Gendering Soviet Dissent

CEU eTD Collection

In fulfillmentof partial GENDERINGDISSENT: THEWHY QUESTION ANDWOMAN SOVIET HOW WAS EXCLUDED FROM THE AGENDA OF SOVIET DISSIDENTSEXCLUDED AGENDAOF (1964 FROM SOVIET THE the requirements forthe European thedegreeinWomen‘s and Master of Supervisor:Francisca Professor de Haan DepartmentGender Studies of Central European University Svetlana Budapest, Hungary GenderHistory Submitted to Submitted 2013 By Zakharova

–

1982).

CEU eTD Collection dissent and by placing the activities of dissenters in the wider context of the Cold War War Cold the of context wider the in compe dissenters of activities the placing by and dissent by phenomenon, diversified and complex to aspires thesis This (1964 Union Soviet the Partyof Communist the of Secretary General the was Brezhnev replaces withthe image it ofStalin tha more blurs that approach is socialism state and USSR way the affected Union Soviet the of collapse the and War Cold together. considered be should levels structural the in situation domestic the both by preconditioned was question woman the ignored dissidents Soviet movements. oppositional Soviet of history the on at the international Budapest, in Societythe Open Archives the affected America of States United the and Union Soviet the exc called luded from the historiography of historiography the from luded

tition. ― This thesis is devoted to the phenomenon of Soviet dissent during the years when Leonid when years the during dissent Soviet of phenomenon the to devoted is thesis This In this thesis I focused on focused I thesis this In oit no ad h goa stain n h itrainl rn, n ta tee two these that and arena, international the in situation global the and Union Soviet woman question woman

arena had ha and still arena otiue o h historiography the to contribute ‖

was excluded from the agenda of Soviet dissidents, why women are women why dissidents, Soviet of agenda the from excluded was

constructed in contemporary historiography contemporary in constructed n eet yas of years seventy

‘s Soviet liberal dissent and explored the questions why the so the why questions the explored and dissent liberal Soviet

totalitarian r Soviet dissent and how the Cold Wa Cold the how and dissent Soviet ve a profound impact profound on a ve I argued in my thesis that the Cold War and the situation thesituation and War Cold thatthe myIargued thesis in analyzing Abstract ii

ule. oe ral, as tid o xlr hw the how explore to tried also I broadly, More

Moreover, I argue that the fact that almost all almost that fact the that argue I Moreover, oit itr it aitrcl aees and sameness ahistorical into history Soviet

the gender dimension of Soviet liberal liberal Soviet of dimension gender the f oit isn b cnieig t s a as it considering by dissent Soviet of

se Soviet history, and particularly, history, Soviet s

, issues

in which t which in . r competition between competition r ,

Based on Based and to challenge to and

he history of history he

research in research –

1982).

the the the - CEU eTD Collection encouraging a res my conduct to me helped enormously which encouragement, Haan de Francisca Professor would work this whom without as priual gaeu t m fml ad red wo ee las uprie and supportive always were who friends and family my to grateful particularly also m is ad oeot I ol lk t epes y eun gaiue o my to gratitude genuine my express to like would I foremost, and First in spit in e

of everything that was going around, and, especially, to Tatiana Prusakova Tatiana to especially, and, around, going was that everything of

o hr ain giac, rtqe togtu avcs and advices thoughtful critique, guidance, patient her for Acknowledgement iii

never s

earch and to write this work. I work. this write to and earch have have

been

supervisor supervisor written. CEU eTD Collection Soviet Brezhnev Union years? the during 2 Chapter 1 Chapter Introduction Acknowledgements Abstract Bibliography Conclusion from Soviet absent dissidents’ the question agenda was 5 Chapter t question was from woman absent 4 Chapter historical narratives the from 3 Chapter 2.1 Theperiod of détente: origins, spirit, and consequences 1.3 and Dissidence dissent in the Soviet Union 1.2 Gender order the in UnionSoviet 1.1 TheCold War and the New Cold War History 5.3 Human rights and 5.2 Soviet liberal dissidents theirand contacts with the West 5.1 TheCold War Competition and Women’s Rights: who was at the forefront? 4.2 Soviet dissidents and woman the question: the internal reasons of indifference 4.1 dissentSoviet 3.3 Soviet dissidents in the Western and Soviet mass constructingmedia: the image of 3.2 и Россия Женщина [Woman and Russia]: first feminist writing from Soviet the Union? 3.1 Soviet dissidents: A history of the movement woman question 2.3 TheGender Order in Soviet the Union during Brezhnev’s years: re 2.2 Brezhnev’s Leonid years: the ...... 3.3.2 3.3.2 The image ofSoviet dissidents in the 3.3.1 The image ofdissidents in the Soviet mass media 3.1.4 MoscowThe Helsinki Group and the woman question: inclusive exclusion Samizdat:3.1.3 one ofthe key elements of Soviet di 3.1.2 phenomenonThe of dissentSoviet from a historical perspective product of the Soviet epoch? Soviet3.1.1 dissent:a new milestone in the history of Russian oppositional movements or a Gender2.3.2 order in the Soviet Union during Brezhnev’s years 2.3.1 Transformations of thegender order in the Soviet Union: from 1917 to 1964 Women’s Women’s roles responsibilitiesand within the Sovietdissident movement

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CEU eTD Collection Soviet authorities‘ monopoly on monopoly authorities‘ Soviet Un Soviet the in rights human of violation the to attention attract to tried who and USSR mov rights human the of development the for dissent Soviet of significance the on Brezhne Leonid of years Politics,‖ International 3 2005). MichiganPress, 2 1 th from result.‖ a as constructed was worldview what but excluded, were what movement. the Pol Poland in communism defeated book 2005 her in out pointed Penn Shana as unique: not are competition. War Cold the of context wider the in dissenters of activities the placing by and dissent liberal divers and complex towards forward move to aspires thesis myths ―heroic aboutthe liber of activities the and dissent, liberal as exclusively almost dissent Soviet of phenomenon the considers historiography of body main the However, country.

Francisca de Haan, ―Eugenie Cotton, Pak Cotton, ―Eugenie Haan, Franciscade Penn, Shana ofSamizdat,‖ Existence Material ―The AnnKomaromi, and‘s mostly This Despite the fact that women actively participated in the Soviet dissident movement, they movement, dissident Soviet the in participated actively women that fact the Despite e main body of historiographybody of main of e

Solidarity, although, as the autho the as although, Solidarity, excluded from excluded the Solidarity’s Secret: the women who defeated communism in Poland Poland in communism defeated who women the Secret: Solidarity’s hss nlss h peoeo o Sve dset n h Sve Uin uig the during Union Soviet the in dissent Soviet of phenomenon the analyses thesis

2 liberalization (and even dissolution) of the Soviet Union. The work of work The Union. Soviet the of dissolution) even (and liberalization

But according to to according But

to ified phenomenon; it does so does it phenomenon; ified

be published inpublished be

dissidents‖ v (1964 v

th e mainstream narrative about narrative mainstream e

– the the , historian historian

Journal of Women’s History Women’s of Journal

1 so the 1982), - oe ae lo exc also are women Den

that for a impeded that fortime long truth and provide and truth -

ai and Claudia Jones: Rethinking Transnational Feminism and and Feminism Transnational Rethinking Jones: Claudia and ai Soviet dissent and the exclusion of the so ofthe exclusion the and dissent Soviet a r convincingly shows convincingly r Introduction Francisca de Haan de Francisca re - thinking of Soviet dissent by considering it as a a as it considering by dissent Soviet of thinking 1 Slavic Review Slavic -

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heroic Soviet dissent. This situation is situation This dissent. Soviet heroic 25/4 (2013). (2013). 25/4

63/3 (2004): 599 597, (2004): 63/3 Solidarity’s Secret: the women who who women the Secret: Solidarity’s

stagnation.

―the question is not only who or who only not is question ―the , the gender dimension of Soviet of dimension gender the al dissidents are surrounded by surrounded are dissidents al

they were active participants in participants active were they critica (Michigan: The University of University (Michigan: The

l historical analysi l historical The exclusion of women of exclusion The

Scholars widely agree widely Scholars - 600. ion -

calledwoman ement in the in ement

challenged the s. This people about

CEU eTD Collection isn with dissent to historiography of body main the in reduced was Union) Soviet the in activities oppositional all (and dissent Soviet of phenomenon the USSR, the of dissolution subsequent Union. and War Cold the of legacies manifold and important anattitude towards existed women that question goalsthesis. ofthis fa media mass Soviet yearsin the duringBrezhnev and the Question") in example Russia (for ofRevolution1917 October Great However society. and womenfamily theof in place and therole 4 a wh from wit roles women‘s movement, dissident Soviet work this In before. done thoroughly never general in movements research thesis. questionsofthis main the answer to order in together considered be should levels structural two these that and both dissidents Soviet all almost that fact the that claimI Secondly, narratives. historical the from oppositionists of typesother all also but women, research m Western the in constructed were dissidents Liberal rights). political

spires to take into account account into take to spires The term ―woman question‖ is usually connected with the discussions in the second half of the 19 halfof second the in withthe discussions connected usually is term―womanquestion‖ The mily and women‘s problems. Therefore I believe that it is appropriate use the term ―the woman question‖ for thefor womanquestion‖ ―theuse theterm appropriate I that itis believe Therefore women‘sproblems. mily and Sve dsiet ams uaiosy goe te oa question. woman the ignored unanimously almost dissidents Soviet y

the itrcl artvs bu Sve dset Mroe, n hs ok cnie te reasons the consider I work this in Moreover, dissent. Soviet about narratives historical n hs hss cam frt f l, ht bcue f h Cl Wr optto and competition War Cold the of because that, all, of first claim, I thesis this In T

4 domestic situat his thesis aspires to contribute to contribute to aspires thesis his

s ae iea opstoit wo hrd Weste shared who oppositionists liberal male as from the activities of the majority of Soviet dissidents reflects not only not reflects dissidents Soviet of majority the of activities the from a

ou o hmn ihs udrto b lbrl isdns any s ii and civil as mainly dissidents liberal by (understood rights human on focus hin liberal dissent, liberal hin

and to approach this phenomenon from phenomenon this approach to and ion in the Soviet Union and theSoviet Unionand ion in global factors and especially the Cold War and to and War Cold the especially and factors global and

ral speaking broadly

and d still existsd still an intheRussian contribute to the discussion discussion the to contribute the history the

ignored the woman question was question woman the ignored firstly, , 2 ,

see Alexandra Kollontai "The Social Basis of the Woman ofthe Basis Woman Social "The Kollontai Alexandra see

the global in situation ,

, , osdr h itrly ewe mns and men‘s between interplay the consider

the term was active was theterm especially I of Soviet dissent Soviet of

to discuss women‘s place in place women‘s discuss to explore n values rn a

, oe‘ multipl women‘s

gender perspective gender of the dissolution of the Soviet the of dissolution the of d Western societies, butalso which , ly used before and afterthe and before used ly about women‘s exclusion women‘s about s mda n Western and media ass and Soviet op Soviet and

the international arena, eody ti thesis this Secondly,

excluded not only only not excluded preconditioned by preconditioned

Soviet society and societyand Soviet explore th

rls n the in roles e Soviet liberal Soviet

century about centuryabout a , which , misogynist positional positional

how the how

was was

CEU eTD Collection narrative that replaces more that 70 years of Soviet history with the image of Stalin‘s totalit Stalin‘s of image the with history Soviet yearsof 70 that more replaces that narrative the about questions historical c how victims million a 2007 in Washington in opened communism, the towards step a is work of victims the to Memorial internationalthe of foundation history.The Soviet of―normalization‖ this that believe I Thirdly, dissent. liberal Soviet particularly, betwe competition http://www.victimsofcommunism.org/about/ 5 inclu fields principal The research. the for importance crucial of is that literature of Subsequently thesis. this for questions research main the locate I introduction States ofAmericaaffect activities anddissidents. image ofSoviet impa the studies and Brezhnev Leonid of years the during dissent liberal Soviet of dimension gender the explores it defined, narrowly dissent; Soviet of phenomenon the to devoted is defined, broadly unde complex more towards step a also So histories. national on field that in focus dominant the of because now By possible. analysis state, the―Evil Empire

―About the Foundation,‖ ―About the muim n te oit no are Union Soviet the and ommunism n re t answ to order In - - - Therefore the questions research thisthesis for are: pers transnational the is it that highlight to important also is It

ct of the Cold War competition between the Soviet Union and the United States on the on States United the and Union Soviet the between competition War Cold the of ct How Whyarewomen Why

f omns‖ ugss that suggests communism‖ of en the Eastern and Western Bloc Western and Eastern the en did did

Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, Foundation, Memorial Communism of Victims .‖ Soviet dissidents almost almost dissidents Soviet

the phenomenon of Soviet dissent? dissent? phenomenon ofthe Soviet h Cl Wr optto bten h Sve Uin n te U the and Union Soviet the between competition War Cold the

er the research questions the work is structured as followed. In the the In followed. as structured is work the questions research the er ,

gender has not yet been incorporated fully in the international history international the in fully incorporated been yet not has gender

excluded from dissent? the historicalaboutexcluded Soviet narratives allegedly ―abnormal‖ Soviet society I want to challenge the the challenge to want I society Soviet ―abnormal‖ allegedly , accessed 12.02.2013. 12.02.2013. accessed , rstanding of the Cold War history. War Cold the of rstanding

osrce i today in constructed nd dedicated ―to commemorate the more than 100 100 than more the commemorate ―to dedicated nd

3 od a thinking War Cold entirely ignore

s affected Soviet opposi Soviet affected s

the so ‘ world. s still , -

calledwoman question? I believe that my thesis is thesis my that believe I ral affect greatly pective that made my my made that pective Therefore this thesis, this Therefore tional activities and, activities tional 5

y sig normal asking By I discuss I de the history the de s

the body the the way way the nited arian

CEU eTD Collection which Soviet hi Soviet which N the problems used for research. my elabo will I Finally chapter). the in further discussed the of characteristics main (the dissidents and dissent Soviet and Union Soviet the in order gender the détente, and War Cold the of Россия и Женщина problems. groups W Helsinki Moscow the of documents con of histories the consider not only withthein domesticcountry, situation theinternational butalsowith context. Union Soviet the in question woman the of opening the re during the on and years Brezhnev Union Soviet the in order gender the on elaborate will I finally, and, Stagnation, the in situation domestic diss Soviet of phenomenon the and Soviet Union the in situation domestic the understand to helps that context international important cons and course origins, the consider will I First, and War Cold post gender the about stru ew Cold War historiography as one of the most important factors that affected the way in way the affected that factors important most the of one as historiography War Cold ew , td oit dissent Soviet cted olwn te nrdcin i te is catr wl dsus h mjr theoretical major the discuss will I chapter first the in introduction, the Following Chapter t Chapter background historical the provide will I chapter second the In

founded in 1976 in founded significant Subsequently, story is written today. Further i Further today. written is story

hree order in the Soviet Union ( Union Soviet the in order - Cold Cold genderWar competition) and dissent. thephenomenonSoviet of

for this thesis. I will consider the end of the Cold War and the emergence of emergenceof the andWar Cold the of end the Iconsider thesis. will this for

is devoted specifically to the phenomenon of Soviet of phenomenon the to specifically devoted is

Wmn n Rsi] ulse i 17 ad fnly wl cnie the consider will finally, and, 1979 in published Russia] and [Woman

, Soviet Union during the years of Leonid Brezhnev, the so the Brezhnev, Leonid of years the during Union Soviet

to show how Soviet liberal dissidents considered considered dissidents liberal Soviet how show to I will will I

oit isn ad li that claim and dissent Soviet lot xlsvl a lbrl dissent. liberal as exclusively almost - opening of the woman question. I claim in this chapter that t that chapter this in claim I question. woman the of opening analyze atch Group, one of of one Group, atch

h eegne of emergence the n. eod I il provide will I Second, ent. I believe believe I n the n 4

equences of the period of détente, which is an an is which détente, of period the of equences first rate on the methodology and sources that I that sources and methodology the on rate they during the Brezhnev years Brezhnev the during

chapter I will also consider the debates the consider also will I chapter were were

the main body of historiography historiography of body main the the the above and are an importan an are and best eiit aidt magazine samizdat feminist Then etoe fed wl be will fields mentioned - known necessary

information the I will will I

dissent. First, I will will I First, dissent. women‘s rights and rights women‘s

historiog oit d Soviet was connected connected was

analyze for my work. work. my for - called Era of of Era called t part of the the of part t about ah of raphy issident

he re he some

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CEU eTD Collection usin rm h Sve dsiet‘ gna Aog h ms iprat atr I factors important most the Among agenda. dissidents‘ Soviet the from question historical narratives h thedissent in about narratives constructed the in were women of dissidents absence the which that claim in I historiography. way the affected greatly they that believe dissent Soviet on media mass Western in articles The media. mass printed Western and Soviet in dissidents Soviet the of representation Review Women's History (WIDF),‖ Federation Democratic International Women's ofthe thecase Organisations: Women's Transnational 2011); College, Budapest CEU, (1941 Women's Committee Soviet the theoretical a struggles: and rights women's of domain international the and Union 6 to dissidents. Soviet dissidents) liberal especially (and to the affected dissidents relations these how demonstrate Soviet and West the the between on elaborate relations will I Secondly, activities. dissidents‘ from question woman the excluded internationally rights women‘s of promotion the of forefront the at competition diss Soviet the from question women‘s witnes years the Soviet Union dissidents Soviet the of structure patriarchal

I follow and support the argument made by Francisca de Haan and Yana Knopova; see Knopova; Yana and Haan de madeFrancisca by theargument support follow I and

In the fourth chapter I will consider the domestic factors for excluding the woman woman the excluding for factors domestic the consider will I chapter fourth the In Cold WarCold historiography the in Finally, in relatively advancedrelatively position , the influential ideological assumption that the woman question had been ―solved‖ in ―solved‖ been had question woman the that assumption ideological influential the , the sed as ei ws n important an was media mass a ,

and therefore and revived attention of the Soviet authorities towa authorities Soviet the of attention revived ― . gender battlefield gender

19/4 (2010). 19/4

hpe five chapter Francisca De Haan, ―Continuing Cold War Paradigms in Western Historiography of Historiography ParadigmsWestern in War Cold ―Continuing Haan, FranciscaDe

- idents‘ agenda. First of all, I will elaborate on the Cold War War Cold the on elaborate will I all, of First agenda. idents‘

1991), the the

I will discuss the external factors for excluding the woman woman the excluding for factors external the discuss will I gender

fami CEU Gender Studies Department master theses; 2011/21 ( 2011/21 theses; master Studies Department Gender CEU ‖ in

were among the first accounts of accounts first the among were and claim that the that claim and

Soviet society.Soviet y and ly

equality problem did not exist not equality did problem atr contributing factor 5 pics

oit ad h misogyn the and society

that

were constructed as the main focus of focus main the as constructed were

fact that the that fact 6

a a iprat atr that factor important an was rds the woman question), woman the rds oe‘ ex women‘s framework and a case study of of study case a and framework

Soviet Union was at the at was Union Soviet

(although the Brezhnev(although the Yana Knopova, Knopova, Yana this phenomenon an phenomenon this s attd o male of attitude ist lso fo the from clusion eroic Soviet Soviet eroic include Budapest: Budapest: The Soviet Soviet The

and the the the d I d

CEU eTD Collection summitryand arms thenuclear race are particularlyprivileged.‖ dimension cultural cetera et expansion, competition, space and economic military, race, arms the explores War Cold the to devoted literature of body resources military and relations, interstate the is security War, World Second the of end the since history War Cold and underKhrushchev,‖ 13 88. 2012), Routledge, Smith G. (London: Union War European Cold to From Postwar in Europe, Gender and Women 12 (1999). 104/2 11 Theory, Interpretations, 10 330. (2011): 25/2 Societies, and Politics European 9 War: Cold 1941 the of Origins the and States United 8 7 debates,‖ ―kitchen the it, puts discourse War Cold the Haan in components key de the of one Francisca was ―[g]ender as although, historiography War Cold the in position marginal mainstream War. the narrativeCold about t of dimensions alternative of field i ―naïve practitioners, and myths all not though best its of some d understand of to ability cases its in the multicultural in and, analyses, in multipolar and research so the of emergence

Barbara J. Falk, ―Resistance and Dissent in Central and Eastern Europe: An Emerging Historiography,‖ East East Historiography,‖ An Emerging Europe: Eastern and Central in Dissent Falk,and ―Resistance J. Barbara Painter, S. David security: ―Europe‘s Zielonka, Jan

Susan E. Reid, ―Cold War in the Kitchen: Gender and the De the and Gender in the Kitchen: War ―Cold Reid, SusanE. in 1945‖ west since eat and workEurope in Women‘s Life, ofModern ―Motor as the ―Women Haan, Franciscade instance For Co the Reviewing ―Introduction: Arne Westad, Odd gende h clas o te oit no ad h ed f t of end the and Union Soviet the of collapse The Relations International of field the in dominated that paradigm realist the to According t h sm time same the At

e Cl Wr itr, oe itras eety cnwegd h iprac of importance the acknowledged recently historians some History, War Cold New r dimension of the Cold War War Cold the of dimension r

see Melvyn P. Leffler, ―The Cold War: What do What War: Leffler,Cold ―The P. Melvyn see The Cold War: An International History International An War: Cold The Slavic Review Slavic 13 s

of the Cold War. However, even in the post the in even However, War. Cold the of (ed.) Odd Arne Westad (London: Frank Cass, 2000), 5. Cass,2000), Frank (London: Arne (ed.) Westad Odd Susan Bridger‘s chapter on Valentina Tereshkova space flight in the book the in flight space Tereshkova Valentina on chapter Bridger‘s Susan -

ald e Cl Wr itr ta ―n t essence its ―in that History War Cold New called ,

eerh n h gne dmnin f h Cl Wr tl ocpe a occupies still War Cold the of dimension gender the on research

e od a sc a gne ad ae ht a calne the challenge can that race and gender as such War Cold he

61/2 (2002). 61/2 a great confusion a

mpressions‖ regarding the Cold War were overcome within the within overcome were War Cold the regarding mpressions‖ .

