DOCSLIB.ORG

Connecting the Unconnected in Times of Crisis

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Connecting the Unconnected in Times of Crisis Internet Sectoral Number 1 March, 2021 Overview Year 13 Connecting the unconnected in times of crisis Overcoming the Rural entirely unconnected (International Telecom- munication Union [ITU], 2019). The global com- Digital Divide and munity, however, has failed to meet one of the COVID-19 Challenges Sustainable Development Goals established for 2020 – to achieve universal affordable Inter- to Achieve the net access – which at the current growth rate will not be met until 2043.4 The digital divide Universal Access Goal – that is, the disparity between those who have By Maiko Nakagaki1 and Eleanor Sarpong2 access or ability to use the Internet and those who do not – continues to worsen across many Introduction regions. Most of those who are offline today live in low- and middle-income countries where In- he COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the ternet access is out of reach due to costs, with shocking inequalities in Internet access and women and people in rural areas representing affordability that exist around the world with the majority. Without access to reliable connec- Talmost half of the global population still offline. tivity and devices, billions of rural populations Indeed, it amplified why increasing connectivity risk being further cut off from vital information is urgent. The United Nations Secretary General on health, safety, online learning, opportunities (SG)'s Digital Cooperation Roadmaps3 further ac- to voice their views and engaging in commerce. knowledges this as it ranks global connectivity by Even before the pandemic hit, bringing af- 2030 to be the SG’s number one priority. fordable Internet to many was a challenge. In a The Internet is no longer a luxury for the report the Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) few, but a lifeline that must be for the many. partnered with the ITU, an estimated $428 bil- Nevertheless, nearly 3.6 billion people are still lions of investment is required over the next ten 1 Maiko holds a master’s degree from Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (United States) and has over a decade of international experience in digital policy, private sector development, and gender equality. At the Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI), she oversees and manages key relationships and partnerships with A4AI’s high-level Advisory Council members and more than 100 global members from leading sector stakeholders, including high-tech companies, international organizations, regional bodies, governments, and civil society groups from around the globe. 2 Eleanor holds an MBA from the Warwick Business School (England) and is an alumnus of the Harvard Kennedy School Executive Education Program. She is A4AI’s Deputy Director and Policy Lead, and responsible for policy and advocacy efforts in Asian, African, and Latin American countries. A public policy expert with 19-year experience in the private, public and not-for-profit sectors, her expertise includes ICT regulation, taxation, access, connectivity, universal service and data protection. 3 Find out more: https://www.un.org/en/content/digital-cooperation-roadmap/ 4 The 9.c target is to “significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020.” The Sustainable Development Goal 9 refers to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.” Find out more: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal9. 1 /Internet Sectoral Overview years to deliver high-quality broadband for the world’s remaining uncon- nected population by 2030. Of that amount, a large segment refers to connecting the rural and remote areas, as shown in Figure 1.5 Encourag- ing such investment is a daunting task ahead for the involved stakehold- ers, yet it is a much needed urgent task to close the global digital divide to ensure everyone has Internet access. FIGURE 1 – INVESTMENT NEEDED TO ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO BROADBAND CONNECTIVITY BY 2030 $450 ICT skills and content ~USD40 billion $400 Policy and regulation Maiko Nakagaki ~USD6 billion Alliance for $350 Remote Area Coverage Affordable Internet $300 ~USD70 billion (A4AI), Web $250 Network operation and maintenance Foundation. USD billion ~USD140 billion $200 $150 Metro and backbone fibre ~USD70 billion $100 $50 Mobile infrastructure Capital Expediture (CAPEX) ~USD104 billion $0 Source: ITU (2020a). Current Scenario of the digital divide in Rural Areas INTERNET ACCESS The vulnerable population hit hardest with the digital divide are those in rural and remote areas. Globally, 72% of urban households have Internet access while only 37% of the rural households do. This rural-urban digital di- 5 Universal Internet access is defined in the ITU’s Connecting Humanity report as connecting 90% of the global population who are above 10 years old, and 4G speed is used as a proxy for broadband. This report is available at: http://handle.itu.int/11.1002/pub/81630581-en 2 Overcoming the Rural Digital Divide and COVID-19 Challenges to Achieve the Universal Access Goal vide is more acutely felt in developing countries, where only 28% of house- holds in rural areas have Internet access – in Africa this proportion reaches a mere 6% (ITU, 2020b). The issue of digital divide is further aggravated by climate change. In Mozambique, 68% of the country’s population lives in sparsely pop- ulated rural areas, with 60% living along the coastline. Besides pre- senting unique connectivity challenges, the region is also susceptible to climate shocks (United Nation Development Programme [UNDP], 2021). In 2019 and 2020, Beira, Mozambique’s second largest city, and its surrounding rural areas experienced major