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Assessing Elements of Positive Psychology by Wade T. Lijewski

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Assessing Elements of Positive Psychology by Wade T. Lijewski Assessing Elements of Positive Psychology By Wade T. Lijewski, Ph.D. Learning Objectives This workshop aims to help learners: 1. Explain core concepts related to positive psychology. 2. Describe the historical development of the positive psychology movement. 3. Discuss recent research in positive psychology. 4. Illustrate the core concepts of self-esteem. 5. Apply positive psychology concepts within various fields of psychology. 6. Identify elements of culture and gender that impact perceptions. 7. Evaluate challenges of positive psychology. 8. Recognize the impact of its application on personal and mental health. Overview Positive psychology is the scientific study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Positive psychology theory and research have been applied across many domains, from education to health care to neuroscience. The field is founded on the belief that people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within them, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play. Positive psychology is both a general perspective on the discipline of psychology and a collection of research topics focused on positive aspects of human behavior. Several common themes run through much of the developing literature in positive psychology. One assumption of positive psychology is that the field of psychology has become unbalanced (Simonton & Baumeister, 2005). A major goal of positive psychology is to restore balance within the discipline. This goal is reflected in two areas of research and theory that need further development. First, there is a need for improved understanding of positive human behaviors to balance the negative focus of much mainstream research and theory (Sheldon & King, 2001). Related to this is the need for psychologists to overcome their skepticism about the scientific and “authentic” status of positive psychology’s subject matter. A second need is to develop an empirically based conceptual understanding and language for describing healthy human functioning that parallels the classification and understanding of mental illness (Keyes, 2003). It is arguably just as important to understand the sources of health as it is to understand the causes of illness, particularly in order to prevent illness by promoting healthy lifestyles (Ryff & Singer, 1998). The themes of positive psychology are captured in various attempts to define this new area of psychology. Sheldon and King (2001) define positive psychology as “nothing more than the scientific study of ordinary human strengths and virtues” (p. 216). This definition reflects the emphasis on psychology’s lack of attention to people’s everyday lives, which are typically quite positive. Gable and Haidt (2005) suggest that positive psychology is “the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions.” This definition has much in common with Seligman’s (2003) description of the three pillars of positive psychology. Positive psychology is built on the study of (1) positive subjective experiences (such as joy, happiness, contentment, optimism, and hope); (2) positive individual characteristics (such as personal strengths and human virtues that promote mental health); and (3) positive social institutions and communities that contribute to individual health and happiness. In a more specific formulation, Seligman and his colleagues have proposed that happiness as a central focus of positive psychology can be broken down into three components: the pleasant life, the engaged life, and the meaningful life (Seligman, 2003, Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006). The pleasant life reflects the emphasis in positive psychology on understanding the determinants of happiness as a desired state (what some people might call the “good life.”) Ideas of well- being as a good life stem from Aristotelian ideas of eudaimonia. Related emerging concepts include: self-efficacy, personal effectiveness, flow, and mindfulness. Self-efficacy refers to a belief that one's ability to accomplish a task is a function of personal effort. Low self-efficacy, or a disconnect between ability and personal effort, is associated with depression; by comparison, high self-efficacy is associated with positive change, including overcoming abuse, overcoming eating disorders, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle. High self- efficacy also has positive benefits for one's immune system, aids in stress management, and decreases pain. A related concept, personal effectiveness, is primarily concerned with planning and the implementation of methods of accomplishment. The engaged life is an aspect of happiness focused on active involvement in activities such as work and leisure, as well as the relationships with others that express people’s talents and strengths and that give meaning and purpose to their lives. These involvements promote a zestful and healthy life. A meaningful life is an aspect of happiness that comes from going beyond personal self-interests and preoccupations. This is a deeper and more enduring aspect of happiness that stems from giving to, and being involved in, something larger than oneself. This is what Seligman and his colleagues (2006) call “positive institutions.” Examples might include a religious community; a personal philosophy of life; family; a charitable community organization; or a political, environmental, or social cause. History of Positive Psychology Much of the work that may be considered to fall within “positive psychology” originated before the use of the term in 2000, when Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi organized the field around three themes: positive experience, positive personality, and positive communities and institutions (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Psychologists have long been concerned with understanding how people respond to adversity (captured by such concepts as adaptation, resilience, thriving, and growth (Taylor, 1983; Carver, 1998) and whether particular personal, social, and developmental factors may be protective of long-term mental and physical health (Rutter, 1987). Some key contributions to this effort originated within health psychology itself in studies of diseases such as breast cancer and heart disease: • Cognitive adaptation theory. • Dispositional optimism. Positive psychology has roots in the humanistic psychology of the 20th century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. As scientific psychology did not take its modern form until the late 19th century, earlier influences on positive psychology came primarily from philosophical and religious sources. Judaism promotes a Divine Command theory of happiness: happiness and rewards result from following the commands of the divine (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. Socrates advocated self-knowledge as the path to happiness. Plato's allegory of the cave influenced western thinkers who believed that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed happiness, or eudaimonia, is constituted by rational activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life. The Epicureans believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The Stoics believed they could remain happy by being objective and reasonable, and described many "spiritual exercises" comparable to the psychological exercises employed in cognitive behavioral therapy and positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Christianity continued to follow the Divine command theory of happiness. In the Middle Ages, Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the afterlife. The seven deadly sins involve earthly self-indulgence and narcissism. On the other hand, the Four Cardinal Virtues and Three Theological Virtues were supposed to keep one from sin. (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). During the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment, individualism was valued. Simultaneously, creative individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered artists, not just craftsmen. Utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill believed moral actions were actions that maximized happiness for the most number of people; they suggested an empirical science of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral (a science of morality). Thomas Jefferson and other proponents of democracy believed "Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" are inalienable rights, and violation of these rights justifies the overthrow of the government (Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, (2006). The Romantics valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional "true selves," which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and intimacy became main motivations for marriage (Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, (2006). In her detailed critique of positive psychology, American author and political activist, Barbara Ehrenreich carefully outlined the history of its precursor, “positive thinking,” which developed as a counterweight to Calvinism and was built on the New Thought movement of the 19th century (Ehrenreich, 2009). Calvinism held that a brutal Hobbsian reality could only be coped with by immersing oneself in hard work. Proponents of New Thought countered the world was more benign, and individuals had the agency to improve their lives and health through positive thoughts. Ehrenreich (2009) noted Phineas Parkhurst Quimby is “usually considered the founder of the New Thought movement and hence grandfather
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