From

include 11

are the

,‖ - feet n smtms poig mindsets opposing sometimes and ifferent 1947 1947 ld War‖ in War‖ ld International Affairs International

the foremost the

90 onward 1980s 6 Susan E Reid‘s articles that explores that articles Reid‘s E Susan

(New York: Columbia University Press, 1972). 1972). Press, University (New Columbia York:

(London: Routledge, 1999); John Lewis Gaddis, Gaddis, Lewis John 1999); (London:Routledge, -

Stalinization of Consumer Taste in the Soviet Union Union Soviet inTaste the Consumer of Stalinization ―We Now―WeKnow Reviewing the Cold War: Approaches, Approaches, War: Cold the Reviewing bases ,

e od a peodtoe the preconditioned War Cold he

67/1 (1991): 127 (1991): 67/1

9 - histor in (eds.) Joanna Regulska and Bonnie and Regulska inJoanna(eds.)

Cold War histories ―superpower histories War Cold

of power. of

?‖ ?‖ as ae tre t study to started have ians American Historical Review Historical American . ‖ 12

esearches devoted to devoted esearches 7 [is] -

137. Therefore the main the Therefore

main element of element main utacia in multiarchival

the . ‖

10 famous The The

Even

CEU eTD Collection f olciiain n industrialization, and collectivization of the of role the discusses literature of country,the in gender impactorder the its on andwomen‘s lives in Russian Revolution body substantial A thesis. this for relevance great InternationalWomen's Federation Democratic (WIDF).‖ Women's Transnational of Historiography Western in Paradigms Era Khrushchev the in Women 21 1 2002.), Palgrave, Hampshire: Basingstoke, 20 1. 2004), Macmillan, Palgrave Hampshire: Basingstoke, (Houndmills, Attwood 19 1978). Press, of California Lapidus, W. Gail 1976); 18 17 1997). Press, CambridgeUniversity Evans Clements, Barbara 1993); Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: 16 15 2004). Era, Khrushchev the in Women 14 evaluate Glasnost. and Perestroika Gorbachev‘s and voluntarism and ―Thaw‖ Khrushchev‘s terror, and industrialization collectivization, Stalin‘s Revolution, Stagnation, of Era the namely explained be can situation yea to devoted been has attention less even correct, is observation Union. Soviet the in order gender the of development the understanding years Khrushchev the in women participation inpoliticallife.

For example,B For Brezhnev‖ ―Reconsidering EdwinBacon, Melanie Sacks, Michael Paul Goldman, Z.WendyGoldman, d Fli Space First Woman's the and Tereshkova Valentina the and Cosmos: War Cold ―The SusanBridger, e Haan, ―Continuing Cold War Paradigms.‖ War Cold ―Continuing Haan, e s f ―stagnation of rs

The gender order and the woman questionin woman the and order gender The g The However, M However, the Brezhnev era Brezhnev the Ilič Women at the Gates the at Women , ―Introduction‖ in in ―Introduction‖ , ender the Order theduring Soviet in Union Brezhnev years acon, Sandle, Sandle, acon, Women's Work in Soviet Russia: Continuity in the Midst of Change Midst of the in Continuity Russia: Work Soviet in Women's Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social life, Social and Policy Family Soviet Revolution: and State the Women, elanie . Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development and Social changes changes Social and Equality, Development Society: Soviet in Women ‖

hr i n mngah r oue niey eoe t th to devoted entirely volume or monograph no is There

Brezhnev Reconsidered Brezhnev (ed.) Melanie Ilič (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire : Palgrave Macmillan, Macmillan, : Palgrave Hampshire Basingstoke, (Houndmills, Ilič Melanie (ed.) Ilič and new vol new and , ; Melanie Ilič, Ilič, ; Melanie t es partially least at Women in the Khrushchev Era Khrushchev the in Women 18

states that little has been written about the gender order and Soviet Soviet and gender order the writtenbeenabouthas little that states made , despite the fact that this period is of crucial importance for for importance crucial of is period this that fact the despite , 14

it n Facsa e Haan de Francisca and in - 2.

less attractive for historians historians attractivefor less umes on umes Brezhnev Reconsidered, Brezhnev

Women in the Stalin Era Stalin the in Women 17

h polm o Sve wrig oe ad their and women working Soviet of problems the , y t by .

7 this period have period this he fact that Gorbachev‘s label for this period, period, this for label Gorbachev‘s that fact he

, (eds.) Melanie (eds.) , t he Soviet Union is another is Union Soviet he 20 15

(eds.) E (eds.)

ecently historians have started to re to started have historians ecently (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). 2002). Macmillan, (Basingstoke:Palgrave ‘s Bolshevik Women Bolshevik

emerged. gender aspect gender article ―Continuing Cold Cold ―Continuing article

. Bacon, M. Sandle (Houndmills, M. (Houndmills, Sandle . Bacon, Organizations Ilič than , Susan E. Reid and Lynne and Reid E. Susan , the 19 21

time turbulent (Westport: Praeger, Praeger, (Westport: While Melanie While However

(Cambridge: ( s 1917 Berkeley

of the Brezhnev the of : the case of the the of case the :

field that is of is that field s su. T issue. is - 1936 , the , : University : University 16 in ght‖

the rolethe

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CEU eTD Collection important to point out that in the West the interest in Soviet dissent was largely determine largely was dissent Soviet in interest the West the in that out point to important historiography. Russian and Western both in subject this to devoted is literature Ideology in theSoviet Union Buckley Union.ForherSoviet Mary instance inthedevoted towomen year Brezhnev the during Union Soviet the in women of places and re this of part a yet not is dimension state. totalitarian a as Union the Soviet focus a on with often and associates War 25 24 Bonner, Elena 1992); Books, newest the period USSR: the in Dissent История Perspective People N.Y. (Ithaca, 23 22 th in generated Empire,‖ ―Evil the as Union accounts hand‖ is this on of theSoviet Union. collapse the after significantly decreased issue this to devoted research of number the Moreover, stil legacies ―totalita the challenged historiography state. Soviet the weaken bu circles, émigré academic from not came dissent about accounts first the the significantly and 1968 of 1956 spring Prague of Revolution Hungarian The struggle. ideological War Cold the of logic the

Sovietology is a study of the Soviet Union; the term emerged in the United States during the during States in the United termemerged the SovietUnion; the of study isa Sovietology Eastern and in Central Dissent and ―Resistance Falk, Rothberg, Abraham see accounts Western For MaryBuckley,

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Unive JohnsHopkins (Baltimore: s The phenomenon of S of phenomenon The Hist One .

24 инакомыслия в СССР: новейший в СССР: инакомыслия

u i te usa lnug which language Russian the in sue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); For Russian accounts see Людмила see accounts Russian For 1981); University Press, Cambridge (Cambridge:

First and foremost, d foremost, and First : Cornell University Press, 1972); RudolfL. Tökés, 1972); Press, University : Cornell oriography of oriography should should ways the influence greatly l Women and Ideology i Ideology and Women u, n h ohr ad mat ht h Cl Wr discourses War Cold the that meant hand, other the on but, also highlight that former dissidents wrote the majority of works published published works of majority the wrote dissidents former that highlight also

Alone Together Alone

h ed f h Cl Wr and War Cold the of end The

Soviet Dissidence Dissentand

provides issue. detailed onthis information

oviet dissent has been widely studied and a substantial amount of amount substantial a and studied widely been has dissent oviet issidents

(Moscow: Zatsepa, 2001)]; Andrei Sakharov, AndreiSakharov, 2001)]; Zatsepa, (Moscow: n the Soviet Union (Ann Arbor: U (Ann Arbor: Union Soviet the n rsity Press, 1975), Marshall S. Shatz, Shatz, MarshallS. 1975), Press, rsity increased

- период. период. (New York: Vintage Books, (New Vintage York: evaluation. evaluation. rian‖

The heirs of Stalin: dissidence and the Soviet regime, 1953 the regime, Soviet and dissidence Stalin: of heirs The in their writings their in

e countries of the Western Bloc Western the of countries e n which in М.: РИЦ «Зацепа».М.: РИЦ

, on the one hand, provided provided hand, one the on , Europe,‖ 324. Europe,‖

prah f Sovietology of approach the interest the 8

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niversity of Michigan Press, 1989). Michigan of niversity 1988). this phenomenon in the West, but West, the in phenomenon this – mrec o te e Cl War Cold New the of emergence

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, some accounts of the roles the of accounts some , s Memoirs 22

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as a power that could that power a as itras ih ―first with historians h

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―Beyond Little Vera: Women‘s Bodies, Women‘s Welfare in Rus Welfare Women‘s Bodies, LittleWomen‘s Vera: ―Beyond Светлана Feminists,‖ Leningrad the USSR: inthe Dissent and ―Women RuthFisher, Mamonova(ed.) Tatiana 13/5 Review Historical American Europe,‖ Eastern Historyin Gender ofStories: Archipelago ―An Bucur, Maria example For

, Association for Women in Slavic Studies 91 (2007), 6. (2007), 91 Studies in Slavic Women for Association ,

/Russia that disse that The g The However, there are some works devoted to the gender dimension of dissent under state under dissent of dimension gender the to devoted works some are there However,

31 example of research in this area. this in research of example 26

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the Чуйкина, ―Участие Чуйкина,

far researchtopicisneede more onthis n h 20 article 2008 the In sion of the social and political activity during the years of transition theof years during activity political social the of and sion ,

ender dimension of Soviet d Soviet of dimension ender see Sergei Oushakine, ―The terrifying mimicry of samizdat,‖ ofsamizdat,‖ mimicry terrifying ―The Oushakine, Sergei see West. the in nor , ―short wome nt ―is coded masculine, [which] masculine, coded ―is nt

women‘s r dfeet om o opsto th opposition of forms different are - - n‘s issues n‘s ie peoeo‖ of phenomenon‖ lived 81 [Svetlana Chuikina, ―Women‘s participation in the dissident movement (1956 movement in the dissident participation ―Women‘s [Svetlana Chuikina, 81 the private sphere is overlooked in the works of many scholars in spite of spite in scholars many of works the in overlooked is sphere private the Woman and and Woman

активности в переходный активности - 81], 81], 27

женщин в диссидентском женщин

decision to abort the the abort to decision Despite the fact that in September 1979 the underground samizdat underground the 1979 September in that fact the Despite

http://www.a ,‖ devoted to abortion to devoted ,‖

and As Maria Bucur puts it, ―[d]issent under communism is one of one is communism under ―[d]issent it, puts Bucur Maria As Russia: First Feminist Samizdat First Feminist Russia: ― edrn Dset O Bde ad id, uvvl and Survival Minds, and Bodies Of Dissent: Gendering why women are often exuded from the mainstream narrative mainstream the from exuded often are women why - z.ru/women/texts/chuikinr.htm# 30 issent was thoroughly considered neither in the Soviet the in neither considered thoroughly was issent

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(London: Sheba Feminist Publishers, Publishers, Feminist (London: Sheba ‖ the majority of Soviet diss Soviet of majority the Public Culture Culture Public Canadian Woman Studies Woman Canadian

oit oe‘ movement. women‘s Soviet 1986),‖ 1986),‖ независимых

the Soviet Union Soviet the

accessed 12.03.2013 accessed (St. Petersburg: Centreof Petersburg: (St. a b se a a at of act an as seen be can ia Maria Bucur Maria ia Гендерное 13/2 (2001). (2001). 13/2

социальных ts in the USSR is USSR the in ts 99 ril that article 1989

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, Women's Studies Quarterly Women's Studies

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32 Mungiu‘s 4 Months, 3 Weeks, and 2 Days and Gabriela Adamesteanu‘s ―A Few Days in the the in ―A Days Few Adamesteanu‘s Days Gabriela and 2 and Weeks, 3 Months, 4 Mungiu‘s Soviet dissident Revolt Pimenov in his work quite often quite work his in Pimenov Revolt dissident Soviet

uses Bucur uses oaa aa i her in Cazan Roxana - reaffirmed

Deckard, ―Gendering Dissent: Of Bodies and Minds, Survival and Opposition Under Communism,‖ Communism,‖ Under Opposition and Survival Minds, and Bodies Of Dissent: ―Gendering Deckard, forgotten focus on on focus s . . ‖ 36

7/9 (2008). 7/9 35

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h nt ny rvds detailed provides only not She the image of women in Polish Polish in women of image the

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Пименов, Пименов,

Alexeyeva and Paul Goldberg, Goldberg, Paul and Alexeyeva , Самиздат instance -

27 апреля 1992 г, Мемориал, 1993 [B.Ivanov (ed.), [B.Ivanov (ed.), 1993 Мемориал, г, апреля 1992 27 group of primary sources I explore, I sources primary of group 38

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Komarom Slavic Review Slavic isdn crls icuig icuss on discourses including circles, dissident sources that I use I that sources [Revolt Pimenov, [Revolt Pimenov,

- (New York, N. Y.: Monad Press, 1974); Gordon Gordon 1974); Press, Monad Y.: N. (NewYork, s because they tend to be politically politically be to tend they because s 27 1992 (St. 1992 27 Samizdat: materials of the Conference ’30 ’30 Conference the of materials Samizdat: - case

from literary pornography.from to works i not did

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the Fireside claims that the Soviet dissident (or dissenter dissenter (or dissident Soviet the that claims Fireside

the . Fireside‘s ‖ 91 act ofeven feeling. ofindependent thinking Andrei Amalrik, one of the prominent Soviet dissidents, points to the to points the prominent dissidents, Soviet Andrei one of Amalrik,

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h nrons of narrowness The Rudolf Soviet Dissent in Historical Perspective Historical in Dissent Soviet . Tökés (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), Press, University JohnsHopkins (Baltimore: Tökés . Фирсов, Фирсов, e lo pointed also He and ultimately ameliorate seekingculturally political―a reformto movement conditioned the Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union Soviet the Ideology in and Women Tökés

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Zbigniew K. Brzezinski and Samuel P. Huntington, Huntington, P. Samuel and Brzezinski Zbigniew K. Tökés in Union‖ Soviet inDissent the and Communication ―Political Hollander, GayleDurham L.Rudolf

also pointed also were 98

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in system‖ and ―system rejective ―system and system‖ in

o ol disagree only not Political Power: USA/USSR Power: Political ans 26

ae t at wie di while act‖ to pared 1974 working

― rmrl te nelcul eeto o the of rejection intellectual the primarily

Political Power: USA/USSR Power: Political ), ), 10. implied

Soviet Politics and Society in the 1970s the in Society and Politics Soviet n h cnet o opsto and opposition of concepts the on d

uh desire. such ih h rln cas bt als but class, ruling the with Tökés‘ benefit both society and the and society both benefit

n i ve, oppositionists view, his In (New York: Viking Press, Press, (New Viking York: a

ie ctgr ad that and category wider snes a ― had ssenters

definition affected the the affected definition ‖ forms of opposition. of forms ‖ d

Dissent in the USSR: USSR: the in Dissent for its dissolution. its for 101

n 1975 In ― , according to according ,

efforts to lift lift to efforts distinguish ,236. o direct no Tökés

ed 99 o

CEU eTD Collection of the Soviet dissidents, Pavel Litvinov, during his his during Litvinov, Pavel dissidents, Soviet the of thesystemstrived forrather thatchangewithin ofthe for changes system reality. socialist the of transformation the no which classificati str and system" 237. 212, (1979): 109 108 35. 1968), Printing Office, Government US (Washington: 107 106 abroad. works 105 104 book 1983 her in movement, scholars can same dissent. examples of―orthodox‖ events interpretor―unorthodox‖ the as dissidents to subject was system to attitude their types two opposition). unorthodox and ―within Tökés‘ ―extrastructu be can dissent that i or established an to assent to refusal―the as dissent set toreshape out society.‖ their own Jr Friendly system.‖ political the against not but injustice and illegality against

n A.Y. Shtromas, ―Dissent and Political Change in the Soviet Union,‖ Soviet the Changein Political and ―Dissent A.Y.Shtromas, Dietrich Sergius ― Guttadauro, de Angelo writers Soviet werethe Daniel Yuli Sinyavskyand Andrei 117,104. Ibid - orthodox dissent. He considered He dissent. orthodox encompassed Ludmila Aleksandr dissident and scientist political Lithuanian prominent A

Yakobson and Robert V. Allen, V. Robert and Yakobson

different Thus, importance. crucial of is perspective researcher‘s the also but attitude ‘ Bonhoeffer, Bonhoeffer, were n Agl d Gtaar defined Guttadauro de Angelo on, . states that ―the majority of ‗those w ‗those of majority ―the that states .

106 often blurred and that the same dissidents c dissidents same the that and blurred often the Alekseeva, one of the active and recognized participants of the S the of participants recognized and active the of one Alekseeva, v ― ove

However system‖ and ―system rejective‖ and Brzezinski and Huntington‘s orthodox Huntington‘s and Brzezinski and rejective‖ ―system and system‖

Letters and Papers from Prison Papers from and Letters oh etrs n experienced and features both

The Metamorphosis of Soviet Dissent,‖ Dissent,‖ ofSoviet Metamorphosis The o rvd a ielgcl lentv t te system. the to alternative ideological an provide to So , 109 viet

claim itr o dset n h USSR the in dissent of History However elites‘ desire from claims for artistic freedom to freedom artistic for claims from desire elites‘ a‖ n ―nrsrcua‖ (which ―intrastructural‖ and ral‖ Aspects of Intellectual Ferment and Dissent in the Sovi the in Dissent and Ferment Intellectual of Aspects

108 that Soviet dissent was mainly ―orthodox‖ and its membersits and ―orthodox‖ mainly was dissent Soviet that dissidents‘ activity triggered by Synavsky by triggered activity dissidents‘

change. Nevertheless change.

Shtromas

(New York: Macmillan, 1972), 6. 1972), Macmillan, York: (New

Sov ho think differently‘ think ho

e dset s non a as dissent iet trialled in 1966 for smuggling and publication of their oftheir publication and smugglingfor in 1966 trialled fairly points out that the borders between borders the that out points fairly defense mposed set of ideas‖ a ideas‖ of set mposed a rda tasomto fo otoo to orthodox from transformation gradual Parameters Studies in Comparative Communism Comparative in Studies ould

, in 1968 in

it is important to add, that not only not that add, to important is it

ta i oe f h frt Russian first the of one is (that be classified different classified be

7/1 (1977): (1977): 7/1

by and large corresponds to to corresponds large and by ,

in the Soviet Union did not did Union Soviet the in stated that his protest ―was protest his that stated 107 - itself

ooihc movement, monolithic Shtromas who defined who Shtromas lso pointed lso

Accordingly 29. . For

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Борис Parchomenko, Walter Ibid. Людмила , ,

) Boris FirsovBoris she repeats the master narrative, which suggest which narrative, master the repeats she .