disruptions from the impact of multiple cyclones, resulting in limited Internet connectivity. When everything went online in 2020 as a result of the lockdown measures adopted in face of COVID-19, rural and remote communities Eleanor Sarpong around the world became further pushed away from accessing public services, telemedicine resources, remote learning, and just keeping in Alliance for touch with families and friends. This especially impacted rural children Affordable Internet and young people in low- and middle-income countries from receiv- ing education, as they were less likely to have access to the Internet (A4AI), Web at home. Foundation. MEANINGFUL CONNECTIVITY Rural areas are also at a disadvantage from the perspective of “meaningful connectivity”6 – a comprehensive measure of the quality of Internet access that takes into account speeds, data allowance, de- vice type and regular access. In Latin America and the Caribbean, at least 77 million rural populations do not have meaningful connectivity (Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, Inter-American Development Bank, & Microsoft, 2020). With the pandemic, the rural-urban digital divide was exacerbated by the significant increase in Internet access around the world (World Bank, 2020). There are stark disparities in how men and women in rural areas access and use the Internet. This digital gender divide is significant for planning purposes. According to the GSMA, people living in rural areas in low- and middle-income countries are 37% less likely to use mobile Internet than those living in urban areas (Bahia & Delaporte, 2020), a challenge that is further intensified when examining how gender im- pacts connectivity: Women in rural areas from low- and middle -income countries are 20% less likely than men to use mobile Internet (Bahia & Delaporte, 2020). This is the case for a variety of reasons, includ- ing affordability, unreliable connection, and lack of service, as shown in Figure 2. 6 Meaningful connectivity is defined as when one can use the Internet every day using an appropriate device with enough data and a fast connection. Find out more: https://a4ai.org/meaningful-connectivity/ 3 /Internet Sectoral Overview Figure 2 – TOP FACTORS LIMING MORE FREQUENT USE FOR INTERNET USERS (% OF PEOPLE) (...) rural and remote TOTAL RURAL USERS URBAN USERS I cannot afford the 33% 26% communities mobile data 25% often experience plan/Internet service 29% 25% compounding 22% 13% The service is unavailable 19% (no good at all) effects of other 29% 17% forms of social 19% 12% The service is unavailable 14% (no connection at all) exclusion, such 17% 13% as gender, socio- 18% 26% economic class, I don’t have time 25% 23% 28% ethnicity or race. Source: World Wide Web Foundation, 2020. Unique challenges of rural connectivity Throughout the globe, rural areas face a unique set of challenges when expanding connectivity. Among the reasons for this, five factors stand out (Alliance for Affordable Internet [A4AI], 2020). First, rural areas are often sep- arated from existing infrastructure by significant distances and challenging terrain. Connecting them to the Internet is typically substantially more difficult and expensive than connecting urbanised areas, thus creating a disincentive for operators and Internet providers to expand to rural communities. Second- ly, rural areas often lack the resources and supportive infrastructure neces- sary to facilitate broadband deployment, such as technical skills and access to reliable electricity sources. This is especially true in emerging markets. Thirdly, rural areas have lower population densities than more urbanised ones, meaning the number of potential customers in these areas is smaller. This makes it difficult to support the traditional business case for the large
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Monitoring Elac2007: Progress and Current State of Development of Latin American and Caribbean Information Societies
    23 Monitoring eLAC2007: Progress and current state of development of Latin American and Caribbean information societies Observatory for the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean (OSILAC) 23 Monitoring eLAC2007: Progress and current state of development of Latin American and Caribbean information societies Observatory for the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean (OSILAC) September 2007 This document was prepared in the framework of the Observatory for the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean (OSILAC), as a DDPE (División de Desarrollo Productivo y Empresarial) project, which receives financial support from the Institute for Connectivity in the Americas (ICA), the Pan-Americas Program of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the European Commission’s @LIS Project. The document has been elaborated by Valeria Jordan and coordinated by Martin Hilbert, with contributions from Doris Olaya, Soledad Parada and Wilson Peres. The collaboration of Francisca Lira is gratefully acknowledged. The opinions expressed herein have not been subjected to editorial revision, and are the sole responsibility of the authors. They should not be construed as reflecting official positions of the European Union, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) or any of the other organisations that participated in producing the document. United Nations Publication LC/W.151 Copyright © United Nations, September 2007. All rights reserved. Printed at United Nations, Santiago, Chile. Requests for authorization to reproduce this work in whole or in part should be addressed to the Secretary of the Publications Board, United Nations Headquarters, New York, NY 10017, United States. The member States and their governmental institutions may reproduce the work without prior authorization.
