessment and intervention in positive intervention method has been very much criticized, as psychology it may pathologize normal reactions to adversity and damage natural resilience processes. In order to avoid Seligman. M. E. P., Park, N. & Peterson, C. this, a selection of a group of individuals with risk (2004). The Values in Action (VIA) classification factors for post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD) of character strengths. Ricerche di Psicologia, 27, was proposed, as they would benefit the most from 63-78. this type of intervention. In this article the authors discuss two At the end of the article some traits or topics: firstly, the rules by which virtues and dispositional aspects are presented which are related strengths can be classified; and, secondly, the to the ability to display resilience. They are the instrument developed for its assessment. following: strength or hardiness, defined as a The authors describe the differences personality trait that helps to soften the exposure to between virtues and strengths. The former are general extreme stress; self-enhancement, which refers to personal characteristics which have been appreciated excessively positive or realistic bias in favour of in a number of cultures throughout history, namely oneself; repression coping, understood as a defence wisdom, , humanity, justice, and mechanism which, as well as emotional dissociation, transcendence. On the other hand, strengths are the avoids unpleasant thoughts, emotions and memories; psychological processes that allow the development and, finally, positive emotions and laughter. of these virtues. So, while virtues are located at an abstract philosophical level, strengths are much more Carr, A. (2007). Esperanza y optimismo. In A. specific, likely to be modified and assessed, in other Carr, Psicología Positiva: la ciencia de la felicidad words, more operational. Other characteristics of (pp. 109-144). Barcelona: Paidós. strengths are the facts that they are valued for This is a chapter from the book by Alan themselves, and not in relation to the outcomes that Carr published in 2004 and translated into Spanish in they permit to be reached; that they are promoted by 2007. The book is very complete and recommendable the cultural environment by means of rituals and as an introduction to the field of positive psychology. habits, and that they do not damage other people, and This chapter addresses some of the traditional studies so permit living in community in a positive way. on how and why people adopt a positive view of the The resulting classification offers a total world. number of 24 strengths. They were analyzed in depth Optimism is presented from two in a previous lengthy work Character Strengths and perspectives. The first one defines it as a personality Virtues by Peterson and Seligman (2004), which trait characterized by personal expectations with a offers a view complementary to those of manuals on positive balance. The second focus conceptualizes it diagnosis criteria such as CSM and CIE. The second as an attributional style. Thus, whereas optimistic part of the article describes the psychometric value of people tend to attribute negative experiences to the Values in Action Inventory of Character Strengths external, temporary and specific factors, the (VIA-IS), which is a self- administered instrument pessimists attribute them to internal characteristics, with 240 items, ten for each strength, to be answered both stable and general. For its part, hope is made up by choosing the degree of agreement with the of two basic components, namely planning ways to statements given in a five level Likert type scale. The reach desired objectives in spite of difficulties, and original version was tested by means of a sample

50 Anuario de Psicología Clínica y de la Salud / Annuary of Clinical And Health Psychology, 4 (2009) 47-53 consisting of over 100,000 English speaking subjects. sense of life. It measured an internal coherence alpha higher than The first study consisted of a sample 0.70 in all scales and, after four months, a test-retest population of young students with low or reliability higher than 0.70. moderate symptoms of and a control The authors respond to criticism about the group who did not receive any treatment. The possible influence of social desirability in this self- therapeutic process, which was group oriented, administered report by administering in their studies, prescribed the six following activities: identifying the the instrument developed by Crowne and Marlow for five most important strengths in the participants and this effect. Significant correlation was only found thinking of ways for better everyday application; between desirability and two of the 24 strengths, writing out the three most positive things that had which sets VIA-IS within the standards used for happened every day and thinking about why they had regarding an instrument adequate, according to the happened; briefly writing out how one would like to authors. VIA has been translated into Spanish and is be remembered if dying after an utterly satisfactory available on the www.authentichappiness.com web life; reading a thank-you letter to someone to whom site. one has not yet shown how thankful one is; responding enthusiastically when other people Park, N., Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. E. P. communicate good news; calmly enjoying habits that (2006). Character strengths in fifty-four nations are usually performed in a hurry, and writing out how and the fifty US states. Journal of Positive these habits were later experienced in contrast to Psychology, 1, 118-129. when they are hastily done. The group under This study seeks to assess the prevalence of treatment experienced a substantial reduction of character strengths in the fifty federal states of the symptoms up to normal mood levels, which lasted USA and in another fifty-four countries all over the one year after the therapeutic intervention had taken world. place. This was accompanied by a significant As for the study sample, 117,676 adult increase in satisfaction with life. participants were included in the analysis of results As for the second study, the participants who answered the VIA-IS self-report once, via the were patients diagnosed with a severe depressive www.authentichappiness.com web site. Of them, disorder who had turned to psychological help. Three 71% were from the USA, and the remaining 29% types of individual intervention were designed. One from other countries in which a minimum of 20 group was assigned a process of positive participants had been registered. psychotherapy which also addressed The findings of the research point out a psychopathological issues; a second group was high similarity of character strength hierarchies exposed to usual , and the third group among the different states of the United States, with underwent the usual therapy plus pharmacological differences only in religiousness. Specifically, the treatment. The first group showed significant most often self-described