Maria Bucur Maria scholar American

Фирсов, Фирсов, he

Alekseeva, on the history of Soviet dissent) claims that dissent was a coherent phenomenon phenomenon coherent a was dissent that claims dissent) Soviet of history the on

roic

to stress that even in the cases when the author considers not only liberal dissent, but dissent, liberal only not considers author the when cases the in even that stress to Алексеева, , but on the other hand it it hand other the on but ,

s bod ocp ta icue dfeet aite o opstoa activities]. oppositional of varieties different includes that concept [broad uh n prah pn the opens approach an such activity , even though he mentions that the boundaries between two groups are often often are groups two between boundaries the that mentions he though even , Разномыслие в СССР 1940 в СССР Разномыслие dset s fgt gis communist against fight a as [dissent

lifestyles that did not conform to official norms and expectations. andofficial norms to notconform thatdid lifestyles

History of Soviet dissent: The recent period recent The dissent: Soviet of History

similarly - Deckard in her in Deckard Soviet images of dissidents and nonconformists and dissidents of images Soviet История

( that is surrounded by numerous myths, including the myth about heroic about myth the including myths, numerous by surrounded is that ion in theSoviet Union,ion in theyareas supplementary. defined differentiates between different forms of Soviet opposition, bet opposition, Soviet of differentforms between differentiates atr acoek dfeetae bten isdns and dissidents between differentiates Parchomenko Walter

инакомыслия в СССР инакомыслия to him, did not strive to influence policy by open cr open by policy influence to strive not did him, to

article ―Gendering Dissent: Of Bodies and Minds, Survival Minds, and Bodies Of Dissent: ―Gendering article a as dissent Soviet about narrative mainstream the reaffirms - е , accessed 15.04.2013. 15.04.2013. accessed , doay f ua rgt. vn th Even rights. human of advocacy –

1960

icsin bu ohr om o opsto i the in opposition of forms other about discussion 28 - егоды. :

Н о в claims that the movement for human rights human for movement the that claims е s

История

ш (Moscow: RITS Zatsepa, 2001), 110, 2001), Zatsepa, RITS (Moscow: violent methods of resistance. of methods violent that dissidents were the onl the were dissidents that и

ue fgt o hmn ihs and rights] human for fight rule, п

е (New York: Praeger, 1986), 3. 1986), Praeger, York: (New р и , о теория д (М.: РИЦ «Зацепа», 2001), 110 110 «Зацепа», 2001), РИЦ д (М.: , практики ough she included included she ough .

112 y part of the the of part y ania,

I iticism but iticism

n his2008n

110 111

argues 113 In her In ween t is It

CEU eTD Collection who wanted to return to ―pure‖ Marxism ―pure‖ to return to wanted who instance ways. dimension gender regime. the to opposition about narratives excl dissent of understanding restricted a such that suggests She activism political of view ―misogynist a mirrors and masculinecoded is dissent term the that 1984 116 115 Papers, Slavonic Oxford 114 and society Soviet the of values and norms the to conform not did which deeds, and thoughts A orientation. political particular any without [ deeds‖ and thoughts in nonconformity of combination activity reflect and phenomenon this of character complex the that more once narra master the challenge to needed elaborate to and majority devotedresearches to ofthe the for framework a created classifications these time, same the At Union. Soviet the in activities terms in merely dissent define they Ideology. dissent: of groups three defines Accordingl values

Amalrik, Amalrik, Shatz, Bucur Maria ? ” ; ,

http://www2.stetson.edu/~psteeves/classes/amalrik1.html

h ms wides most The It is beyond the goals of this thesis to provide an adequate classification of Soviet dissent Soviet of classification adequate an provide to thesis this of goals the beyond is It , Soviet Dissent in Historical Historical in Dissent Soviet and diss and n toe h srvd o te noprto o Western of incorporation the for strived who those and

116 Shatz outlines th outlines Shatz ― y, Andrei Amalrik Andrei y, Will the Soviet Union Survive Until Until Survive Union Soviet the Will

Such classifications, as well as all as well as classifications, Such - Deckard, ―Gendering Dissent: Of Bodies and Minds, Survival and Opposition Under Communism,‖ Communism,‖ Under Opposition and Survival Minds, and Bodies Of Dissent: ―Gendering Deckard, ent. I ent. an

of dissent and helps to broaden to helps and dissent of most of most

7/9 (2008). 7/9 all n this research I will use Svetlana Chuikina Svetlana use will I research this n

- ra casfcto divides classification pread encompassing definition of this phenomenon. Much more research is is research more Much phenomenon. this of definition encompassing ree groups of those who ―more or less or ―more who those of groups ree

definitions and definitions

in his 1969 article 1969 his in Perspective

eun Marxism genuine of political opposition and do and opposition political of the phenomenon ofdissent.the phenomenon Soviet tive about it. However, it is of great importance to stress stress to importance great of is it However, it. about tive , 158. , -

Her

classifications of dissent do dissent of classifications Leninism, those who relied on religious and moral moral and religious on relied who those Leninism,

ccording to Chuikina, dissent was dissent Chuikina, to ccording

29 inter

others, cannot be considered be cannot others,

―Will the Soviet Union Survive Union Soviet the ―Will the boundaries of the concept in concept the of boundaries the pretation provides a framework to study the study to framework a provides pretation -

eiim Crsin dooy n Liberal and Ideology Christian Leninism, oit isdns no he gop. For groups. three into dissidents Soviet , accessed 12.05.2013. 12.05.2013. accessed , a ioyit ecpin f oppositional of perception misogynist инакомыслие

not encompass all oppositional all encompass not ‘s definition of dissent of definition ‘s ds h piae pee from sphere private the udes [had] - tl lbrl practices. liberal style

not reveal the extremely the reveal not

their programs‖: those those programs‖: their and

sufficient because sufficient инакодействие

―a complex of of complex ―a until a number of number a

1984?‖ as ―the ―the as . ‖ 115 114 ]

CEU eTD Collection Union as a pioneer in the sphere Union aswomen‘s apioneerinthe of rights. Soviet the of role the undermine and dissent Soviet of history the from women exclude hand, hand, one diversit its contrary, the on movement, monolithic coherent a not was dissent (Soviet narratives mainstream possible it makes system.‖ Soviet the of disruption or modification the ataimed was opposition. political formsof mainstream focus the on fruitful more to it is goalsresearch ofthis thefor that believe I However, myapproach. unders I abortions. or lifestyles ―non the behind activism,leaving political or debates open 118 117 I narratives. historical the from women excluded and Union) Soviet the of dissolution d became that dissidents historical the from I excluded dissent. Soviet are heroic about narratives women why and problems and rights women‘s ignored will I thesis this in Secondly, values. liberal Western towards oriented men as constructed were who dissidents, liberal heroic opposition Soviet of phenomenon complex the War Cold the will I myworkin dissidents: Soviet among group only) even (sometimes influential and important most the be to considered of challenging drawing Sov the in active especially was that dissidents. liberal Soviet on thesis differentiate that dissent

Therefore, in my work I consider mostly the ―traditional,‖ or mainstream forms of opposition such as strikes, strikes, suchas ofopposition forms mainstream or ―traditional,‖ mostly the in workmyconsider I Therefore, женщи ―Участие СветланаЧуйкина,

In my research I focus on liberal dissent for several reasons. First of all, this group is is group this all, of First reasons. several for dissent liberal on focus I research my In o te ol o ti rsac I il lo s te ieped lsiiain f Soviet of classification widespread the use also will I research this of goals the For global public opinion to the violations of human rights in the Soviet Union Soviet the in rights human of violations the to opinion public global y was y were

the Soviet authorities and the Soviet

created and reinforced by the Cold War ideological struggle and, on the other other the on and, struggle ideological War Cold the by reinforced and created one of one

o nld al om o opstoa activities oppositional of forms all include to

its s

mnn i te itrorpy of historiography the in ominant tand the importance of these ―non these of importance the tand

ewe Scait, lvpis n Liberals and Slavophils Socialists, between main features), but also to challenge these narrative these challenge to also but features), main try to challenge this narrative and to show how during the course of course duringthe how show to andnarrative this challenge tryto

explore 118 н в диссидентском движении.‖ в диссидентском н

I define liberal dissidents as the as dissidents liberal define I e Uin rm 96 o 92 and 1982 to 1966 from Union iet

the questions why Soviet dissidents almost unanimously almost dissidents Soviet why questions the to induce liberalization inthe country.to induce will will 30 ru ta i ws h Wsen a Western the was it that argue - conformist‖ forms of opposition, such as alternative suchas alternative opposition, formsof conformist‖

- conformist‖ forms of opposition and limitations of limitations and ofopposition forms conformist‖

oit isn (seily fe the after (especially dissent Soviet

in historiography in , 117

including those neglected in in neglected those including

I believe that this definition this Ithat believe

group of Soviet dissidents Soviet of group ,

and will focus in this this in focus will and focused

pproach towards towards pproach was replaced by replaced was s, which, on the on which, s,

hi wr at work their in the hope the in will will also also CEU eTD Collection considered as a power that could challenge the Soviet Union and as a heroic struggle for for struggle heroic a as and Union Soviet the challenge could that power a as considered stat over democracycapitalist superiorityof the implies researcheasily are traceable. Bloc Western of countries the in institutions various with connections of network extensive an developed dissidents Soviet of agenda the that influence Western the was it that argue 119 liberal has dissent emerged and became society). of courageousmost butportion small a as to referredareoften (dissidents rightshuman universal

Tanya E. Lozansky, ―T Lozansky, TanyaE. The main body of historiography of Soviet dissent constructed the master narrative that narrative master the constructed dissent Soviet of historiography of body main The

119

In the next next the In

ad seily n h UA ad hrfr te orltos motn fr this for important correlations the therefore and USA) the in especially (and he Role of Dissent in the Soviet Union since 1953,‖ since 1953,‖ SovietUnion the of in Dissent heRole

chapter I will provide historical background for the period, when Soviet when period, the for background historical provide will I chapter

as an issue of secondary importance. Soviet liberal dissidents dissidents liberal Soviet importance. secondary of issue an as an important part movements. oppositional ofSoviet affec 31

ted the exclusion of exclusion the ted e socialism. In this perspective, dissent is dissent perspective, In this socialism. e The Concord Review Concord The

the woman question woman the

(1989): 3. (1989):

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the the CEU eTD Collection ih h rltos ewe te oit no ad h Uie Sae o America of States United the and Union Soviet the between relations the with and family the in women of this during 1982 to 1964 (from power in was acknowledge the with area. this in efforts women‘s claimed The 1917. of Revolution October Great the after gained rights, women‘s of field the in pioneer a as image its reaffirm to strived Union Soviet the years Thesituation. g both with connected was years Brezhnev years (2.2) America of States Unites the and Union Soviet the between tensions geopolitical the of easing the mean historians particular of are that those only relevance thesis. thethis topic for of but chapter, his in included are time that of Union Soviet Cold the to existed. related opposition facts and Soviet events all which not in However, environment the understand to order in Union Soviet the about information provide to and time the of situation global the on elaborate to importance ad sbhpe dvtd o h gne odr n the in order gender the to devoted subchapter a and ,

(2.3) In this chapter I chapter this In The historical background presented in the chapter covers the period of détente, by détente, of period the covers chapter the in presented background historicalThe Chapter re that Soviet women were not liberated, but enslaved by the Communist Party, and of the of and Party, Communist the by enslaved but liberated, not were women Soviet that

liber nrdcin f h cnet of concept the of introduction . - time o n y view, my In ment penedin theSoviet Union during theBrezhnev years? ation movement ation ender battlefieldan was

(parti

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will will . It also includes a includes also It . quite difficult position difficult quite

h re the provide historical background for the period when Leonid Brezhnev Leonid when period the for background historical provide society) with the situation situation the with society) that the woman question that thewoman question

in the United States made the Soviet authorities to intensify their intensify to authorities Soviet the made States United the in - opening of the woman question in Soviet society during the the during society Soviet in question woman the of opening ) and ) -

emergence of emergence

impor will will

the the subchapter devoted to Brezhnev‘s domestic policies domestic Brezhnev‘s to devoted subchapter ― connect the domestic situation in the Soviet Union Soviet the in situation domestic the connect non tant element of the Cold War. D element oftheColdWar. tant 32 oetcstaini tecuty and country the in situation domestic of -

naoitc contradictions antagonistic

and complaints and open discussion regarding the role and place and role the regarding discussion open had in a ad h dmsi stain n the in situation domestic the and War influence of influence the international arena, more precisely, more arena, international the

not oit no drn te Brezhnev the during Union Soviet was was been from solved in the Soviet Union inthe Soviet solved the womanquestion

Western discourses, which which discourses, Western Soviet women, together women, Soviet uring the Brezhnev uring the alwd official allowed ‖ I i o great of is It . h global the

which which .

CEU eTD Collection that the mainstream historiography historiography mainstream the that le allies the tense and complex were states European other and America of States are international the at situation the that claim historians many However, 1917. of Revolution February the since complicated 123 226. 1994), 122 War e 121 McGraw 120 distinguished: are periods main five usually defineare and War the Cold stages slippery, theboundaries different between of often but phases scholars critical recently though even 1991), in Union Soviet the of dissolution the with connected usually is end Government‘s American with the connected (itsbeginning isusually 1947to1991 from wardated Cold isoften Second War World t ofconfrontation constant ―the singlepattern:a had it period, historical homogenous a as War Cold the define cannot one though even that claims Century Twentieth Short the of half second the in scene international the dominated 1914 Century, Twentieth Short The Extremes: book 1994 his in Hobsbawm Eric world. the of country every another or way one at was socialism, and capitalism between and States United the and USSR the between opposition xample

Ibid. Ibid. Hobsbawm, Eric t that out historians point War Cold Most Gaddis, Lewis John . nineteenth

, The relations between the Soviet Union and the United States of America were were America of States United the and Union Soviet the between relations The The 2.1 The chronology and periodization of the Cold War is an extremely puzzling issue. The issue. puzzling extremely an is War Cold the of periodization and chronology The -

d to d see John Lewis Gaddis, Gaddis, Lewis John see 57. 1990), Hill,

significant deterioration of relations between the forming Eastern and Western Blocs Blocs Western and Eastern forming betweenthe relations of deterioration significant

adoption of the doctrine of Containment to stop the spread of communism and its its and communism of spread the stop to Containment of doctrine the of adoption century.

period ofdétente:period origins, spirit, and consequences have have The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914 Century, Twentieth Short The Extremes: of Age The . Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States: an interpretative history interpretative an States: United the and Union Soviet the Russia, ‖

123

challenged the origins and periodization of this phenomenon. Historians phenomenon. this of periodization and origins the challenged 120

y h ed f h Scn Wrd War World Second the of end the By The Cold War: A New History War: New Cold A The

na and the relationships between the Russian Empire, the United the Empire, Russian the between relationships the and na

the core of the Cold War, even though the Cold War affected War Cold the though even War, Cold the of core the he Cold War started after the end of the S aftertheofthe end started War heCold dniis as identifies the 33 beginning of the Cold War or the init the or War Cold the of beginning

– 1991 he two superpowersemergedthe whichfromtwo he

h bgnig f h Cl War. Cold the of beginning the (New York: Penguin, 2005); Painter, Painter, 2005); (New Penguin, York: ugss ht the that suggests - 1991 ,

esos between tensions the

(London: Michael Joseph Ltd, Joseph (London: Michael already econd World War. For War. World econd two competing s competing two

od a ―utterly War Cold

from the middle of middle the from

(New York: The Cold Cold The The Age of Age The h former the ial stage ial . ystems, 121 ‖ 122

The

He CEU eTD Collection Soviet Union and the Unites States of America; it was the time of summit diplomacy and arms and diplomacy summit of time the was it America; of States Unites the and Union Soviet these War. period of theCold dissent Soviet of phenomenon analysethe (CPSU) Union Soviet the of PartyCommunist the of (CC) Committee Central the wa Brezhnev Leonid when years the with coincides détente of period 1979), (1947 Affairs International 128 127 126 ofDétente,‖ Paradox 125 2013). Press, University Oxford (Oxford: Goedde in War,‖ Cold the ―Historicizing Irye, 124 Limitations Arms Strategic new of the Ratification inMoscow. Games Second Olympic Summer t to protest in Subsequently, 1980. January in Assembly General Nations United the at action military Soviet the condemning 1979 in Afghanistan in invasion leaders‘ European and Soviet upheavals. domestic about American, concerns of result the to considerations power of balance rapprochement fo necessity the showed after, of assured ―mutually of fear the when 1962, of crisis collapse the and stopped communism Soviet of article ―wascentury,his 2008 it inglobal historytherise statesavitalstage when that 20th ofthe War.‖ Cold the of history longer the in period murky ill ―rather and researched least the as it describes Hanhimaki M. Jussi limitations.

Hanhimaki, ―Conservative goals, revolutionary outcomes,‖ 5 outcomes,‖ revolutionary goals, ―Conservative Hanhimaki, legacy,‖ contested new opportunities, détente: ―Researching Kochavi, Noam Vladislav ― Hanhimaki, Jussi M. Harper, Lamberton John - 93, rss n eclto o te g o Bikasi (1953 Brinkmanship of age the or escalation and Crisis 1953), the Détente

h epaain o te rgn o dtne ag fo dsrbn i a a rdc of product a as it describing from range détente of origins the of explanations The

Zubok, ―The Soviet Union and détente of the 1970s,‖ 1970s,‖ ofthe détente Union and Soviet ―The Zubok, Second Cold War (1979 War Cold Second betwe s sal rfre t a esn of easing an to referred usually is

87/1 (2011): 182. (2011): 87/1 Cold War HistoryWar Cold Detente: a threea Detente: en the Eastern and Western Blocs. Easternanden Western the

The War The Cold he Soviet invasion in Afghanistan in invasion Soviet he

The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, Cold the of Handbook Oxford The

coeain n re t avoid to order in cooperation r - 8/4 (2008): 504. (2008): 8/4 , way discussion, waydiscussion,

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Painter, 2011); Press, University Oxford (Oxford: 128 - 127 1985) and 1985)

Many historia Many hc lt h Uie Sae t itoue resolution a introduce to States United the let which

during 34

the of the Soviet bloc began bloc Soviet the of Conservative Goals, Revolutionary Outcomes: the Outcomes: Revolutionary Goals, Conservative

Brezhnev‘s yearsBrezhnev‘s

destruction‖ became stronger tha stronger became destruction‖ Final Years (1985 Years Final the the 04; Geoffrey Warner, ―The Cold War in retrospect,‖ in retrospect,‖ War Cold ―The GeoffreyWarner, 04; ns 125

Cold War Cold History

relate Influential historian Vladislav historian Influential epltcl ofotto bten the between confrontation geopolitical

the end of détente with the with détente of end the ,

57 states boycotted the Twenty the boycotted states 57

( eds.