    [Show full text]
  • Latin American and Caribbean DNS Marketplace Study
    Latin American and Caribbean DNS Marketplace Study Contents 1. Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................... 4 2. An Introduction to the Region .......................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Which countries are included in the Study? ................................................................................ 7 3. The Internet Environment in the LAC Region .................................................................................... 8 3.1 Factors influencing domain name uptake ................................................................................... 8 3.2 Domain name growth drivers ................................................................................................... 11 3.3 Foundations of Internet development ...................................................................................... 15 3.4 Internet users and Internet use in the region ........................................................................... 33 3.5 Local languages in the region .................................................................................................... 39 4. The Domain Name Industry in the LAC region ................................................................................ 40 4.1 Domain name registries ............................................................................................................ 41 4.2 International Registrars............................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Doing Business in Venezuela 2017
    Caracas Doing Business in Venezuela 2017 Table of contents Constitutional Law ............................................................................................................................... 1 Organizing a Company ........................................................................................................................ 4 Industry Location ................................................................................................................................. 7 Requirements for Registration and Permits ......................................................................................... 9 Tax System ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Foreign Investments .......................................................................................................................... 32 Intellectual Property ........................................................................................................................... 38 Mergers and Acquisitions .................................................................................................................. 41 Banks ................................................................................................................................................ 44 Securities Market ............................................................................................................................... 46 Foreign Exchange Control in Venezuela
    [Show full text]
  • Venezuela (2013)
    OpenNet Initiative Country Profile Venezuela (2013) Venezuela’s Internet penetration rate rose to 42 percent in 2011, placing it on par with regional neighbors including Argentina, Brazil, and Colombia.1 ONI testing in 2010 found no evidence oF Internet Filtering in the country. In 2000, Former President Hugo Chávez Formally decreed the promotion oF Internet use as essential to the country’s development,2 however, the nationalization oF Venezuela’s largest telecommunications company, CANTV, along with increasingly restrictive print and broadcast media policies, has caused concern about the government’s potential desire to implement Internet Filtering. Threats against social media users and a brieF shutdown oF the Internet that took place during the weeks Following Chávez’s death in March 2013 have raised many questions about Future content and use policies under the administration oF Former Chávez Vice President Nicolás Maduro, who was elected president oF the nation in April 2013.3 Background Venezuela has been a leading exporter of petroleum in the Americas since the early twentieth century. In the 1980s, inflation rates rose to unprecedented levels due to a global oil surplus that caused a crippling external debt crisis for Venezuela. Ensuing poverty rates and a series of government corruption scandals led to a period of political unrest during the mid-1990s that effectively came to an end with the election of Hugo Chávez. After Chávez took office in 1999, the nation’s congress ratified a new constitution, and the country was renamed the “Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela” in honor of the eighteenth-century South American political leader and visionary Simón Bolívar.4 Under Chávez’s leadership, Venezuela witnessed sweeping constitutional and policy reforms that triggered anti-government sentiment among the upper and middle classes.
    [Show full text]
  • Locating the Internet in the Parks of Havana Michaelanne Dye David Nemer Laura R
    Locating the Internet in the Parks of Havana Michaelanne Dye David Nemer Laura R. Pina Georgia Institute of Technology University of Kentucky University of Washington Atlanta, GA, USA Lexington, KY, USA Seattle, WA, USA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Nithya Sambasivan Amy S. Bruckman Neha Kumar Google Inc. Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Mountain View, CA, USA Atlanta, GA, USA Atlanta, GA, USA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] ABSTRACT minute, a screen appears with a countdown clock, showing Since March 2015, the public squares of Havana have been that 58 minutes remain. Lara enters some text and hits send. transformed from places where people stroll and children After another five minutes, the website has still not loaded. play to places where crowds gather to try to connect to the “You’re wasting our minutes if you keep trying here,” Yuniel internet at all hours of the day and night. We present a field tells her, “The connection is too slow.” Yuniel maneuvers the investigation of public WiFi hotspots in Havana, Cuba, and car through Havana Vieja’s crowded streets, past the capitol examine the possibilities of internet access these limited and building, and into the Galeano neighborhood, home of the expensive hotspots present to individuals, many of who are popular Fe del Valle Park WiFi hotspot. The ten minute drive experiencing the internet for the first time. Drawing on field- between hotspots proves useless, however, as large crowds work conducted in 2015-2016, we underscore the reconfigu- are overloading the router in this park as well.