strengths are , symptom reduction and higher levels of clinical justice, honesty, thankfulness and judgment. The least remission and happiness in comparison with the two often ones were care, and self- regulation, other groups. all of them described in this paper. A profile similar to that of the rest of the Fernández, L. & Gómez, J. A. (2007). La participants was found too. These findings point to psicología preventiva en la intervención psicosocial. universal common characteristics shared by people Madrid: Síntesis. and to the existence of some moral values which are This recent work contextualizes prevention minimally necessary for the viability of social within social and cultural contexts from a functioning. In addition to this, the text discusses the constructionist perspective. In the opinion of the generalization of these findings. authors, it does not make any sense to separate an individual from his or her community environment, Seligman, M. E. P, Rashid, T. & Parks, A. C. as both necessarily coexist. (2006). . American Society is an active agent that largely Psychologist, 61, 774-788. affects about how we value our own experience. So it Opposed to the psychotherapeutic plays an important role in the sense of well-being. treatments exclusively centred on symptoms and Nevertheless, they warn about the need to break away associated discomfort, this study proposes Positive from the idea of social determinism, and remark that Psychotherapy, which is illustrated by two clinical individuals can initiate changes and transform the interventions in the depressive spectrum in which shared system of beliefs on the basis of how the positive emotions are enhanced, the engagement of experience is interpreted. patients in activities (such as work, leisure and The authors reflect on how the intimate relations), and a by means of professionals cope with the challenge of prevention. involvement in supra-individual objectives (whether Firstly, and in a similar way to the aforementioned they be family, religious, political and/or authors, they start by pointing out the need to change community). All in all, it is intended to re-educate the the focus of attention from a reaction to adversity to cognitive and emotional bias centred on negative the promotion of well-being. Secondly, contrary to issues which are usually magnified in the spectrum of the present-day view, in which risks are depression. In this sense, positive emotions extricate compartmentalized within different areas (Medicine, people from a negative complaining style, and the Psychology, or Educational Science), they propose a emphasis is on the use of their own strengths that more interdisciplinary approach in which the involve them in projects of commitment and of a different disciplines are coordinated in order to give

51 López-Cepero Borrego, J.; Fernández Jiménez, E. y Senín Calderón, C.: Ten major reviews about positive psychology rise to a Science of Prevention with a coherent we have given specific examples of how positive conceptual body. psychology has made serious efforts to validate its Among the concepts related to resistance or proposal by means of research studies. Thus, the invulnerability of social groups, the authors development of assessment instruments such as emphasise and social support. Virtues in Action, applied in about fifty countries, and Resistance makes reference to individual and group putting into effect psychotherapeutic and community tendency to learn to solve, in a positive manner, the intervention programmes, evaluated with the same challenges their environment presents them. methodological requirements as other more Resistance can be studied as a process, in other traditional psychological approaches, are the clearest words, as a mobilization of resources and effort to examples of the usefulness and rigour that positive gain control over the situation itself, and as a result, psychology aspires to. Due to this very reason, influence over expectations of control. For its part, however, we support the call for caution from social support has a well documented relationship Vázquez and Hervás (2008) being aware that it is not with health. To have a that offers safe any panacea. relationships, a context in which to share experiences Positive psychology has made an extensive and that can offer emotional support in face of and solid proposal that counts on such important adversity are protective factors which benefit the support as that of the manual developed by Peterson general population’s health and sets them apart from and Seligman in 2004, which offers a full and the so-called risk groups. This is the direct effect operative view of dispositional and trans-cultural hypothesis. concepts. However, the youthfulness of the proposal The second half of the book deals with the is manifested when verifying some of the definitions description of a risk prevention programme and with used for fundamental concepts, such as those teenage health promotion, namely Construyendo referring to happiness or to resilience (in some of Salud ( building up health), in which the their variants). The appearance of concepts that limit steps necessary to set out, implement and assess very close issues in different ways makes it intervention are covered. recommendable to start a meta-analysis study that gathers and compares the different perspectives that CONCLUSIONS have arisen for each one of these topics. All in all, positive psychology appears as a Positive psychology has progressed very real alternative to other classical approaches in our clearly over the last decade, when very relevant discipline. The fact that the conceptual proposals are contributions have been grouped under a common diverse and the difficulty in reaching definitions by label which has allowed a more orderly development. consensus is, at the same time, a sign of health, as it We find it necessary to highlight here some is an indication to us that its usefulness is on the of the theoretical and empirical advantages offered by increase. Needless to say, a terminological debate positive psychology. First of all, it puts emphasis on supported by empirical efforts will be necessary to strengths, virtues, solutions, growth or development, clarify these issues, but the authors working with this and allows researchers and therapists to have an approach have made a great effort in building up a alternative approach, a new lens through which to solid body of knowledge. This encourages us to think assess and intervene in situations that the profession that, within the next few years, positive psychology makes them deal with. Secondly, by adopting a can keep consolidating its recognition and popularity dimensional perspective it allows for greater within the field of psychology. descriptive flexibility, contrary to the category focus which has historically been employed in the most REFERENCES often used diagnostic manuals (at present in DSM- IV-TR and CIE-10, versions). In this sense, positive Avia, M. D. (2006). 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