Cold WarHistory Cold it is necessary is it ula wr ad triggered and war, nuclear )

- s the General Secretary of of Secretary General the s Richard H. Imm H. Richard

1991). 8/4 (2008): 427. (2008): 8/4 - . ‖ 92, éet (1962 Détente 1962), 126

The Cold War Cold The 124 The Cuban missile Cuban The

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8/4 (2008): 420. (2008): 8/4 to elaborate on elaborate to ,

so n ever before before ever n erman, Petra Petra erman, -

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I Mark Webber, ―‘Out of Area‘ Operations: the Third World‖ in World‖ theThird Area‘Operations: ―‘Out of Webber, Mark ―Conservat Hanhimaki, 427. Détente,‖ and SovietUnion ―The Zubok, Petr

bid bid

504. Era,‖ Brezhnev the of Twilight ―The Cherkasov,

e ratified). ver hl t While itras e t see Historians

are debated among historians, historians, among debated are e rgn o dtne n te netos f h US ad the and USSR the of intentions the and détente of origins he Anti t also competition between the between competition also t 129 -

alsi Msie Treaty, Missile Ballistic ive goals, revolutionary outcomes,‖ 509. outcomes,‖ revolutionary goals, ive ld War and the Cuban missile crisis made the majority of Soviet officials Soviet of majority the made crisis missile Cuban the and War ld

h pro o dtne ne ad h pro o te eod od War Cold Second the of period the and ended détente of period The e ie ag o dpoai ngtain ad etns t different at meetings and negotiations diplomatic of range wide he of the main characteristic main the

éet‘ ms iprat ev important most détente‘s o Gray eae h mmes f h U) ad th and UN), the of members the became Germany of c

and by thefailuand by

hr i n dnig ht euiy sus ee of were issues security that denying no is there they understood they 35 Russian Politics and Law and Politics Russian taei Am Lmttos ray n the and Treaty Limitations Arms Strategic

superpowers for the so the for superpowers s

and manifestations of the period of détente. détente. of period the of manifestations and Brezhnev Reconsidered, Brezhnev

re of the War in Vietnam. re in War ofthe Union was Union

that the economic development of development economic the that e nts

43/6 (2005): 86. (2005): 43/6 However .

postponed (and this treaty this (and postponed 131 - called ( eds.

by the weakening of weakening bythe )

E.Bacon and M. M. and E.Bacon ,

Third World Third

t s f great of is it S t start to USA 130 132

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CEU eTD Collection of both the concept and substance of détente,‖ and an attempt to identify the role of human rights human of roleidentify to the attempt an and détente,‖ substanceof conceptand the both of summit. Helsinki the at August 1 on Act Final the signed states 35 of leaders the and 1975 July 21 on reached was 1972 November 22 from lasted conference the for talks preparatory The détente. of period the of arena international the t Union, Soviet unit and Helsinki in 1975 July in held was which 137 Declaration), 136 135 History 134 contains and matters) educational and cultural (including issues humanitarian to devoted strong full development and free his for essential are and person human the of dignity inherent the from derive which of the encourage and other promote and cultural social, will economic, political, civil, of They exercise effective […] belief or religion conscience, thought, of freedom andthe document. discussed aspects Principle ofthe ofseven states: Decalogue to thematters, follow and Basket four to Ba (or part first The freedoms. fundamental and rights human to also but frontiers, their of inviolabilityand equality sovereignty, states‘participating the to references con Act in the relations between

Ibid. Ibid. ActC Finalofthe The Agreement,‖ Helsinki The Rights: Human Molineu,―Negotiating Harold 1975,‖ CSCE, the Act of theon straight Final record settingthe myths: ―Helsinki Davy, Richard political and security issues, Basket two to economic issues, Basket three to humanitarian humanitarian to three Basket issues, economic to two Basket issues, security and political

9/1 (2009): 2. 2. (2009): 9/1

ik ewe se between link The summit meeting of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), (CSCE), Europe in Cooperation and Security on Conference the of meeting summit The This principle made human rights issues a matter of international relations and created a a created and relations international of matter a issues rights human made principle This most the of one is Act Final Helsinki the of dimension Humanitarian The Guidingbetween ParticipatingFinal The onPrinciples States ofthe Declaration Relations ―participating States will respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the including freedoms, fundamental and rights human respect will States ―participating an te1 rnils(hc r nw s teDclge)wihicuent only not include which Decalogue‖) ―the as known are (which principles 10 the tains http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/osce/basics/finact75.htm he United States of America and Canada, is one of the most important events in events important most the of one is Canada, and America of States United he . 134 ‖

137

According to Harold Molineu, the Helsinki Final Act was was Act Final Helsinki the Molineu, Harold to According

onference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Aug. 1, 1975, 14 I.L.M. 1292 (Helsinki 1292 I.L.M. 14 1975, 1, Aug. in Europe, Cooperation and Security on onference

uiy n hmn ihs Te hr bse o te ia At s entirely is Act Final the of basket Third The rights. human and curity the

until 8 June 1973. The agreement about the text of the final document final the of text the about agreement The 1973. June 8 until Eastern and Western Blocs.Easternand Western

- up tothe Conference. 36

ed all European countries countries European all ed 135

, accessed 23.02.2013. 23.02.2013. accessed , 136

WorldAffairs sket) of the Act is devoted is Act the of sket)

rights and freedoms, all freedoms, and rights

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u Abna the Albania, but a ―manifestati Cold War Cold controversial

on CEU eTD Collection eod ol War, World Second e the after already world the of division the accepted Union Soviet the of and Stated frontiers. of division docume the importance andof West for particularconcernfor the theSoviet Union. diss such to references 97. 2002), Macmillan, Palgrave (Basingstoke: 144 23.02.2013. 143 142 141 140 139 138 to adopted, was Rights Human of Declaration Universal UN the when 1948, from significantly strug ideological then, the onl not provided Act Final the signed Union Soviet Act.Final Helsinki the in included rights the all guaranteedalready to important is it time, same 12 May on founded Union Soviet the in also but countries, Mos than more far activity dissident encouraged agreements Helsinki the that and document the of basket Third the of importance Union. Soviet the of dissolution domination. Soviet of sphere a as regarded Europeconfirmed was Eastern that Hungariansuppression of1956 Revolution of the

Mike Bowker, ―Brezhnev and Superpower Relations‖ in in Relations‖ Superpower ―Brezhnevand MikeBowker, History, Group, Helsinki the Moscow website of Official 2. myths,‖ ―Helsinki Davy, 519. Ibid Hobsbawm, Three a ofDétente: ―Legacies A.ThomasSchwartz, Ibid. mnto o information, of emination Western Bloc with another with Bloc Western

the countries of countries the

For a long time, the Helsinki Final Act was seen as a victory of Soviet diplomacy because as Soviet avictorydiplomacywas Finalbecause Fora the Actof seen time, long Helsinki

nt acknowledged the division of Europe into two Blocs and recognized the post the recognized and Blocs two into Europe of division the acknowledged nt The Age of Extremes of Age The gle matters ,

1976 to monitor the violation of human rights in the Soviet Union. Soviet the in rights human of violation the monitor to 1976 140 139

the the ih h Sve Uin T Union. Soviet the with

n te asv rato o te onre o te etr Bo t the to Bloc Western the of countries the of reaction passive the and oee, s osam eosrtd te oenet o te United the of governments the demonstrated, Hobsbawm as However,

Western Bloc actively used the notion of human rights as a tool in the in tool a as rights human of notion the used actively Bloc Western

s reo o mvmn, enfcto o fmle ad reo of freedom and families of reunification movement, of freedom as

, 226. , note 138

141 instrument of pressure on the Soviet officials. Moreover, officials. Soviet the on pressure of instrument Some scholars claim that, claim scholars Some

hc i te otx o te od a wr o particular of were War Cold the of context the in which

They argue that Soviet officials seriously underestimated the underestimated seriously officials Soviet that argue They ht h Sve Cnttto ad te itrainl treaties international other and Constitution Soviet the that

o ecpe (n nt ny n h Esen European Eastern the in only not (and excepted cow itself ). - 142 way Discussion,‖ wayDiscussion,‖ 37

For example, the Moscow Helsinki Group was Group Helsinki Moscow the example, For

Brezhnev Reconsidered, Brezhnev http://www.mhg.ru/english/18E4796 e ocp o hmn ihs a changed had rights human of concept he y Soviet dissidents, but also the countries of countries the also but dissidents, Soviet y

in fac in Cold WarHistory Cold t ,

144 the Final Act Final the

( Still, Still, eds.

) E. the

8/4 (2008): 514. (2008): 8/4 Bacon and M. Sandle M. and Bacon mere , accessed accessed ,

accelerated the the accelerated fact that thethat fact nd of the of nd 143

At theAt

since since - war war CEU eTD Collection and problemsagenda. from their their in prioritized and countries capitalist Western by promoted and developed rights human of concept the adopted rights.‖ political and civil exclusively almost emphasize dominated discourse, rights ―human conventions international subsequent rig cultural and economic social, also but political, and civil only not o concept As signed. was Act Helsinki Final the when 1975, 260. 2012), Press, University 146 290. 2006), Press, University G Women’s 145 and taken accountofficials. into bySoviet mo Thus, th gen Soviet for feminism present the to times earliest from Russia: in women and fa the of light Krushchev‘s of period the during than détente of period the during However, years. Brezhnev‘s of battlefield gender the of importance the showing such events no symbolic are there years, Khrushchev‘s of War Cold the of historiography the in importance and (1959) debates Kitchen the 1956, under ought, a few libraries established special collections, accessible only to approved people approved to only accessible collections, special established libraries few a ought,

Barbara Evans Cle Barbara Yuval Nira vement in the United States or States United the in vement ,

particularly - eerhd Wie uh aos vns as events famous such While researched. vn huh h wide the though even As f human rights in the UN Universal Dec Universal UN the in rights human f lobal Activism and Human Rights Human and Activism lobal I showed I - Davis, ―Human/Women‘s Rights and Feminist Transversal Politics‖ in Politics‖ Transversal Feminist and Rights ―Human/Women‘s Davis, ct that during that time Second W Second time that during that ct ,

in the United States United the in ments, in

work civil and politi and civil work A history of women in Russia: from earliest times to the present present the to times earliest from Russia: in women of history A

h frt chapter first the

der policies and states that ―to support support ―to that states and policies der

t os o mean not does it r

Soviet public did not know a lot about about lot a know not did public Soviet

about Second Wave feminism, this information was known was information this feminism, Wave Second about ( ) eds. . Barbara Evans Clements in her 2012 book 2012 her in Clements Evans Barbara . , the , ) Myra Ferree Marx and Aili Mari Tripp (New York: New York York (New New York: Tripp Aili Mari and Marx MyraFerree

Vale cal rights cal

gender dimension of the period of détente is still still is détente of period the of dimension gender 38 tn Trskv‘ sae lgt 16) gained (1963) flight space Tereshkova‘s ntina

that that laration of Human Rights of 1948 of Rights Human of laration

ave feminism flourished in flourished feminism ave hItrainl ot fsia i festival Youth theInternational

highlights the importance of importance the highlights that led to the exclusion of women‘s rights women‘s of exclusion the to led that the ia Yuval Nira 145 edr ieso ws es important less was dimension gender

I argue that argue I research into Western feminist Western into research - ai pitd out pointed Davis

Brinkmanship hts and gender equality, in equality, gender and hts Transnational Feminisms: Feminisms: Transnational Soviet liberal dissidents liberal Soviet

h Cl Wr during War Cold the by the West, came to came West, the by women‘s liberation liberation women‘s (Bloomington: Indiana Indiana (Bloomington: Western

Second W Second Mso of Moscow n (

especially in especially incorporated A history of history A wie the while ,

countries . ‖ ave 146

CEU eTD Collection ntd Nations United women of subject the on governments of Y Women‘s International of introduction détente of period The underestimated. battleground‖ War] [Cold Comm UN the under 1946 in already established 151 150 strategies issues and 149 in Year‖ 148 Pre University Manchester 147 constant War Cold The marionette. Soviet a be to considered was WIDF the time long a for because movements the eliminated almost discourses date to treaty‘ ‗women‘s UN important most ―the Women, against on Convention 1979 the and Year Women‘s (WIDF) Federation Democratic Third Worldcountries. le concerns ―women‘s and issues‖ (CEDAW and 1967) (DEDAW, Women against Discrimination of Elimination the on Declaration the of adoption stimulated vel,

de Haan, ―Continuing Cold War Paradigms War Cold ―Continuing Haan, de 44. Ibid 1975 Women: conferences, UN for ―Adecade Antrobus, Peggy Women‘s ofInternational Conference ―World Persinger, E. Mildred and Galey, E. Allan,Margaret R. Virginia Laville, Helen were According to Helen Laville, the UN Commission on the Status of Women, which was was which Women, of Status the on Commission UN the Laville, Helen to According As Women, politics, and the United Nations, United the and politics, Women,

Western cl Western 1979 , logic Francisca de Haan de Francisca the

the ial acknowledged finally Cold War Women: the International Activities of American Women Organizations Women Activities American of International the Women: War Cold Co process

Internat deprived the USSR from its status its from USSR the deprived . oevr drn te eid f éet the détente of period the during Moreover, ).

(Dhaka: University Press Ltd, 2004), 37. 37. 2004), Ltd, Press University (Dhaka: U) gna forever agenda (UN) vnin on nvention aims that aims

ss, 2002). 113. 2002). ss,

ional Women‘s ional ht le that ear held held ear 147

Soviet women were not were women Soviet out pointed t te mrec o a lbl oe‘ movement women‘s global a of emergence the to d the the

,‖ n te infcne f hs aterud hud o be not should battleground this of significance the and ht ih oit upr initi support Soviet with that

150 C Mexico in 1975 in

which had been been had which Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women Women against Discrimination of Forms all of Elimination IF rm h hsoigah of historiography the from WIDF

u t te osat rsue rm h Sve Uin and Union Soviet the from pressure constant the to due ,‖ ,‖ ; Year (1975) and (1975) Year 548. 548. ‖ ,‖ events: gender important of number a witnessed

ed. Anne Winslow (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1995), 29. 29. 1995), Press, Greenwood (Westport: Winslow ed.Anne 148 in her 2010 article 2010 her in

which ―fixed the status of women‘s questions on the on questions women‘s of status the ―fixed which

h U Dcd fr oe (1976 Women for Decade UN the 39 the ission on Human Rights, became an ―importa an became Rights, Human on ission

lmnto o Al om o Discrimination of Forms All of Elimination as

ignored for a long time at the international the at time long a for ignored

pioneer of women‘s rights. women‘s of pioneer - ity ity emancipated 85,‖ 85,‖

the organization of the Confe the of organization the - The Global Women’s Movement: Origins, Origins, Movement: Women’s Global The

―the first historic world conference world historic first ―the , it was the Women‘s International Women‘s the was it , ated connections

r International UN 1975 the einforced . ‖

151 oe‘ international women‘s

However

ewe ―political between

the exclusion of exclusion the Moreover, the the Moreover,

(Manchester: (Manchester: , - ,

95 that 1985) 149 od War Cold rence of of rence

and

the the nt CEU eTD Collection even though even War. Cold of the continuation contributed tothe book debate severe of source a are be not could and active politically di be not could they therefore and emancipated not were Soviet 155 154 153 152 the of Committee h Soviet global beconsidered. will situation In Union. between of various advance groups to important tools andcause theirunderminetotalitarian control the reason the not was détente though even system security European) especially (and international the of part important an security human of notion the made and irreversible also but possible, revolutionary. were claimed system. he Therefore, fundamentally it West, and East the of rapprochement the ssidents).

Ibid 509. Ibid outcomes,‖ revolutionary goals, ―Conservative Hanhimaki, Gaddis, détent ―Researching Kochavi, the global history of the twentieth century. twentieth the of history global the The Cold War Cold The women from the historiography of historiography the from women The consequences of détente (as well as all other periods and elements of the Cold War) Cold the of elements and periods other all as well (as détente of consequences The Leonid Brezhnev came to powe to came Brezhnev Leonid 2.2 contro and important an is Détente h to optn Bloc competing two the The Cold War Cold The

istory

the following subchapter following the Leoni

the period of détente did not generate the end of the Cold War, by bringing about bringing by War, Cold the of end the generate not did détente of period the ?

d Brezhnev’s years: the Era ofs d Brezhnev’s theEra years: CPSU until his death in 1982. The e The 1982. in death his until CPSU

stated , 195 , D

tne ae osat neato bten h Es ad et o only not West and East the between interaction constant made étente – 197.

e,‖ e,‖ that détente meant détente that

420 among historians. among that, although the goals of détente were conservatigoals ofdétente that, although the - 421. s and greatly affected the domestic situation in the Soviet Soviet the in situation domestic the affected greatly and s ,

Brezhnev‘s domestic policies and their connections with the with connections their and policies domestic Brezhnev‘s

r in 1964 in r

versial Soviet dissent (according to this logic Soviet women Soviet logic this to (according dissent Soviet h te isdn movement dissident the why a It 40

153

152 retreat from the from retreat significantly changed the international relations international the changed significantly

and remained and part of not only the Cold War h War Cold the only not of part

However, Jussi M. Hanhimaki suggested M.Hanhimaki However, Jussi For instance For

504. ighteen years of his rule are often referred referred often are rule his of years ighteen

tagnation o tagnation . 154

changed Moreover, according to Hanhimaki, to according Moreover,

, General Secretary of the Central Central the of Secretary General

fight with fight John Lewis Gaddis in his 2005 his in Gaddis Lewis John r the Golden Age ofAge the Golden r the the Cold War internatio War Cold the

emerge the Soviet Soviet the ve, its outcomes ve, outcomes its d, istory, but also but istory,

t gv the ―gave it Union . ‖

that 155 and nal

, CEU eTD Collection ae it acut a Mr San Mark as account, into taken Afghanistan. ill the and Europe, Eastern and Central in politics unsuccessful race, arms Gorbac policies, predecessor‘s his of criticism his in Moreover, reforms economic insufficient and neo fierce essence to astheEra ofstagnation. Macmill Palgrave (Basingstoke: Sandle M. and Bacon 159 158 1 157 156 scene. international the at superpower responsible standar living of rise a stability, unprecedented period this Khrushchevera or Stalin‘s changes, revolutionary swift than interesting less andimportant less as by seenhistorians often stagnation was ofEra the that byfact explained the portrayB the of creation ―victory‖ had facto de that America of States United The Union. Soviet the of collapse the after historiography s of notions extending of wary ‗stagnation‘ us makes perhaps should ‗winners‘ its by written as history tagnatio

(Moscow: News, 1995)], 1995)], (Moscow: News,

Bacon, ―Reconsidering Brezhnev,‖19; Ian D. Thatcher, ―Brezhnev as Leader‖ in Leader‖ as ―Brezhnev Thatcher, D. Ian Brezhnev,‖19; ―Reconsidering Bacon, Socialism Developed and ―Brezhnev Sandle, Михаил Brezhnev ―Reconsidering Bacon, won the Cold War War Cold the won Mikhail Gorbachev coined the term the coined Gorbachev Mikhail The n Горбачев, Горбачев, are

a . Brezhnev s close is ‖ 157 n cnldd ht bsds tgain te rznv era Brezhnev the stagnation, besides that, concluded and rezhnev years asrezhnev

one 158 still still

However, despite the fact that all the failures of Brezhnev‘s polices should be should polices Brezhnev‘s of failures the all that fact the despite However,

- h polm f h hsoy rte b ―winn by written history the of problem The sided image of the Soviet Union let Gorbachev to write his own history and to and history own his write to Gorbachev let Union Soviet the of image sided a challenge for challenge a Жизнь и Реформы и Жизнь - Gorbachev‘s reforms. democratic tlns ln‖ rmtd rv eooi dcie rgee b unsuccessful by triggered decline economic grave promoted line‖ Stalinist y once wt the with connected ly

years are one of the least researched periods of Soviet history. Soviet of periods researched least the of one are years 210. then also then

156

a , ‖1

period of s period - 2. dictate , l mnind ―an wrns o te rbes n reading in problems the of awareness ―[a]n mentioned, dle historians to overcome. The same mechanism that led to the to led that mechanism same The overcome. to historians

, 1

and caused brutal suppression of the dissidents in the USSR. the in dissidents the of suppression brutal caused and

( Москва: Новости Москва: ,‖ ,‖ d 160.

tagnation. tagnation. the Cold War War Cold the ― an, 2002), 28. 28. an,2002), Era of stagnation of Era

rupaim ht mre i te od War Cold the in emerged that triumphalism ds, and consolidation of the USSR as a stable and stable a as USSR the of consolidation and ds, 41

159

Onlyrecently started scholars

, 1995) [Mikhail Gorbachev, [Mikhail Gorbachev, 1995) , Moreover, public poll opinions conducted opinions poll public Moreover,

historiography, and the legacies the and historiography, ‖ hazardous hev pointed to the increase of the of increase the to pointed hev and claimed that Brezhnev‘s ― Brezhnev‘s that claimed and r‖ n h cs o te r of Era the of case the in ers‖ Brezhnev Reconsidered, Brezhnev regime, also - tre ivso in invasion starred Life and Lifeand brought about about brought the to re to This Reforms, vol. vol. Reforms, liberating - evaluate

( can be be can of this this of eds. )

in in E.