    [Show full text]
  • Venezuela Key Challenges to the Community Network Model in Venezuela
    Community Networks GLOBALGLOBAL INFORMATION INFORMATION 2018 2018 SOCIETY WATCH 2018 THE 43 COUNTRY REPORTS included in this year’s Global SOCIETYCOMMUNITY WATCH NETWORKS 2018 Information Society Watch (GISWatch) capture the different GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY WATCH experiences and approaches in setting up community networks across the globe. They show that key ideas, CommunityCommunity Networks Networks such as participatory governance systems, community ownership and skills transfer, as well as the “do-it-yourself” spirit that drives community networks in many different contexts, are characteristics that lend them a shared purpose and approach. The country reports are framed by eight thematic reports that deal with critical issues such as the regulatory framework necessary to support community networks, sustainability, local content, feminist infrastructure and community networks, and the importance of being aware of “community stories” and the power structures embedded in those stories. GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY WATCH GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY WATCH GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY WATCH 2018 Report www.GISWatch.org International Development Research Centre Centre de recherches pour le développement international AssociAtion for Progressive communicAtions (APc) A SSOCI ATION FOR PROGRESSIVE COMMUNIC ATIONS (AP C) And internAtionAl develoPment reseArch centre (idrc) Tapa_GISW_2018.indd 1 12/10/18 12:44 Global Information Society Watch 2018 International Development Research Centre Centre de recherches pour le développement international
    [Show full text]
  • General Country of Origin Information Report Venezuela 2020
    General Country of Origin Information Report Venezuela 2020 Date June 2020 Page 1 of 112 General Country of Origin Information Report Venezuela 2020 | Publication details City The Hague Assembled by Country of Origin Information Reports Section (DAF/AB) Page 2 of 112 General Country of Origin Information Report Venezuela 2020 | Table of Contents Publication details ............................................................................................2 Table of Contents ............................................................................................3 Introduction ....................................................................................................5 1 Political and security situation .................................................................... 6 1.1 Political development and society ......................................................................6 1.1.1 The Maduro government ..................................................................................6 1.1.2 The current (political) balance of power ..............................................................8 1.2 The security situation .......................................................................................9 1.2.1 The security situation, focusing on certain areas in particular ................................9 1.3 Freedom of movement ................................................................................... 12 1.3.1 Travel restrictions .........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Intellectual Property on the Internet: a Survey of Issues
    INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ON THE INTERNET: A SURVEY OF ISSUES December 2002 WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ON THE INTERNET: A SURVEY OF ISSUES December 2002 WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION TABLE OF CONTENTS lll lll lll 3 INTRODUCTION 6 I. THE INTERNET AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIGITAL SOCIETY 8 II. THE MIGRATION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY TO THE INTERNET 17 III. (a) COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS 24 (i) INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COPYRIGHT 25 (ii) THE WIPO INTERNET TREATIES 26 (a) Scope of Rights 26 (b) Enforcement and Management of Rights 27 (c) Status of the WIPO Internet Treaties 29 (iii) EMERGING COPYRIGHT ISSUES 30 (a) Scope of Copyright Protection in the Digital Environment 30 (b) Liability of Internet Service Providers 32 (c) Rights of Performers in a Digital Environment 33 (d) Rights of Digital Broadcasters 34 (e) Linking of Copyright Information Online 35 (f) Protection of Databases 36 (g) Peer-to-Peer File Sharing – Napster 37 (iv) LICENSING AND RIGHTS MANAGEMENT IN THE DIGITAL ARENA 38 (a) Licensing and Collective Management of Rights 38 (b) Digital Rights Management 39 (c) Trends in Licensing and Rights Management 39 III. (b) TRADEMARKS AND OTHER RIGHTS IN DISTINCTIVE SIGNS 41 (i) IMPORTANCE OF TRADEMARKS ONLINE 41 (ii) DEVELOPMENTS IN USE OF TRADEMARKS ONLINE 41 (a) Use of Trademarks as Meta Tags 42 (b) Sale of Trademarks as Keywords 43 (c) Pop-Up Advertisements 43 (d) Mousetrapping 43 (e) Linking and framing 44 (iii) PRINCIPLE OF TERRITORIALITY AND USE OF TRADEMARKS ONLINE 44 (a) Acquisition
    [Show full text]
  • Unleashing the Internet in the Caribbean Removing Barriers to Connectivity and Stimulating Better Access in the Region
    Unleashing the Internet in the Caribbean Removing Barriers to Connectivity and Stimulating Better Access in the Region February 2017 iStock.com/Claudiad By Bionda Fonseca-Hoeve, Michele Marius, Shernon Osepa, Jane Coffin, and Michael Kende Unleashing the Internet in the Caribbean – Stimulating Better Access in the Region 1 Table of Contents Letter from the President ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 2 Overview of the Caribbean .............................................................................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Multistakeholderism and Internet Governance: a Gateway to Open Democracy in Latin America?