CEU eTD Collection Gorbachev‘s radical reforms. Gorbachev reforms. radical Gorbachev‘s of necessity the justify to helped approach an such all, of First history. Soviet of period this for neededcomplexity the tounderstand of detailed more that assert to and historiography Russian and Western in exists que to rather but Union, Soviet the of age golden the Russia of positive most the as period Brezhnev‘s see people Russian that suggest 2000 and 1999 1994, in Russia in 162 backlash Russian stopping Niles Folsom, Chandra Mamonova, Union; Tatyana Soviet ofthe afterthe collapse 161 160 the of change the reflected Doctrine Brezhnev The détente. of component significant a and time so of countries the with compromises and negotiations legitimated had and 1956 in Congress Party Twentieth CPSU the at introduced was that coexistence‖ ―peaceful of economic, political substituted administration Soviet the for détente that and policies conservativedomestic quite his Brezhnev of reforms needed and profound Sec option. possible only and democracy, capitalist harsh Russia in hero, a as portrayed Gorbachev West the in While country. the in situation economic and and Union Soviet the of dissolution

- Zubok, ―The Soviet Union and détente,‖ 438. détente,‖ and SovietUnion ―The Zubok, example For Brezhnev,‖1 ―Reconsidering Bacon, called Brezhnev Doctrine was another important element of the Soviet external politics of that politics external theSoviet element of another important wascalledBrezhnev Doctrine he for the Soviet population Soviet the for used the discourses about discourses the used In my view my In In the sphere of international relations, Brezhnev followed Nikita Khrushchev‘s concept concept Khrushchev‘s Nikita followed Brezhnev relations, international of sphere the In ‘s successful role of peacemaker at the international arena was in sharp contrast with contrast sharp in was arena international the at peacemaker of role successful ‘s ,

each interview conducted by Tatiana Mamonova shows disappointment in the reforms reforms the in shows disappointment Mamonova Tatiana by conducted interview each ‘s twentieth ‘s , ,

social andfinancialsocial reforms there 161

(Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey, 1994). & Conn.:Garvey, (Westport, Bergin

made his role very controversial. Gorbachev had to justify his reforms his justify to had Gorbachev controversial. very role his made ond are ,

century history. century different explanations why the term stagnation became symbolic symbolic became stagnation term the why explanations different the reforms he has a more ambivalent st ambivalent more a has he -

2. the stagnating Soviet system to prove that his reforms were the the were reforms his that prove to system Soviet stagnating the

Brezhnev years Brezhnev

the fundamental

, cnmc n fnnil etr. uo pit ot that out points Zubok sectors. financial and economic this period of period this

together with together made 160 42

a set of decisions that led that decisions of set a within

That is not to claim that Brezhnev‘s years wereyears Brezhnev‘s that claim to not is That transformations of the social, political, cultural cultural political, social, the of transformations

indeed stion the notion of the Era of s of Erathe of notion the stion

Soviet history.Soviet the

the country. subsequent disappointment in Westernin disappointment subsequent can be characterized by characterized be can

atus. His unpopular a unpopular His atus. 162

Women's Women's

is highly popularand highly is the the to to (or accelerated) (or glasnost vs. naglost: naglost: vs. glasnost Western Bloc. The Bloc. Western

netgto is investigation an tagnation that tagnation nd introduced introduced absence of absence extremely often often

the CEU eTD Collection becomes not only a problem of the people concerned, but a common problem and concern of all of concern and problem common a but concerned, people the of problem a only not becomes it […] regime capitalist a of restoration the towards country Socialist any of development the So to hostile are which forces external and internal ―When 1968 stated: Brezhnev November in Party Workers' United Polish the of Congress Fifth the at Subsequently Countries‖ Socialist of 1968 in time first the for introduced America. of States United the to equal superpower a as internationally situa 166 Quotations, 165 Reader Documents Archive Security National A 1968: 164 163 and and Era 1975). to 1966 from period the for dollars billion 35.4 to increased it and dollars, billion 4.5 constituted assistance such 1968 to 1955 from assistance arms and help technical and economic unstable, was situation economic Soviet the while time, same the At countries. European Eastern of autonomy the st increased not rather but did significantly, trade the of opening partial a However, economy. Soviet the stimulate would technologies of transfer and Bloc Western the with rapprochement significantmost elem The Czechoslovakia. post and countries Pact Warsaw the in interventions countries Socialist

Cherkasov, ―The Twilight of the Brezhnev Era,‖ 85. Era,‖ the Brezhnev Twilight of ―The Cherkasov, in Nov.1968‖ 12 Party, Communist CongressofPolish ―Speech to LeonidBrezhnev, Kovalev, S. 90. Relations,‖ Superpower and ―Brezhnev Bowker, defense tion in the international arena: i arena: international the in tion While promoting and supporting détente, Brezhnev and his administration hoped that the that hoped administration his and Brezhnev détente, supporting and promoting While th ( e the SU provided provided SU the ed.

sector. However sector. intensification of the arms race caused the growth of expenditures on expenditures of growth the caused race arms the of intensification ―Sovereignty and the International Obligations ofSocia Obligations the International ―Sovereigntyand )

Fred R. Shapiro (Yale: Yale University Press, 2006), 103. 2006), University Press, Yale (Yale: R.Shapiro Fred . ‖ 165 ents ofdétente.ents

Western countries‘ countries‘ Western

Therefore the doctrine aff doctrine the Therefore in , o oils and socialist to Правда

Brezhnev‘s administration did not undertake the necessary steps necessarythe undertakenot did administration Brezhnev‘s ,

t was t in

Tuh, n o te an al Sve newspapers. Soviet daily main the of one [Truth],

the article ―Sovereignty and the InternationalOblig the ―Sovereigntyand article the 166 cetne f h Behe Dcrn ws n o the of one was Doctrine Brezhnev the of acceptance elaborated when the Soviet Union was acknowledged was Union Soviet the when elaborated

, The end of détente in the last years of the Brezhnev the of years last the in détente of end The developing countries was growing (for the period period the (for growing was countries developing

( ed. 43 ) irmed the right of the of right the irmed

Jaromír - factum justified justified factum

Navrátil, (Budapest: CEU Press, 1998), 502. 502. 1998), Press, CEU (Budapest: Navrátil, list Countries,‖ cited in in cited Countries,‖ list

imulate the Soviet economy economy Soviet the imulate the 1960 the Soviet Union to Union Soviet The Yale Book of of Book The Yale 163

h Doctrine The cialism try to turn turn to try cialism The Prague Spring Spring Prague The Soviet invasion in invasion Soviet the

military military ations

was 164 to

CEU eTD Collection neie ―pre a inherited years Brezhnev‘s from remarked reserves, had modernize (2004): 173 172 171 38. 2002), Macmillan, Palgrave (Basingstoke: 170 169 168 167 s families many for if reality a separatebecame life‘ of ‗style a a of of idea the and principle apartment ―the time that During increased. living of standard family completed shadow economy life anofordinarycitizens. became important part ofthe coupons even and shortage in were directly necessity of Gorbachev that rather but problematic, This inevitable.not was system the ofcollapse the andfatal not was it difficult, reallywas time that example urgently reforms. structural However needed

Boris Dubin, ―Face of an Epoch: the Brezhnev Period Variously Assessed,‖ Assessed,‖ Variously Period theBrezhnev of an Epoch: Dubin, ―Face Boris 92. Era,‖ the Brezhnev Twilight of ―The Cherkasov, 63. Ibid in Slowdown‖ and Growth ―Economic Harrison, Mark Hobsbawm, 89. Ibid 88. Ibid to buy to

the does not mean that the economic situation in the Soviet Union Union Soviet the in situation economic the that mean not does 8. Most t the At situation, international the by influenced policies, domestic Brezhnev‘s Nevertheless,

, fetd h Sve ctzn. y h ed f rznvs er m years Brezhnev‘s of end the By citizens. Soviet the affected

1960s on which made1960s onwhich socialism vulnerable , ―it was the interaction of Soviet of interaction the was ―it , Mark Harrison sugg Mark Harrison and and

a the Soviet industry. Soviet the food abroad, which abroad, food his

Age of Extremes of Age significantly increased population urban the program, school high itras osdr t consider historians

h oiteooi eaehgl dpnet nolad gas. and oil on dependent highly became economic Soviet the ae ie b te n o te 90 te aoiy of majority the 1960s the of end the by time, same radical and painfulradical reforms. and - rss situation‖ crisis to be to

one of one , 251. 251. , ests that

167 the we the

led to led 170

Because of the c the of Because he economic situation in the Soviet Union by the end of of end the by Union Soviet the in situation economic he

n ht rznvadhs environment his and Brezhnev that and , rule his of sides akest

o mea for

a even th

significant reduction of the country‘s gold and currency and gold country‘s the of reduction significant perhaps -

, ye cnmc wt tecptls ol economy world capitalist the with economics type

some scholarssome ough the economic situation in the Soviet Unionatin the theeconomicSoviet ough situation ad utr ee nrdcd n oe cities some in introduced were butter and t 44 Brezhnev Reconsidered, Brezhnev

risis in risis . exaggerate ‖ 169

the . In 1985 Gorbachev claimed that he he that claimed Gorbachev 1985 In . do not agree with this judgment. this F notagree with do agricultural s agricultural d

h dfiute t epan the explain to difficulties the Russian Politics and Politics Russian ( eds. )

E. Bacon and M. Sandle E.M. Baconand the the 172 any types of products products of types any t the at ector the government the ector

had oit population Soviet 168 . ‖ ,

173 and

As Hobsbawm As o introduce not ie a not was time

Law Moreover, in Moreover, the

42/3 42/3 average ; mall

the 171 or d

CEU eTD Collection time whentime stability norm. was the Gorbachev‘s impr significant further achieve were goods consumer many for reduced. prices raised, pensions the and lowered was age pension five the benefits: social and wages of expansion rule his of beginning the 178 177 176 175 174 in and 1968 in Czechoslovakia in deterioratio significant and 1979, in Afghanistan invasions arena international the in and complicated situation the continued, violations rights human and retained international an as position Soviet the year Brezhnev‘s during However, consolidated. was superpower and improved had standards living the stability, model,‖ ahistorical equateBrezhnev‘s to rule totalitarian the fit not did which […] life of aspects other were chapter his in mentions Bacon Edwin as But a abroad discussed widely were censorship of intensification ( Siniavsky and Daniel during (who Stalin rehabilitate to attempt an made he War Patriotic speech his in 1965 in instance, For econom structural

Bacon, ―Reconsidering Brezhnev,‖ 15. Brezhnev,‖ ―Reconsidering Bacon, Ibid. 7. Ibid ofan Epoch Dubin, ―Face Boris Leader,‖ ―Brezhnevas Thatcher,

oe eerhr pit u ta Behe nt ny a nt ucsfl in successful not was only not Brezhnev that out point researchers Some y h ed f rznvs er te oit ytm a rahd sgiiat ee of level significant a reached had system Soviet the years Brezhnev‘s of end the By Khrushchev‘s

174

y h ed f rznvs years Brezhnev‘s of end the By subsequent years proved to be unstable and difficult and unstable be to proved years subsequent c eom, u as cnutd osraie n ee rpesv policies. repressive even and conservative conducted also but reforms, ic

eaie liberalization relative which ,

Brezhnev and his government introduced agricultural reform and and reform agricultural introduced government his and Brezhnev ,‖

p.29. 10.

stimulated the consolidation of liberal dissent) and and dissent) liberal of consolidation the stimulated

vmns f h lvn sta living the of ovements

to celebrate to

with Stalin‘s years.with Stalin‘s ) ; the , 176 in 45

the

in 1966 the notorious trial of of trial notorious the 1966 in the n of n

ifcl eooi stain i nt lo to allow not did situation economic difficult

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Leffler, ―The Cold War,‖ 523. War,‖ Cold ―The Leffler, Zubokand Alena

women‘s emancipation. emancipation. women‘s In this subchapter I will will I subchapter In this 2.3 Friedrich Engels considered the abolition of private property as the major pre major the as property private of abolition the considered Engels Friedrich the after Russia in socialism state of goals official the of one was emancipation Women‘s 2.3.1

Heitlinger, Heitlinger,

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the transformation the osdrd but considered, . 46 12. , nt nt ‖

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Brezhnev years. It is of is It years. Brezhnev oee, Leffler However, Zubok and Constantine and Zubok labor

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- CEU eTD Collection have attained their economic independence from men, there is no thereis men, fromindependence economic their attainedhave rights, women‘s society in citizen every personal and ability personal but office, nor sex, not origin, Stalin to According citizens. all of duty principal life of spheres househol the from independence women‘s to lead would children of upbringing and housework the of 12.02.2013 accessed 186 http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/article2.htm 22, Article 2, 5, Chapter 1918, 10, Soviets,July 185 War Eu Cold to from Europe: in 1945‖ since westeast and inEurope 184 http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/subject/women/conts.htm 183 182 divorce sam the with granted were wedlock of out born children women family: etc domicile, nationality, the by enjoyed is soviets the to elected connections national or racial their of irrespective (RSFSR) Republic Socialist Federative Soviet of Constitution first1918, the society. Soviet According tothe womenrole inRussian of women‘s of sources main emancipation theSoviet Unionafter in Revo the the among were changes, legal significant and property private them.‖ upon dependent socially

Ibid, Chapter 13, article 4, 4, 64, article 13, Chapter Ibid, Socialist Republic Federated Soviet Russian the of Constitution (1857 Zetkin Clara Iosif Engels, Friederich Stalin Significant changes Significant

becam d gauly re hm rm the from them free gradually ,

(1878 e easily obtainable, obtainable, easily e .

182 ―the prerequisite for [women‘s] economic independence is work…Once women women work…Once is independence economic [women‘s] for prerequisite ―the eevd qa rights equal received -

1953) The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State Propertyand Private Family, the of Origin The - 1933), quoted in Francisca de Haan, ―Women as the ‗Motor of Modern Life‘: Women‘s work Life‘:of Women‘s Modern ‗Motor as the ―Women Haan, in Franciscade quoted 1933),

nprd by Inspired

, ―On the Draft Constitution of the U.S.S.R. the of Constitution ―Onthe Draft ropean Union Union ropean . . ‖ ‖ 186 183 http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/article4.htm in

codn t C to According legisl The n The 184 ( ax n Engels‘ and Marx eds. working

Labor ation also stimulated the stimulated also ation ) ew Family code of 1918 significantly changed significantly 1918 of code Family ew (London; New York: Routledge, 2012), 87. 87. 2012), Routledge, York: (London; New

Joanna Regulska and Bonnie G. Smith, Smith, G. Bonnie and Regulska Joanna

with men, men, with

usd te household the outside […] […]

women araca fml ad rn aot qaiy n all in equality about bring and family patriarchal 47 aa Zetkin lara lution iies f oh ee, repcie f religion, of irrespective sexes, both of citizens

recognize (1936), , ‖ both became entitled to entitled became

185 ok, oit oiiin made politicians Soviet works, .

adopted by the Fifth Allby the adopted Fifth moreover pue cud hoe hi surnames, their choose could spouses e rights as children born in wedlock, wedlock, in born children as rights e Gra Mrit n avct for advocate and Marxist German , ―it is not property status, not national not status, property not is ―it ,‖ d

1936, 1936,

labor

transformation of the position and position the of transformation ― h eul ihs f l citizens, all of rights equal the , together with the abolition of abolition the with together ,

, reason why they should remain should whythey reason (London: Penguin Books, 1986). (London:Books, Penguin

, accessed 12.02.2013. accessed , that that ―[t] , accessed 14. accessed , he right to vote and to be to and vote to right he

Women and gender in postwar postwar in gender and Women paid maternity leave, and leave, maternity paid determine

- Russian Congress of Congress Russian 01.2013. 01.2013.

the position of position the the

labor Russian Russian Russian

the , CEU eTD Collection played arole leading incombattingfemale illite th in participated dinning organizing. political in delegates communal train to and emancipation and childcare as services such establish 1920. in her replaced politician, and feminist Soviet of prominent head first the was Armand Inessa formed. was about them inform to norm. the became coeducation 192 191 190 187 women‘s toward attitude their changed sign authorities the time that During order. gender Soviet the of transformations new inherited Empire. from the Russian leadership Soviet emancipation. the initiatives seriously the question all woman the affected and women towards peasants and workers members, Party entire the during and military invest to leaders Soviet the forced which climate, for necessary people the disintegrated Wor First the all, of First emancipation. 189 188

Lapidus, Engel, 156. Ibid Engel, Clements, Engel, . 191 Josef Stalin‘s collectivization and i and collectivization Stalin‘s Josef women‘s restricted factors many state, Soviet the of achievements the all despite But Women in Russia in Women Women Russia in Women

Women in Soviet Society Soviet in Women Therefore the state could not provide women with all the communal services that werethat services communal the all with women provide not could state Thereforethe A history of women in Russia in women of history A defense 192

their in Russia in

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sector, restricted the promotion of women‘s emancipation in the country country the in emancipation women‘s of promotion the restricted sector, , 143. , 142. , 144. new rights and opportunities, in 1919 a Women‘s Bureau ( Bureau Women‘s a 1919 in opportunities, and rights new

economy

187 , 227. 227. ,

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but also caused caused also but emancipation

d a n te ire ii wr (1917 war civil fierce the and War ld the the ndustrialization launched in launched ndustrialization n eooi dvlpet and development economic ent misogy 48 racy

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‖ . codn t Braa ne ―t activist ―its Engel Barbara to according 190 nist and disparaging attitude of many male male many of attitude disparaging and nist a According to the statements of of statements the to According the introduced

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197 Barbara Evans Clements, Barbara Alpern Engel EvansBarbara Clements, Barbara

was abolished. was For women, responsible for households for responsible women, For At the same time, time, same the At

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Congress of the C.P.S.U Congress the of . 201

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rural areas); rural

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Russian Peasant Women, Women, Peasant Russian (NewYork tranquility n nuty and industry in CommunistP

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Ilič Ilič 255. Ibid Clements, Engel, , ―Introduction,‖ 1. 1. ―Introduction,‖ , ―Introduction , 209 oe motn lgl decisio legal important Some Melanie 2 society Soviet the in existed that genderstereotypes traditional strong the Overall,despite - , Women in Russia in Women .3.2 Gender oe‘ rpeetto in representation Women‘s making zation, the Great Patriotic War and War Patriotic Great the zation, which can be seen as reincarnation of the the of reincarnation as seen be can which

a been has A history of women in Russia, Russia, in women of history A 208 - s open the woman question that was silenced in the Soviet Union since Union Soviet the in silenced was that question woman the open

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but the importance of women‘s emancipation and and emancipation women‘s of importance the but ork and in politics was politics neverork and seriously in challenged.

Khrus oil oiis h gvrmn hpd o make to hoped government the policies social 51 The Great October R October Great The

hchev‘s Thaw hchev‘s Zhensovety Zhenotdel r, lhuh hs eid s f crucial of is period this although ars, the gender order in the Soviet Union. Soviet the in order gender on

that w that 207 were introduced, that is that introduced, were

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Clements, Clements, Buckley, Post Soviet and Societyin and State Gender, Ashwin,―Introduction: Sarah Lapidus, femininity. Soviet ex Soviet femininity.

blic sphere made politicians think about the reasons why women preferred to have small families. small have to preferred women why reasons the about think politicians made view In my T Secondly, as many he authorities co authorities he Women in the Soviet Society Soviet the in Women Women and Ideology and Women A H istory of Women in Russia in Women of istory adership introduced new forms of legal protection and financial benefits for for benefits financial and protection legal of forms new introduced adership ,

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s of masculinity and lossof masculinityand s continued deba continued

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70s was the time of of time the was 70s Clements, Clements, in Culture" ‗Soviet‘ Contemporary in MythologyofWomanhood Lipovskaya,"The Olga Ibid. Ibid

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ihy unlikely highly It is possible that the majority of the Sov the of majority the that possible is It A History of Women in Russia in Women of History

domestic eas o sgiiat changes significant of because 216 she s in The 1968 new family law also introduced a procedure of paternity of procedure a introduced also law family new 1968 The West me oit oe‘ plce. la iosaa one ot n 94 that 1994 in out pointed Lipovskaya Olga policies. women‘s Soviet

Second W Second

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re - , 206. , opening of the woman the of opening did not have impact on Soviet gender policies. Moreover, I Moreover, policies. gender Soviet on impact have not did

the Posadskaya (London : Verso, 1994), 124. 124. 1994), : Verso, (London Posadskaya 218

However, Clements mentions tha mentions Clements However, Western Bloc made the Soviet Union, as a pioneer of of pioneer a as Union, Soviet the made Bloc Western 53 in

217 oit dooy Te ocp o Developed of concept The ideology. Soviet

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eae h ielgcl oe f i yas Ti cnet elcd Khrushchev‘s replaced concept This years. his of core ideological the became ,as one has seen, seen, has one ,as could

, 242. 242. , that be seen as 222 227

n Khrushchev in developing policies that policies developing in Khrushchev n The concept ofnon

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‖ 180. - 168. antagonistic contradictionsisconsideredtobeone 54 of

Soviet history, but its its but history, Soviet . ‖ 223

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defense 221

dynamic development dynamic eloped in the Soviet Soviet the in eloped Science and Society and Science 1980, asserted the asserted 1980,

affected women‘s women‘s affected needs, needs, ra of s of ra . of groups such - 225 contemporary introduce the introduce

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At the 22nd Congress of the CPSU in 1961 Khrushchev stated Khrushchevstated in1961 CPSU the Congressof At22nd the Clements, Ibid Ibid Ibid.