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Center for Global Communication Studies Internet Policy Observatory (CGCS) 11-2015 Multistakeholderism and Internet Governance: A Gateway to Open Democracy in Latin America? Celia Lerman Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/internetpolicyobservatory Part of the Communication Commons Recommended Citation Lerman, Celia. (2015). Multistakeholderism and Internet Governance: A Gateway to Open Democracy in Latin America?. Internet Policy Observatory. Retrieved from https://repository.upenn.edu/internetpolicyobservatory/16 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/internetpolicyobservatory/16 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Multistakeholderism and Internet Governance: A Gateway to Open Democracy in Latin America? Abstract How is the momentum toward multistakeholderism in Internet governance playing out in Latin America? What broader implications does this have to open democracy in the region? In this report, Internet Policy Observatory affiliate Celia Lerman, analyzes the distinct evolution of the multistakeholder model in the context of Latin America’s democracies, which traditionally have not incorporated deliberative processes and multistakeholder participation into governance structures. Lerman asserts that this evolution can be explained by the effect of external events rather than by internal driving forces, concluding that this policy evolution moved from the international to the regional and national due to the fact Internet policy issues only recently became a matter of perceived importance to citizens in the region. The study looks at Latin America as a whole, highlighting several national case studies and exploring in greater depth Brazil’s much earlier adoption of the multistakeholder model. Disciplines Communication Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 International License.
    [Show full text]
  • Economic and Social Benefits of Internet Openness
    OECD DIGITAL ECONOMY PAPERS No. 257 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BENEFITS OF INTERNET OPENNESS 2016 MINISTERIAL MEETING ON THE DIGITAL ECONOMY BACKGROUND REPORT ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BENEFITS OF INTERNET OPENNESS FOREWORD This report provides the backdrop for the discussion in Panel 1.1 “Economic and Social Benefits of Internet Openness” of the OECD Ministerial Meeting on the Digital Economy, 21-23 June 2016, Cancún (Mexico). It presents a framework for understanding and analysing Internet openness, the factors that influence it, and its effects. It also presents initial qualitative and quantitative evidence on the effects of Internet openness on trade, innovation and entrepreneurship, and macroeconomic performance, and social wellbeing. The report was prepared by Sarah Box and Jeremy West, OECD, for the Committee on Digital Economy Policy (CDEP) with contributions from Geoff Huston*, Emily Taylor, Christopher Kuner, Tim Denton, Fabien Curto Millet of Google, Usman Ahmed of PayPal, and Eric Jardine of the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI). The report was approved and declassified by the Committee on Digital Economy Policies (CDEP) on 30 May 2016 and prepared for publication by the OECD Secretariat. * Mr Huston has revised and consolidated the essays he wrote for the OECD into one longer piece, which is available at www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2015-10/open.pdf. Note to Delegations: This document is also available on OLIS under reference code: DSTI/ICCP/(2015)17/FINAL This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Media and Virality in the 2014 Student Protests in Venezuela: Rethinking Engagement and Dialogue in Times of Imitation
    This is a repository copy of Social Media and Virality in the 2014 Student Protests in Venezuela: Rethinking Engagement and Dialogue In Times of Imitation. White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/88913/ Version: Accepted Version Article: Lugo-Ocando, J, Hernández, A and Marchesi, M (2015) Social Media and Virality in the 2014 Student Protests in Venezuela: Rethinking Engagement and Dialogue In Times of Imitation. International Journal of Communication, 9. pp. 3782-3802. ISSN 1932-8036 Reuse Unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. The copyright exception in section 29 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. The publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the White Rose Research Online record for this item. Where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. Takedown If you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing [email protected] including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. [email protected] https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ Social Media and Virality in the Students’ Protests in Venezuela in 2014: Rethinking Engagement and Dialogue In Times of Imitation JAIRO LUGO-OCANDO University of Leeds, UK ALEXANDER HERNANDEZ Universidad del Zulia, Venezuela MONICA MARCHESI Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Catalonia, Spain Jairo Lugo-Ocando: [email protected] Alexander Hernández: [email protected] Monica Marchesi: [email protected] This article examines the relationship between social media, political mobilization and civic engagement in the context of the students’ protests in Venezuela of 2014.
    [Show full text]