Engel - the thirds possessed a washingmachinea possessed thirds 226

244. 243. However, o example, For standard The clared themselves unhappily married were dissatisfied with the division of division the with dissatisfied were married unhappily themselves clared ,

rapprochement of the countries of of countries the of rapprochement Women by then by

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about their difficult life. all everyday difficulties of average Sovi average of difficulties everyday all in Russia in

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survey conducted in Moscow in conducted survey standard , 258. , ,which

and difficult life conditions. life difficult and la t h time the at t

he Eastern and Western Bloc Western and Eastern he between the Soviet Union and its competitor more competitor its and Union Soviet the between ―A Week Like Any Other‖ written by Natalya Natalya by written Other‖ Any Like Week ―A the the 55

facilitated the life the facilitated 231

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Ibid 3. Ibid ―The Lozansky, ―Участие Чуйкина, at of part ible to trace back the roots of this phenomenon and to consider the main factors that led to to led that factors main the consider to and phenomenon this of roots the back trace to ible In order to order In of process the in role prominent a played dissidents that claim historians Many Soviet 3.1.1

or or the te obnto o nnofriy in nonconformity of combination ―the a

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женщин в диссидентском женщин -

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a oiiain r irpin f h Sve system.‖ Soviet the of disruption or modification new milestone in the history of Russian oppositional oppositional Russian of history the in milestone new ssent as a phenomenon that had that phenomenon a as ssent analyzed

движении.‖ 233 234

The here

58 and portrays Soviet dissidents as the most heroic most the as dissidents Soviet portrays and h ros f ht c that of roots The

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Bergman, ―Soviet Dissidents on the Russian Intelligentsia,‖ 17. Intelligentsia,‖ theon Russian Dissidents ―Soviet Bergman, 9. Ibid Ibid 17. Ibid Shatz, 1956 Intelligentsia, Russian the on Dissidents ―Soviet JayBergman, 196. Samizdat,‖ Mimicryof Terrifying ―The Oushakine,

15. Marshall Shatz in his 1980 book 1980 his in Shatz Marshall Serg Russian of types two these between similarities the highlights only not Shatz But

He states that in the Russian Empire the intelligentsia emerged ―to develop a new set of of set new a develop ―to emerged intelligentsia the Empire Russian the in that states He Soviet dissent in historical perspectiv historical in dissent Soviet

uei , 51/1 (1992): 17. (1992): 17. 51/1 , ars of Peter the Great, the Peter of ars

Oushakine in his 2001 article ―The Terrifying Mimicry of Samizdat‖ challenges Samizdat‖ of Mimicry Terrifying ―The article 2001 his in Oushakine

emerged only because of the Western influence. Similarly, Jay Bergman in Bergman Jay Similarly, influence. Western the of because only emerged

eeae n dctd lt, u to but elite, educated an generate were ―realwere andundeniable.‖ 235

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241 the firs the

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239

and that all individuals who could act andactindividualscould who all that and an approach that equates dissent with dissent equates that approach an rsre uhrtra control authoritarian preserve - 1985: The Search for a Usable Past,‖ Past,‖ Usable a for Search The 1985: , who , 240

moreover ruled from 1682 to 1725 to 1682 from ruled t Union, he argues, were were argues, he Union, t -

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s la tate oit elte ad dooy lyd an played ideology and realities Soviet thatthe clear is Bergman, ―Soviet Dissidents on the Russian Intelligentsia,‖ 17. Intelligentsia,‖ theon Russian Dissidents ―Soviet Bergman, Алексеева, Людмила 21. Intelligentsia,‖ theon Russian Dissidents ―Soviet Bergman, ―Truth Boobbyer, Philip 196. Samizdat,‖ Mimicryof Terrifying ―The Oushakine, named after named Veniamin t em t m ta, n at Sve dsiet wr te prta dsedns of descendants spiritual the were dissidents Soviet fact, in that, me to seems It 244 245

oee, tes sc a Ludmila as such others, However,

Ioffe, who was a prominent Soviet historian and dissident, claims that his his that claims dissident, and historian Soviet prominent a was who Ioffe, one of the participants of the Decembrist uprising of 1825), which two years two which 1825), of uprising Decembrist the of participants the of one История инаком История

- telling, Conscience and Dissent in Late Soviet Russia: Evidence from Oral Histories,‖ Histories,‖ from Oral Evidence Russia: Late Soviet in Dissent and Conscience telling, 30/4 (2000): 558. (2000): 30/4 t Soviet dissent and why women‘s problems were not part of dissidents‘not part wereof women‘s problems dissent andwhyt Soviet

analyze ыслия в СССР ыслия

. eral ‖

the influence of the Soviet realities and ideology and ideology and realities Soviet the of influence the 243

ly Soviet. Русскоеслово -

eortc rdto ad oit ua rights human Soviet and tradition democratic In 1964 60

lkev, n o te rmnn mmes of members prominent the of one Alekseeva, .

242

the Moscow dissiden usa n h scn hl of half second the in Russia lligentsia and Soviet dissidents. However, dissidents. Soviet and lligentsia

Rsin od, eiig h radical the reviving Word], [Russian immense role role immense ts organized a Ryleevts o te omto of formation the for Indeed, 246 nineteenth

there are there

and that and the

CEU eTD Collection emnto o dset n h Sve Union. Soviet the in dissent of germination i threshold important an as 20 see scholars Many opposition. in emerged that dissent liberal that claims that narrative mainstream the challenge to try will and dissent) liberal History Social 251 withDisside USSRDealt theEarly How Philosophers: 250 1. 2002), Macmillan, Palgrave 249 248 247 D organiz trade and cooperatives, trusts, in and conferences, administrative societies, ―anti were there that 1934) to 1922 from the and system rulers the to disobedience and resistance everyday of forms quiet more to rebellion this scholars Western of majority the Soviet only Not of resistance. form ―mature‖ only the was movement) rights human the (and dissent liberal that befor Union Soviet the in opposition political no was firstly,there personality). of cult his and policies Stalin‘s of condemnation of (meaning ―freeze‖ subsequent result a as but liberalization, Khrushchev‘s of result a as not emerged Union uring Stalin‘s years there was there years Stalin‘s uring

th Tracy McDonald, ―A Peasant Rebellion in Stalin‘s Russia: The Pitelinskii Uprising, Riazan 1930,‖ 1930,‖ Riazan Pitelinskii Uprising, The Russia: Stalin‘s in Rebellion ―A Peasant TracyMcDonald, Report OGPU ErikKulavig, Era Brezhnev the in ―Dissidents YuliaVishnevskaya, Shatz,

Party Congress of the Comm the of Congress Party view . In this subchapter I will consider the history of Soviet dissent (and especially Soviet Soviet especially (and dissent Soviet of history the consider will I subchapter this In phenomenonSoviet3.1.2 The dissent of from The ‖ Soviet dissent in historical perspective, historical in dissent Soviet 249 wih eis ht oppositio that denies which ,

1922 OGPU (Joint State Political Directorate or secret police in the Soviet Union Soviet the in police secret or Directorate Political State (Joint OGPU 1922 35/1 (2001): 125. (2001): 35/1 Dissent in the Years the in Dissent About Anti About the the report

ae 90 a te only/t the was 1960 late - Soviet activities in professional organizations, universities, scientific scientific universities, organizations, professional in activities Soviet - Soviet Groupings among the Intelligentsia, Intelligentsia, the among Groupings Soviet

About Anti About h itr fte usa poiinl oeetta e o the to led that movement oppositional Russian the of history the n

the termination of liberal reforms in the Soviet Union and of the the of and Union Soviet the in reforms liberal of termination the of Khrushchev: Nine Stories about Disobedient Russians Disobedient about Stories Nine Khrushchev: of Stalin‘s death and Khrushchev‘s Secret speech, delivered at the the at delivered speech, Secret Khrushchev‘s and death Stalin‘s

strong opposition to collectivization in the rural areas, rural the in collectivization to opposition strong unist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Union Soviet the of Party unist - Soviet Groupings among the Intelligentsia the among Groupings Soviet 93. awy eitd n h US, rnig rm open from ―ranging USSR, the in existed always n

247 nt Intellectuals,‖ nt Intellectuals,‖ ,‖ 61

oe uhr blee that believe authors Some 1981, 1981, e ny auete ny el om f So of form real only mature/the only he

Red Archives Red ,

a but also many Soviet dissidents adopted dissidents Soviet many also but historical perspective The Independent Review Independent The cited in Paul R. Gregory, ―The Ship of Ship ―The Gregory, in R. Paul cited 248 , Box 294. 294. Box , e Stalin‘s death Stalin‘s e

uh prahs ml that, imply approaches Such

on 25 February 1956, February 25 on dissent in the Soviet the in dissent

(New

13/4 (2009): 487. (2009): 13/4 , and ,

already - York: York: Journal of of Journal Brezhnev‘s Brezhnev‘s , ations.‖ secondly, secondly, 251

stated stated

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CEU eTD Collection of them believed that the first human rights demonstration in the USSR happened in1965) inthe USSR first humanrights demonstration of them believedthatthe as well conditions. work and living poor by caused were which 1962, in Novosibirsk i years Khrushchev the during unrest West. the in known were and groups) discussion intellectuals‘ and students‘ as (such Union Soviet the in existed already activity oppositional spee Secret famous his delivered Khrushchev when time period. that during letters protest open and strikes workers‘ of examples some also are http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translati 258 257 256 255 254 253 83. 252 standards, living low the bureaucracy, the against rather but system, a as socialism researchers. Western for attainable importantly, was Union Soviet the about information accoun these to right importance lesser of deemed or excluded and rights, and freedoms political on researchers, Western regime. generate were context Russian the in strikes workers‘ and revolts peasants‘ that claims Shatz or by historians,

―Universal Declaration of Human Rights‖ adopted on December 10, 1948, 1948, Decemberon 10, adopted Rights‖ Human of Declaration ―Universal Shatz, 5. 1953,‖ since Union Soviet inthe Dissent of Role ―The Lozansky, Era theBrezhnev in ―Dissidents Vishnevskaya, Ibid Kulavig, in Identity Social ―Us Them: against Davies, Sarah

are integral parts of theUniversalare integral of of Human Declaration parts Rights)

123. ts

n addition In 257 workers‘ open letters of the1930s, these protests were often ignored by dissidents (many dissidents by ignored often were protests these the1930s, of letters open workers‘ work, to equal pay, to an adequate standard of living or to gender equality ( equality gender to or living of standard adequate an to pay, equal to work, Soviet dissent in historical perspective, historical in dissent Soviet

serious changes in the society the in changes serious about

Dissent in the Years of Khrushchev of Years the in Dissent In my view, my In

the types of oppositional activity oppositional of types the

early labeled

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Soviet Russia,1934 Soviet 62 described above above described

253 ons/eng.pdf

oevr tee r eape o public of examples are there Moreover,

ch in 1956, many different types of of types different many 1956, in ch ,‖ - , accessed 25.04.2013. 25.04.2013. accessed ,

1941,‖ 1941,‖ but were usually aimed usually were not Russian Review te bec o historical of absence the , . 258 as dissent.as

such rights as rights such 256 254

56/1 (1997): 81, 81, (1997): 56/1

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CEU eTD Collection icrt i ltrtr‖ 15) Ii Ere Ilia (1953), literature‖ in sincerity ―On article Pomerantsev‘s Vladimir arts. and literature of field the in exclusively concentrated post as political andindividual freedom). then, defined, was freedom (and communism under missing element key the was it that argued prob these embrace not did scholars resources political of lack and food of 260 259 between dis state and the that believe I names. male only includes dissent though (even dissent Soviet on includes and freeze Brezhnev‘s after started which activity, enough. right post that fact the on However power. to monopoly Party‘s the threated potentially debates open that realized officials realism socialist of canon the regarding Soviet The disobedience. their by alarmed seriously was government Soviet the it, improve to and change to rather but system, a as socialism state magazinesSoviet andand were newspapers, somepersecution. ofthem tostate subjected the All years. Khrushchev the of achievements dissidents‘ Solzhenitsyn‘s novel

Shatz, 1934 Russia, SovietIdentity in Social against―Us Them: Davies, - tln er. T years. Stalin to o b bed alone bread by Not According to the mainstream historical narrative, Soviet dissent Soviet narrative, historical mainstream the to According It is interesting to point out that, in comparison to the later periods of Soviet oppositional Soviet of periods later the to comparison in that, out point to interesting is It post early the of majority the Although

260 power, did not have the capability to change the society, and, therefore, was not mature mature not was therefore, and, society, the change to capability the have not did power, Soviet dissent in historical perspective, historical in dissent Soviet

One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich Ivan of life the in day One - e ae artv cam ta te poiin n dset f ht r were era that of dissent and opposition the that claims narrative same he Stalin dissent was limited to moral claims, did not question the authorities‘ authorities‘ the question not did claims, moral to limited was dissent Stalin

senters was concentrated in the public sphere (at literary senters part concentrated least ofthe was

15) Brs Pasternak‘s Boris (1956), these these lems

women are not seen as key figures), this ―initial‖ stage of of stage ―initial‖ this figures), key as seen not are women . not only questioned the paradigms of Soviet art, but also but art, Soviet of paradigms the questioned only not nburg‘s novel novel nburg‘s 259

, because , 135.

herefore, in the context of the Cold Cold the of context the in herefore, 63 - Stalin Soviet dissi Soviet Stalin this is because is this

the West associated West the

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some female names in the narratives narratives the in names female some

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CEU eTD Collection n 18s oe‘ ipc bcm m became impact women‘s 1980s and 1970s the by functions, ―additional‖ only performed women 1964) to 1956 from period the was view her (in dissent Soviet of ears earlythe duringwhile Chuikina, to According movement. imp more play to started women gradually However, activity. writing of act the with connected Writers. of Union Soviet the of members the limited. still was sphere this to access women‘s andmagazines) Soviet official in published were society the in debates severe caused that works system the Soviet of thecriticism 264 263 262 261 RSFSR the of were Daniel and Sinyavsky dissent. Soviet ―mature‖ month and 1966, in started that Daniel and Sinyavsky Arzhak). Andrey writers, human ―consciousemerged Union, inthe dissent‖Soviet s to According institutions. state made only not matur more were years Brezhnev the of dissenters the view, this In regime. and society Soviet the of problems the to dissenters the of approach new a with movement dissident informational exchange supportof thepolitical and prisoners). sphere ―women‘s the within stayed

The using of pseudonyms was usual practice for Soviet writers, especially for those who in their works express works whotheir in those for especially writers, Soviet for usualwaspractice using ofpseudonyms The 4. Era,‖ theBrezhnev in ―Dissidents Vishnevskaya, движении.‖ в диссидентском женщин ―Участие Чуйкина, Liberated.‖ Not Women ―Soviet Shipler, s later by later s A the connects usually historiography Western ihs eosrto i te itr o te USSR the of history the in demonstration rights 264

ml dmntain n eebr , 95 t uhi Sur, h poes against process the Square, Pushkin at 1965 5, December on demonstration small

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o ―gtto o poaad crid n o te ups o sbeso or subversion of purpose the for on carried propaganda or ―agitation for mathematician Aleksandr Esenin Aleksandr mathematician iyvk ad ui Daniel Yuri and Sinyavsky

or lifestyle. or

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‖ r cetv ad needn (vn huh hy mostly they though (even independent and creative ore which 263

261

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CEU eTD Collection underground magazine underground Aleksei Galanskov, the in immediate reaction in imprisonment manuscri 1966 their February publishing and sending for regime‖ Soviet the weakening 268 Lashkova and Dobrovolsky Ginzburg, 267 32 & Row, c1967), (New Harper York: MaxHayward 266 Codes RSFSR The Procedure: 265 in Writers Soviet of Congress Fourth the to appeal Solzhenitsyn‘s 1968, and 1966 in letters open censorship publication abroad. wi regime the of dissemination The West. the with competition ideological the in position The abroad. works their of publication the was conviction and arrest their caused that factor main the propaganda‖), and (―agitation regime the to critical materials of dissemination the for sentenced one. previous the than wider much was Alekseeva, to accordingwhich, protest, of wave new a caused exclusivel West the to Danie

Людмила Peter Reddaway, ―Introduction‖ in Reddaway, ―Introduction‖ Peter in ―Introduction,‖ MaxHayward, 1972,‖ 1, as AmendedMarch to 1960, 27, October RSFSR, ofthe Code Criminal ―The 268 reason is reason l and Synyavski trial. Both editions Both trial. Synyavski and l

The so The The trials against writers in the Soviet Union were accompanied by accompanied were Union Soviet the in writers against trials The that me to seems It etr ms mda and media mass Western a a yit nt as not typist, a as y

, Алексеева, Алексеева,

which .

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- that the Soviet authorities regarded dissidents as a factor that could weaken their weaken could that factor a as dissidents regarded authorities Soviet the that hn h Sve Uin was Union Soviet the thin f the of ―Trial called ,

h to uhr wr snecd o epciey ie n svn er of years seven and five respectively to sentenced were authors two the labor

triggered a large number of protest letters. Examples are Lidia Chukovskaya‘s Chukovskaya‘s areLidia Examples letters. protest of number large a triggered s

Dobrovolsky and Vera Lashkova Vera and Dobrovolsky in the West. История

ap, hc ld o wv o poet aog oit nelcul and intellectuals Soviet among protests of wave a to led which camps, ,

Феникс , ( ed. ,

) инакомыслия в СССР, 118. инакомыслия

althoug Harold J. Berman (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 153. 1972), University Press, Harvard Harold (Cambridge: Berman J. On Trial: The Soviet State versus “Abram Tertz” and “Nikolai Arzhak,” “Nikolai and Tertz” “Abram Stateversus Soviet The Trial: On

, The trial of the four: a collection of materials on the case the on materials of collection a four: the trial of The n a [Phoenix] 1967 266

ote that in that ote dissident

our‖ became another prominent case that attracted attention attention attracted that case prominent another became our‖ - 68 among i bt css ecie above described cases both in h , ( ed. were ,

and for their work on the White book, devoted to the to devoted book, White the on work their for and )

h was she Pavel Litvinov (New York: Viking Press, 1972), ix 1972), Press, Viking York: Pavel Litvinov(New h itrorpyVr Lskv a construct was Lashkova Vera historiography the less - 33. oit nelcul. lxne Gnbr, Yury Ginzburg, Alexander intellectuals. Soviet

65 widely circulated among dissidents and smuggledand dissidents among circulated widely

important . 267

in 1968 in

h cnito o tee or dissidents four these of conviction The o te So the for were convicted for publishing an publishing for convicted were it officials viet oit isdns were dissidents Soviet Soviet Criminal Law and and Law Criminal Soviet an materials

t abroad. pts

intensification of of intensification of Galanskov, Galanskov, of than - critical to critical xi.

265 ( ed.) ed.) the

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CEU eTD Collection their to exile imprisonment, P the from and job one‘s from dismissals searches, trials, arrests, with 1968 in dissidents suppress to started government the when However, protests. open these in participated citizens movement ―Democratic Russian the of consolidation the to led abuses judicial against letters) open and demonstrations the regarding 1967, 274 273 272 271 270 269 dissent). religi and national of members the of rights of violation the to also but movement, rights human the of members repress the to only not devoted were reports its because dissent, Soviet of consolidation arrests). their of because h replaced Yakobson f its was Gorbanevskaya Natalia 1968. of edition The first Union. Sovietthe in West the in known 1970 theCommitteefor Human Rights wereinMoscow. formed For the for Group associations. ―Initiative the 1969 rights in instance, human establishing and protests open families, their and prisoners importa disside

Ibid. 131. Ibid Людмила Ibid 781 Russia,‖ in ―Dissent Brumberg, Ibid rts activities protest .

and letters by letters and

782. t ( nts This period also witnessed the emergence of of emergence the witnessed also period This t at of part nt 274

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samizdat bimonthly edition, bimonthly samizdat Andrei Sakharov, Valentin Sakharov, Andrei er; История

. Historians generally consider this this consider generally Historians . camps an camps

. 273 subsequently the editors were changing every two every changing were editors the subsequently ‖ 270

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269

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271

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Oxford English Dictionary Online, s.v. ―Samizat,‖ s.v. Online, Dictionary English Oxford Alekseeva, Елена Goldberg, and Alexeyeva 15. 1953,‖ since Union Soviet inthe Dissent of Role ―The Lozansky, 155. Ibid . 278

, and 275 From 1969 to 1974 to 1969 From ―The clandestine or illegal copying and distribution of literature (orig. and chiefly in the the in chiefly and (orig. literature of distribution and copying illegal or clandestine ―The 3.1.3 Samizdat: key elements the Soviet onedissent of of In 1985 ni te er o Glasnost of years the until

Здравомыслова, ―Ленинградский ‗Сайгон‘ ―Ленинградский Здравомыслова, New literature review New literature h US the

many dissenters were imprisoned or sent into exile. Although the ratification of the the of ratification the Although exile. into sent or imprisoned were dissenters many

issue of issue The thaw generation, thaw The

обозрение ,

Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. Initiall power. to came Gorbachev Mikhail

USSR. rsdn Cre‘ 17 cmag fr ua rgt ld o nw un of turn new a to led rights human for campaign 1976 Carter‘s President The 279

100 (2009) [Elena Zdravomislova, ―Leningrad‘s ‗Saigon‘ ―Leningrad‘s Zdravomislova, [Elena (2009) 100

His years witnessed a radical transformation of the whole Soviet society, Soviet whole the oftransformation radical yearsa witnessed His The thaw generation thaw The

Chronicle of Current Events Current of Chronicle 276

, 100 (2009)]. 100

e Uin hrh cnmc eom, h aoiin f censorship, of abolition the reforms, economic harsh Union, iet the severe suppression of the diss the of suppression severe the Although

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liberal liberal — 67

пространство 280

isdn gop wr atv i te Soviet the in active were groups dissident

was published from January 1972 to May to 1972 January from published was y he stated that there were nopolitical ywere thatthere stated he , accessed April 4, 2013. April 4, accessed ,

негативной idents led to led idents

during the whole the during – 277

свободы,‖ свободы,‖

the space ofnegative space the violations in the Soviet the in violations

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- [A journey from Petersburg to Moscow] to Petersburg from journey [A amizdat e is Sve documen Soviet first he Min Joo, ―Voices of Freedom: Samizdat,‖ Samizdat,‖ Freedom: ―Voices of MinJoo, .

i, ―The Material Existence of Soviet Samizdat,‖ 598. Samizdat,‖ Soviet of Existence Material ―The i, Existe Material ―The i,

285 Political Communication Communication Political ―The Decree on the Press‖ and the ―General Regulation on the Press,‖ which which Press,‖ the on Regulation ―General the and Press‖ the on Decree ―The

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i n

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Ostermann, Christian F., and Kristina Terzieva, ―The West's Secret Plan for the Mind: Book Distribution to East East to Distribution Book thefor Mind: Plan Secret West's ―The Terzieva, Kristina and F., Christian Ostermann, ―Tamizdat,‖ s.v. Online, Dictionary English Oxford Ibid best - book 573. The phenomenon of samizdat was accompanied by accompanied was samizdat of phenomenon The In this subchapter I will will I subchapter this In 3.1 - known -

distribution

.4 The Moscow Helsinki Group and the MoscowHelsinkiinclusiveThe Group and question: exclusion woman

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Parchomenko София Snyder, B. Sarah 120 Ibid 119 Ibid its members its ― important History of the Moscow Helsinki Watch Group Watch Helsinki Moscow ofthe History devoted towomen. devoted

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 8. 2011), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: In a nutshell, t nutshell, a In In an In as issues such to mostly devoted were reports MHWG ir its chair its

Каллистрато

- a 121. the Soviet Soviet the rrests started. In September September In started. rrests

1980 open letter to the to letter open 1980

, Soviet images of dissidents and nonconformists and dissidents of images Soviet , incentive for the creation of the group. In 1977, when President Carter openly openly Carter President when 1977, In group. the of creation the for incentive , Sofia Kallistratova, by ― by Kallistratova, Sofia , . 298 Human rights activism and the end of the cold war: a transnational history of the Helsinki Helsinki the of history transnational a war: the cold of end the and activism rights Human 296 ,

the Soviet Union Soviet the signed in 1975, and especially its Third basket devoted to human rights, rights, human to devoted basket Third its especially and 1975, in signed ва, "Из ва,

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the group was dissolved, because, because, dissolved, was group the marginal topics marginal 71 , the MHWG the ,

299 tee in Poland), in tee attentio , 118. ,

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n , 294

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camps and camps 300

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they could not be people‘s enemies or dissidents), dissidents), or enemies people‘s be not could they AC N4156 (Женщины) [Ivan Kovalev, Elena Bonner, ―To the ―To Bonner, Elena Kovalev, (Женщины) [Ivan ACN4156 ― upper

or heroines or 72 Moreover

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Россия и 5, Нарушение 5,

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Каллистратова, Мальва Каллистратова, Wmn n Rsi] ulse i Spebr 99 I te Western the In 1979. September in published Russia] and [Woman

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Ланда, Наум Ланда, , and , cepts understandable for the West the for understandable cepts 73 , but to the Helsinki Final Act, hence focused on focused hence Act, Final Helsinki the to but , it is important to stress that th that stress to important is it

правчеловека в СССР. в СССР. правчеловека the the stated 5 http://www.mhg.ru/history/15D71AB 305

discourse Мейман, Виктор Мейман,

Tatiana Mamonova, Tatiana Goricheva, Tatiana Mamonova, Tatiana ―oe wt hand with ―Women : - bars at the track the at bars

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начиналось 306 Вознесенская, ―Женское Вознесенская, er o e iiue o ifigd pn y h onsin mn wie bu te sorest the about write men, omniscient the by upon infringed or ridiculed be to fear

309

the феминистской The Soviet Union and the international domain of women's rights and struggles and rights women's of domain international the and Union Soviet The attitude

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this is debatable because it denies earlier feminists earlier denies it because debatable is this женское the Posev towards women ( women towards

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движение в России,‖ в России,‖ движение

n general in Россия http://antology.igrunov.ru/authors/voznesenskaya/1145211846.html 308 smvmns s a is movements ‘s

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, accessed 19.04.2013 accessed , h ecuin of exclusion The

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Zhenotdel , but but , - the almanac was met with sympathy by the Second Second the by sympathy with met was almanac the х,‖Из

the first and and first the как 74 and and self Посев

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was выступления Натальи Малаховской Малаховской Натальи выступления unhygienic conditions in maternity h maternity in conditions unhygienic - proclaimed

4 (1981): 41 [YuliyaVoznesenskaya, ―Women‘s ―Women‘s [YuliyaVoznesenskaya, 41 (1981): 4 n the and the

rejected by women women by rejected legacy of the Cold War that should be should that War Cold the of legacy

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while Mamonova suggests just the just suggests Mamonova while oit oe‘ Committee Women‘s Soviet ― the . Yana Knopova calls such an such calls Knopova Yana . firs

in the following chapters), I chapters), following the in

arts,‖ arts,‖ such as Inessa Armand and and Armand Inessa as such feminist t FEMINF . n isdn circles dissident in

Ф Е М И Н Ф Н М И Е Ф magazine

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CEU eTD Collection almanac of that is answer the of part course, Of almanac. feminist the of undergroundpublication Soviet their andcitizenship deported. of deprived were Malachovskaya and Goricheva Mamonova, Voznesenskaya, negat and fast also was reaction believe dissent. Soviet the about narratives historical from the women exclude whichnowadays production, ofknowledge mechanisms work ofthe the shows that enough,‖ scientific ―not webtheon published was Alla Mitrofanova historian http://ravnopravka.ru/2013/05/leningrad_feminism/ offeminism thefor emergence preconditions в диссидентском СССР 313 312 311 was Union Soviet the in movement rights achieved. the against and dissent] [literary of publication the Union Soviet f been had figures key its of all almost when 1982 by exist to ceased which competition question equality Union Soviet the Moreover, population. the understandable and evident were whichsocial problems, on but Union, Soviet the in rights political and civil of problem the on or expression artistic of freedom the on not

Алла Ibid. 64. inthe USSR,‖ Dissent and ―Women Fisher, h almanac the first

t s n interesting an is It It is is It Митрофанова, ―Ленинградский Митрофанова, ,

that that

Женщина и Россия и Женщина published in September 1979, September in published 313 and leel had allegedly .

relevant

, h rsos ws oty eaie Te Committee The negative. mostly was response the oee, h Western the However, 312 this ‘spublication

merged as a part of literary, not of liberal dissent. Mitrofanova points out that out points Mitrofanova dissent. liberal of not literary, of part a as merged Женщина и Россия и Женщина publication negatively affected the image of the country where the woman woman the where country the of image the affected negatively publication

движении‖[Alla Union Soviet the in movement women‘s ―first the and almanac the that

been 311

quest

h rpeso o dsiet itniid n general. in intensified dissidents of repression the

was solved ion why the Soviet government reacted so harshly to the the to harshly so reacted government Soviet the why ion ive: also

феминизм 70х: Условия ипричины Условия 70х: феминизм Mitrofanova, ―Leningrad feminism of 70s: The reasons and and reasons The of70s: feminism ―Leningrad Mitrofanova, Soviet

rs dsusd h amnc as almanac the discussed press , in the USSR among among the USSR in

- was a reaction against the ―pure and high art of samizdat‖ samizdat‖ of art high and ―pure the against reaction a was and not as part of literary dissent. Although the almanac the Although dissent. literary of part as not and one of the few the of one

t nevnd n after and intervened it a major Western news Western major a thus

, accessed 12.03.2013. The article of the Russian feminist and and feminist Russian ofthe article The 12.03.2013. accessed , - state‘s praised site of the Wi siteof weakening 75

equali women‘s that assertion

itself well dissidents‖], dissidents‖], kipedia, but after the long debates was deleted as deleted was debates the long but after kipedia,

h Sve posit Soviet the as a pioneer in the sphere of women‘s women‘s of sphere the in pioneer a as - known samizdat editionsthat samizdat known paper

eea sace ad warnings and searches several

возникновения wrote that ―on December 10, 10, December ―on that wrote for State Security‘s (KGB) (KGB) Security‘s State for

at of part o i te od War Cold the in ion for the majority of majority the for orced to leave the leave to orced the

феминизма в феминизма liberal However ty ty at the time time the at a been had

focused human the , , ‖ ,

CEU eTD Collection Revolution.‖ liberated) not that again once highlight (to movement liberation women‘s the of members collective humanrights withthe Soviet movement. edition). – Almanac Samizdads feminist first the Rights, Human of Declarationthe of anniversarythe 1979, 318 317 316 315 1980. 314 feminism] Western [towards orientation an such standards, Western to according live already particular ―in it, put Voznesenskaia Julia As women. Soviet for written issues on focus a demanded socialism state of realities abroad), published be to magazine the wanted beginning very the from pro be should magazine the that believed Mamonova, by headed writers, Som split. magazine the of collective editorial the started, repression the after Soon ambiguous. influence the ―genuine‖ for was liberation ofwomen stressed Soviet way this In literature.‖feminist foreign read to and foreigners meet opportunityto an and sensepassionate it magazine; women‘s the of emergence the for influence Western the of importance the highlighted Mamonova before.Union Soviet movement no been had there that suggested language used them,

Women and Rus and Women Fisher, ―Women and Dissent in the USSR,‖ 64. inthe USSR,‖ Dissent and ―Women Fisher, Country,‖ of Out Feminists ―Soviets Spirit Kaiser, Robert Monstrosities.‖ into Women Turned ofKindFreedom Russian ―Howthe Tweedie, feminists,‖ Moscowexpels Trio: ―Liberated Russi ―Howthe Jill Tweedie,

Moreover, Western newspapers presented the editors of the almanac as ―feminists,‖ ―feminists,‖ as almanac the of editors the presented newspapers Western Moreover, However, the attitude of the editors of of editors the of attitude the However, 314 ,

hs etr ms mda sy media mass Western Thus not only was earlier Soviet feminism denied, but also but denied, feminism Soviet earlier was only not 316 ,

315 Thus, both the almanac editors and Western newspapers, while reporting about reporting while newspapers, Western and editors almanac the both Thus, or sia appeared in Leningrad‖ ( Leningrad‖ in appeared sia A

ebr o ―h frt rl fmns mvmn i Rsi sne the since Russia in movement feminist truly first ―the of members said

1980 article in American1980articlein

an Kind of Freedom Turned Women into Monstrosities,‖ Monstrosities,‖ into Women Turned ofFreedom anKind that for the publication of publication the for that

Time Magazine Time

blcly once te laa ad t editorial its and almanac the connected mbolically 76 the previous edition was allegedly only a draft a only allegedly was edition previous the Saturday’s WashingtonPost Saturday’s

ещн и Россия и Женщина

Saturday’s Washington Post Washington Saturday’s , August 4, 1980. 1980. August , 4, Женщина и Россия и Женщина specific for Sov for specific

the importance of the West the of importance the

for women‘s equality in the the in equality women‘s for as well

318 iet women iet

for oad te et was West the towards

others thought that the that thought others , August 10, 1980. August , 10, The Guardian The - Mamonova ―needed a a ―needed Mamonova . Western (Mamonova Western

social groups, which groups, social Soviet women Soviet

devoted to Tatiana to devoted and should be be should and , July , 31,

Soviet Soviet were ern 317 e

CEU eTD Collection highlighting almanac the West the in almanac the of publication the book her in Alexeeva instance, For dissent. the collective, editorial its women. vital and reasonable quite be to seems 320 319 construct were from the historical narratives. male as defined were dissidents reinforced only newspapers Soviet the in constructed picture the that and dissent liberal as dissent Soviet I détente. West and Soviet the in constructed was that dissent liberal dissent, Soviet heroic of historiography the male were negated and life‖ ancestral their ―crossed the after emerged

Tweedie, ―How the Russian Kind of Freedom Turned Turned ofKindFreedom Russian ―Howthe Tweedie, 42. в России,‖ движение ―Женское Юлия Вознесенская,

image of dissent Soviet image

simplified pictures, wh pictures, simplified dissent. Soviet presented as victims rather tha rather victims as presented Despite the fact that Western mass media paid quite a lot lot a quite paid media mass Western that fact the Despite Clearly, the from excluded became women how question, second chapter‘s this answer To 3.3 319 a will will

that

Soviet dissidents in the Western and Soviet mass media: mass Soviet and Western the in dissidents Soviet popular image of the phenomenon. It is also significant to to significant also is It phenomenon. the of image popular

once more the ―myth about liberated Soviet women.‖ Numerous articles that that articles Numerous women.‖ Soviet liberated about ―myth the more once

argue that the Western mass media played an important role in the definition of definition the in role important an played media mass Western the that argue

interpretat the images of Soviet dissidents constructed in bo in constructed dissidents Soviet of images the dtr‘ exile editors‘

‘s publication ‘s ion. almanac ose aim was not to give a full account of account full a give to not was aim ose

Moreover, IMoreover,

Женщина и Россия и Женщина

lie ta Sve wmn pk u against up spoke women Soviet that claimed which contributed to the later exclusion of exclusion later the to contributed which

did not enter the mainstream historical narrative about Sovi about narrative historical mainstream the enter not did n fighters for fighters n ,‖

and its editors‘ expulsi editors‘ its and

but she she but

in ―their own fundamental nature fundamental own ―their will show will History of dissent in the USSR the in dissent of History this subchapter I will will I subchapter this 77 Women into Monstrosities into Women added

their rights and did not fit the canon the fit not did and rights their , but does not does but ,

that in both Soviet and Western newspapers Western and Soviet both in that

that it was alien for the majority of Soviet Soviet of majority the for alien was it that ern newspapers during the period of period the during newspapers ern on from the Soviet Union allowed Union Soviet the from on th of analyze the analyze attention to the almanac and and almanac the to attention

Soviet dissent, but ratherto but dissent, Soviet .‖

S note oviet and Western press press Western and oviet .

‖

it. 320 only

the image of Soviet Soviet of image the

It seems to me that me to seems It

that in both Soviet Soviet both in that Therefore, women Therefore,

female dissidents dissidents female briefly an constructing

qaiy that equality

mentions mentions of heroic of et CEU eTD Collection right newspapers of image groups dissident between differences the to point loa as dissidents to referred usually newspapers and authorities Soviet The fragmented). extremely was newspapers Western sometimes (even though monolithic p the newspapers Western and http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/10thcong/ch04.htm 323 322 1986) (New Praeger, York: 321 of concept enemies‖the ―people‘s of concept the with along that essential broadened was ―enemies‖ of concept and proletariat,‖ the of of suppression the legitimated and legend enemies. internal and external strong and insecurity Russian fifteen Tatar The media. in mass Soviet dissidents of representation the understand to background important an is siege, constant the between relations opposition of history the from particularly, and history, Russian services.‖ intelligence and propaganda foreign USSR, the offi

Vladimir Lenin, Lenin, Vladimir Parchomenko (1906 LeonidBrezhnev cials‘ public statements. In a In statements. public cials‘ s , fers ‖

centuries The image of dissid of image The 3.3.1 The

the only mature and thinking population. and partthe only mature of theSoviet

isdns as dissidents Te eed bu Rsi, hc prry te onr a a he a as country the portrays which Russia, about legend The . r rios pol‘ eeis i m view, my (in enemies people‘s traitors, or Brezhnev described dissidents described Brezhnev osrce dissidents constructed , Soviet images of dissidents and nonconformists and dissidents of images Soviet , , Preliminary Draft Resolution Of The Tenth Congress Of The R.C.P. On Party Unity, Unity, Party On R.C.P. The Of Congress Tenth The Of Resolution Draft Preliminary

and image of dissidents in the in image Soviet mass media dissidents of

Napoleon and Nazi Germany Nazi and Napoleon

- ,23. 1982),

maue epe rce b te et or West the by tricked people immature eeis of ―enemies

ents in the Soviet magazines and newspapers derived from the Soviet the from derived newspapers and magazines Soviet the in ents

cited in cited

henomenon of dissent was constructed as something more or less or more something as constructed was dissent of henomenon - Mongol invasion and occupation, and invasion Mongol

speech in March 1977 at the 16 the at 1977 March in speech

Walter Parchomenko Walter as and encompassed all forms of forms all encompassed and males, the

the rltra revolution.‖ proletarian as ―enemies of socialism of ―enemies as liberals, political opposition as internal enemies, ―enemies enemies, internal as opposition political 78 321

‘s ‘s

in the Soviet mas Soviet the in l the All , Soviet images of dissidents and nonconformists and dissidents images of Soviet , inv , 49. ,

and heroic and any asion mentioned

, accessed 13.05.2013. 13.05.2013. accessed ,

se attempt to classify dissidents dissidents classify to attempt

influenced the the influenced defin 322

n 91 ei rifre this reinforced Lenin 1921 In fighters for fighters

which lasted from lasted which

323 as Congress of Trade Unions of Unions Trade of Congress itions

that ,‖ critique of the regime. It is It regime. the of critique s media media s

Western Western uig Stalin During

―traitors , the the

the n fact in dissident movement dissident notion

―wives, sisters ―wives, oc ain under nation roic ol irp the disrupt would ― agents ‖ nvra human universal , and

tt ad the and state from derived of a of s years ‘s

) aet of ―agents thirteen to thirteen .

Western Western constant n to and

and and the

CEU eTD Collection differently‖ as enemies of the state and people was reinforced. was people and state the of enemies as differently‖ in an active politically as seen not were still they before, Russia in known never opportunities and equality legal with granted were women Soviet Purge Great Stalin‘s being for and in husbands their following for history Russian in glorified were which wives, of mothers 327 326 thelaw. inequalitybefore serfdomand rule, absolutist against the officers,rebelled 325 324 the 1966 In ideals. communist th who right human universal for fighters as dissidents portrayed that newspapers Western the in campaign Secondl the influence. ―contagious‖ to possibly their from population the threat of rest the shield to serious tried and regime, a as dissidents considered authorities Soviet the First, factors. several […].‖ propagandist anti as of and lawbreaker; unripening an and criminal state dangerous a détente; enemy an […]; foreigners with conspired who traitor a […]; person immature politically Pa the and society Soviet from deserter a or renegade ―a as group, example For State. Soviet the against West the by organized warfare psychological the of agents adversaries, struggle ideological War Cold the of circumstances

Ibid 140. Ibid Parchomenko Russian noble participants, The 1825. in Petersburg in St. place took Revolt) (or Decembrist Uprising The En oppositional activities.oppositional s made the Soviet authorities Soviet s made the gel, uig the During Initially uh dfeety a t pol ifce b nhls, yiim n disbeliev and cynicism nihilism, by infected people to as differently‖ ought y, it can be explained by the Russian tradition discussed above. Thirdly, the effective the Thirdly, above. discussed tradition Russian the by explained be can it y, Women in Russia in Women

the ,

Soviet mass media portrayed media mass Soviet , Soviet images of of images Soviet , , poe‖ ie o ottnig men. outstanding of wives ―proper‖

epes nme‖ emerged. enemies‖ people‘s Soviet mass media did not use the term dissident, they rather referred to referred rather they dissident, term the use not did media mass Soviet huhhv n Behe years Brezhnev and Khrushchev 327

S , 183. , uch

harsh charact harsh dissidents and nonconformists and dissidents

magazine

respond bycondemning Молодой eristic Yury 324 79 s

hs ocp cn e id o h Decembrists‘ the to tied be can concept This

Orlov, the head of the Moscow Helsinki Watch Helsinki Moscow the of head the Orlov,

in the Soviet newspapers can be explained by explained be can newspapers Soviet the in

Коммунист , 325

, 51. , th

ofca iae f toe h th who ―those of image official e t hw that, shows It ,

the isdns ee eie a interna as defined were dissidents

dissidents asdissidents 326

[Young Communist] published Communist] [Young

It is not is It

rty; an idler and parasite; a parasite; and idler an rty; lhuh y h tm of time the by although d ready for participation for ready d traitors. surprising - Soviet agitator andagitator Soviet to

exile in exile

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Siberia ―those ―those ought in e l CEU eTD Collection ―loafer and vagrant and ―loafer for enough) only to known existing this, of Because he youngsters. among nihilism the to devoted article an 331 330 work eat.‖ not shall who not does ―he Constitution: was workwant notwho to did those claim moral against strong wasto designed decree that the stated Anti Leadingan and Work 329 (1966)]. 1 Communist 328 protagonists three all Moreover, speeches, high the at women of number and 1917, of ―effeminized were they that claim can one therefore, and, by characterized and immature as constructed were stories the Union Soviet the in dissent to attention for of lack the about talk freedom of to started he therefore and talented) not was he (again, because works presumably his read or publish to wanted nobody because society Soviet and state Soviet

roes of the first story were story first the of roes Buckley, in t ―Cold War Reid, SociallyUseful Avoiding withPersons Struggle the Strengthening "On entitled new a decree 1961 OnMay4, нищие,‖ ―Принц и Сомов, Г.

Soviet newspapers like loafers rather tha rather loafers like newspapers Soviet the ―so this this - N ―nihilists

called . The hero of the second story was a young man who did not want to work to want not did who youngman a was story second the of hero The .

literature as chained by multiple restrictions. But their self their But restrictions. multiple by chained as literature image was persistent also during the years of détente. of years the during also persistent was image one of these stories these of one Soviet women were constructed as constructed were women Soviet 331 Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union Soviet the Ideology in and Women speech

suggests - reo‖ a taeln al rud h cuty n fnly a snecd as sentenced was finally and country the around all travelling was freedom‖

a . they founded their founded they ‖

ml crl o raes ( readers of circle small in the USSR. USSR. in the

A possible explanation is that is explanation possible A . heKitchen ‖

329 that by the Brezhnev years women still were seen as politically immature. politically as seen were still women years Brezhnev the by that

- Social, Parasitic Way of Life" was adopted in the Soviet Union. Many dissidents dissidents Many in the SovietUnion. was adopted Life" Way of Parasitic Social,

The hero of the third story was an unacknowledged wri unacknowledged an was story third the of hero The Молодой ,‖ ,‖

poets who poets me 220. est supress the emerging opposition in the Soviet Union, although in fact the although in Union, in the Soviet opposition emerging the supress ntioned

n the in political level, mentioned even by Khrushchev in one of his of one in Khrushchev by even mentioned level, political

own group called ―We are geniuse are ―We called group own Коммунист , and ―those who th who ―those and , allegedly the importance of Western support and Western ideas Western and support Western of importance the Молодой

h sgeto ws that was suggestion the , , 140. a n traitors n politically backward part of the Soviet population Soviet the of part backward politically 80

1 (1966) [G. Somov, ―The Prince and paupers,‖ Young paupers,‖ Somov,and [G. Prince ―The(1966) 1

wrote bad poetry that nobody that poetry bad wrote

t that at Коммунист proclaimed 328 . At the same time same the At

The article The

.‖ time the West did not pay that much that pay not did West the time ought differently‖ were p were differently‖ ought

After the After a

already in the text of 1936 Soviet text1936 of the already in ako pltcl consciousness‖ ―political of lack ‘s 330

story The a The

- published manuscripts were manuscripts published presented hy ut ee o talented not were just they Great October Great s‖ and condemned all the all condemned and s‖ ,

were male (as well as as well (as male were bsence of of bsence the protagonists of the the of protagonists the

three stories. The stories. three

wanted to read. read. to wanted ter angry at the at angry ter , and in search search in and , a

Revolution in ortrayed significant have have a

CEU eTD Collection to the ―existence of some [allegedly not real] ‗political opposition‘ in the USSR.‖ the in opposition‘ ‗political real] not [allegedly some of ―existence the to as (―such stations that stated was it Moreover, War.‖ World the of years the during fascists with by ―used Karasi and Yakir of trials consider didnot women still as oppositionists. pro all almost off,‖ torn are 335 31208]. [ 334 city?‖ 333 News 332 anti and defenders‖ rights human called used were they that realized mentioned were (Solzhenitsyn), era, Sovi the in dissidents towards attitude disappeared, narratives Soviet in role on going was what knowing Western bourgeois with population the cooperated who slanderers as correspondents. portrayed were they where magazine satirical ―Renegades as human rights defenders,‖ the transcript of the SovietRadi the of thetranscript defenders,‖ rights human as ―Renegades

В. Барсов, М. Михайлов, ―Маски Михайлов, М. Барсов, В. в рол ―Отщепенцы город?‖ ―Чеминтересен Энтелис, Николай ―Судебныи Майоров, Е.

dissidents were defined as ―paranoid criminals‖ (Bukovski and Orlov), ―marasmu Orlov), and (Bukovski criminals‖ ―paranoid as defined were dissidents , 29 August, 1973]. 29 , Crocodile

In 1973 In The Soviet mass media rarely discussed f discussed rarely media mass Soviet The the News

mgat anti emigrant t 14 (1976)]. 14 , he washe , agonists of similar stories in stories similar of agonists

333 the and , August 27, 1980]. 27, August , hmn ihs issues rights human d ,

hy ee osrce a vcis wo eotd o h plc a fr s they as far as police the to reported who victims, as constructed were they

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― Крокодил daily Soviet newspaper Soviet daily иправозащитников,‖Передача psychologically unstable people

Voice of America‖) paid paid America‖) of Voice described as a lonely person lonely adescribed as

Процесс в Москве,‖ в Москве,‖ Процесс about dissent. about verse n (both liberal dissidents). dissidents). liberal (both n - , . Soviet organization […] which was involved in dense cooperation dense in involved was which […] organization Soviet

as communicators who facilitated the connections between the ―so the between connections the facilitated who communicators as I

n [Crocodile] in 1976 published published 1976 in [Crocodile]

the only dissident in the city was strictly opposed to the rest of rest the to opposed strictly was city the in dissident only the the Сорваны,‖ Сорваны,‖ 1970s et press did not change much. At the end of the Brezhnev the of end the At much. change not did press et Around the 1980s, when Soviet liberal dissent had all but all had dissent liberal Soviet when 1980s, the Around eae es motn for important less became - Крокодил Soviet groups abroad groups Soviet Известия Известия the contacts with the West already playedalready West the with contacts the Известия

Soviet newspapers) Soviet

радиостанции "Юность," 3 Марта 1981, RFE/RL 31208 RFE/RL 31208 Марта 1981, 3 "Юность," радиостанции

81 dissidents dissidents emale dissidents. In the few cases when cases few the In dissidents. emale , 14 (1976) [Nikolai Entelis, ―What is interesting in the the in isinteresting ―What Entelis, [Nikolai , (1976) 14

, 27 Августа, 1980 [V. Barsov, M. Mihailov, ―Masks Mihailov, M. [V. Barsov, Августа, 1980 27 , , 29 Августа 1973 [E. Maiorov, ―Trial in Moscow,‖ ―Trial Maiorov, [E. Августа 1973 29 ,

li ‖ ving almost outside of the city and not cityandof the outside almostving

In this article dissidents were described as described were dissidents article this In (Grigorenko). [News] for producing for ostation ―Youth,‖ 3 March, 1981, RFE/RL 1981, March, 3 ―Youth,‖ ostation

published an published some ,

, suggesting , or as degraded crimina degraded as or

American foreign policy, the the policy, foreign American 334

verse

false materials devoted devoted materials false

eoe t dissidents to devoted article devoted to the the to devoted article

that the Soviet state state Soviet the that Western radi Western 332 a

The Soviet The

prominent s renege‖ s ls. women 335 even even

It is It o - CEU eTD Collection before the Great October Revolution and after that event only only event that after and Revolution October Great the before Russian as well as American dissent.about Soviet rare extremely male of activities the supported just always they media; mass Soviet in protagonists main as constructed never were dissidents female that significant 169. 2003), history Soviet 340 http://neoc 339 338 (stillactive); détente 337 336 remnan ―the find to trying constantly were scholars Union Soviet collectivism.‖ totalitarian a defined [were] self liberal ‗autonomous‘ the and values liberal ―classic driveSoviet for military an dominancebased unparalleled up.‖ upon build and peace, world to nation, our to threat ―principal this danger.‖ of period ―a as described was situation international its ―dangerous‖ and ―abnormal‖ McCart the during USA the threat, communist

Anna Krylova, ―The Tenacious Liberal Subject in Soviet Studies‖ in in Studies‖ inSoviet Subject Liberal Tenacious ―The AnnaKrylova, Danger Present the on Committee the statementof policy Danger: Common the and Sense Common Ibid lobbied actively yearsofCarter and during the in 1950, founded was which group, interest Apowerful Dalby Simon ao plc saeet ild Cmo Sne n te omn Danger,‖ Common the and Sense ―Common titled statement policy major 46 The construction of potentially dangerous ―others‖ and enemies is a prominent feature of of feature prominent a is enemies and ―others‖ dangerous potentially of construction The 3.3.2 The Historian - onservatism.vaisse.net/doku.php?id=common_sense_and_the_common_danger 47. during the during

( eds. , Creating the Second Cold War Cold Second the Creating , , was that it it that was

which further which )

Anna Krylova claimed that after the Second World War War World Second after the claimed that Krylova Anna http://www.committeeonth Michael David image of Soviet dissidents in theimage in Westernmassmedia Soviet dissidents of

was added to it. to added was h period of détente decreased the panic regarding the ―red t ―red the regarding panic the decreased détente of period years, y

340 e t te et o Rsin iea man liberal Russian of death the to led

n country - prevented female dissidents f dissidents female prevented history the Fox, Peter Holquist, Marshall Poe (Bloomington, Ind.: Slavica Publishers, SlavicaPublishers, (Bloomington,Ind.: Poe Marshall Holquist, Peter Fox, the the 336 oiat mg o the of image dominant 1940s and 1950s and 1940s

. In th In . . In 1976 the Committee on the Present Danger Present the on Committee the 1976 In . Even though Even epresentdanger.org

( London: Pinter Publishers, 1990), 43. 43. 1990), Publishers, London: Pinter e American history the fear of Russia emerged long long emerged Russia of fear the history American e 82

cultural and educational programs launched educationalprograms and cultural , the message about message the , , accessed 12.05.2013. accessed , to the cause of human of cause the to s f iea sbetvt ad in of signs and subjectivity liberal of ts rom entering rom The Resistance Debate in Russian and and Russian in Debate Resistance The actors oit no remained Union Soviet 338

The main and the only cause of cause only the and main The Ra fml nms r also are names female Real . a , new new

and afterwards American American afterwards and

the the in the United States United in the 339

strong

tlns eiei the in regime Stalin‘s , accessed 12.05.2013. accessed ,

ant h tra of threat the gainst historical narratives historical

hreat‖ freedom [was] freedom dimension n which in

337 peaked that , ht f an of that

against revealed ,

the the the the the in

CEU eTD Collection o feiae hi eeis ( enemies their effeminate to trying were governments Soviet and American Both dissidents. describe to definitions same the society.‖ and himself between distance disso fear, by men fellow paradoxically, quite but, threat, values. Western to threat male, a as Union Soviet the anti against resistance 1976. Natura,‖ ―RussiaContra Jr., Buckley F. William1976; 17, September 348 347 346 345 344 ‗Commu against 343 342 341 male affected the ways w accounts first the among were newspapers Western the from world the safe to help could for fighters individuals, constructed newspapers and magazines resistance. Western active and system] the [in disbelieve ―liberated of emergence discourse. was thinking misogynist and patriarchal simultaneously iig o dsiet, hc wr tetd s h utmt truth). ultimate the as treated were which dissidents, of ritings

For example For 324. Europe,‖ Eastern and in Central Dissent and ―Resistance Falk, 187, 193. Ibid 186. Ibid inSovietStudies Subject Liberal Tenacious ―The Krylova, Campaign War Cold the Antifeminism in ‗Femmocracy‘: Washington ―Attacking the Storrs, R.Y. Landon Engel, Ibid.

dissidents and, second, to liberal dissidents. liberal to second, and, dissidents

Firs as often historiography Western Women in Russia in Women

t ly ,

nists in Government‘,‖ Government‘,‖ nistsin te aoiy f etr rprs n oit isn wr dvtd xlsvl to exclusively devoted were dissent Soviet on reports Western of majority the , see David K. Shipler, ―Harassing of Dissidents is Camouflaged,‖ is Camouflaged,‖ ofDissidents ―Harassing Shipler, K. David see

osrcig hm s tra t te whole the to threat a as them constructing

in which in which

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343 ua rgt ainn tesle wt te iea aed, hs who those agenda, liberal the with themselves aligning rights human lved in communist ‗patterns of th ‗patternsof communist in lved Soviet dissent wasSoviet understood and defined.

However, 342

― serious a as seen also were women Soviet States United the in also oaiain man totalitarian Feminist Studies Feminist as a ―‗victim of propaganda and terror,‘ atomized from his from atomized terror,‘ and propaganda of ―‗victim a as the sociates t sociates 344 totalitarian Soviet totalitarian person was constructed not onlyas aconstructedtotalitariannot wasperson Soviet

tog n pae a iprat oe n h political the in role important an played and strong One

33/1 (2007): 132. (2007): 33/1 notice 348 he emergence of Soviet liberal dissent with the with dissent liberal Soviet of emergence he ‖

341 ,

communist threat. communist ‖ In and Soviet Soviet and 179.

about W s isdns as dissidents the

that the Soviet government used almost used government Soviet the that ie the hile

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why the woman ques woman the why 87 rights the

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CEU eTD Collection n hs hpe te nenl atr ta afce Sve dsiet‘ nifrne oad the towards indifference dissidents‘ Soviet affected that factors internal the chapter this In about drawconclusions to problematic be would it and group to group from significantly differentiated support Western of level the and West the with groups dissident different of relations the However, Union. Soviet wom towards the concepthighly is bygaze. dissent ofSoviet influenced a Western and War Cold the of years the during dissent Soviet on research the of most conducted 356 355 354 1960s the in activity werewriting poetry‘could t ‗male publish […] possessed who those only and magazines), braid to and type (to work the of part technical the do to opportunity an with granted ―were women dissidents, Leningrad among other words, dangerous.‖ too sociall fortoosharp,materials, too topublish, menseemedtobe wanted which they worked, Malachovskaya Howev non of publication underground the in participated feminist participate who Malachovskaya, movement competition onthe be will question woman

Митрофанова, ―Ленинградскийфеминизм70х.‖ Митрофанова, Ibid ―Как .

er, she er, начиналось rm y on o view of point my From h poiet oit isdn, eot ieo, n i mmis n i underground his on memoirs his in Pimenov, Revolt dissident, Soviet prominent The Natalia movement. dissident Soviet the of part significant a constituted Women 4 .1 samizdat

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женское

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that women in the editorial office of the samizdat magazine ―37 magazine samizdat the of office editorial the in women that One political process political One

s the impact of the Cold War and Western support for all dissident groups. dissident all for support WesternWar and Cold the of impact the analyzed

and движение в конце 70 в конце движение fl ta te wr non were they that ―felt 355

activities of dissidents. Soviet

The d in Soviet literary dissent and was one of the editors of the first the of editors the of one was and dissent literary Soviet in d , . In the next chapter I will will I chapter next the In .

h dmsi facto domestic the

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analyze ‖

Натальи 356

Alla

the impact of the C the of impact the

Малаховской.

Mitrofanova noticed thatMitrofanova noticed - a ofrit: the conformists: ‗male mind‘ or or mind‘ ‗male

y in oriented, ,‖ where ,‖

old War War old beyond 354 ,

CEU eTD Collection because her. toprotect wanted he and it for unsuitable was she him, to according because, activityunderground his about anything purpose ―fulfil she and ‗letters‘ small newspapers the ― of process the describing while editing by contributed ―Ira while publication for materials writing were friend to, belonged he circle oppositional small the of member incapa and roles 363 362 state. the by wereowned Union Soviet in the offices publishing and 361 360 359 358 Panorama 357 who Telesin) (Julius samizdat‖ of ―Prince the mentions say to important is shared of ―sphere the for preparations and actions the public various of consisted which responsibilities,‖ defines also Chuikina texts. the writing and ideology elaborating of t in participated and tea and food served guests, ‗ a ―created who host the of role the played and homes their so were hosting Thirdly, women media. mass Western and dissidents the pris political the and dissidents between communication the sustained women re for responsible entirely were the of sphere‖ ―women‘s the defines the reflected 1950s, the of end the by already circles dissident th that fact the to points movement dissident

Ibid ―Учас Чуйкина, copiers withthe all because typewriter a by or hand reproduced were usually materials underground Samizdat Ibid Ibid243. Пименов, Пименов, Револьт .

243. infrastructure, informational exchange and support of the political prisoners. First, women women First, prisoners. political the of support and exchange informational infrastructure, usa hsoin vtaa Chuikina Svetlana historian Russian . , ‖ 1996)].

359

Воспоминания, Воспоминания,

While speaking about his wife, Pimenov mentioned that he did not want to tell her tell to want not did he that mentioned Pimenov wife, his about speaking While

ble of creative activity. Even th Even activity.creative of ble тиеженщин в диссидентскомдвижении. тиеженщин Воспоминания Воспоминания

that that

181. oe to osdrd men considered too women

within dissent within (Москва: Панорама, 1996), [ 1996), Панорама, (Москва: 360 publication - yig n bnig f h udrrud press. underground the of binding and typing

,‖ led the task although [he] although task the led as being connected with the creation and managing managing and creation the with connected being as

89 n e 19 catr n oe i the in women on chapter 1996 her in he writes that he ―committed her to cut out from out cut to her ―committed he that writes he ough he menti he ough he discussions.‖ he dvso of division e

o e sup be to

357 Revolt acrig o her, to according ,

Pimenov states that he and his and he that states Pimenov favorable ons that his female friend Ira was a Irawas female friend his that ons

Pimenov labor broader 362 ro. o eape Alekseeva example, For erior.

The ―men‘s sphere‖ consistedsphere‖ ―men‘s The wih a etbihd in established was which , ,

did not explain to her the her to explain not did Memoirs atmosphere,‘ pleased the pleased atmosphere,‘ Soviet gender order. She order. gender Soviet - called ―open houses‖ athouses‖―open called

oners and between and oners was

( Moscow . ‖ 358 ―the best‖ in in best‖ ―the 361

actions

Moreover, Secondly, : Soviet Soviet

. male 363

CEU eTD Collection n h Sve Uin o ter oiia atvt) Wmn i tr, ol awy rl o the on rely always could network of ―open houses.‖ turn, in Women, activity). political their for Union Soviet the in rarely werearrested(women women from get support would casethey thatin theywere sure b could they that knew Men Union. Soviet the in activity oppositional the West. between messenger only the almost and first the was Amalrik duplicati 364 issue puzzling very a is issue this towards female, and male both dissidents, of reluctance The it. ignored unanimously almost dissidents Soviet indifference about heroic roles women‘s towards attitude than important less not were roles their that believe Although movement. dissident exclu often are movement dissident narratives. the in roles active play did who misogyni to had they because just men as active as be not could and housework with overburdened were women Soviet Most men. Soviet for than

Людмила Алексеева, Людмила According to Chuikina, the gender division of of division gender the Chuikina, to According Despite the fact that the Brezhnev era witnessed the re the witnessed era Brezhnev the that fact the Despite 4.2 women Soviet For ng st male attitudes prevented them from being creative and active. But even those women women those even But active. and creative being from them prevented attitudes male st 364

I argue that argue I and disseminati and

oit isdns n te oa qeto: h itra raos of reasons internal the question: woman the and dissidents Soviet Soviet Soviet

dissent. dissent. История инакомыслия в СССР, 130. инакомыслия История

, despite all obstacles, all despite , participation in the dissident movement was a far more difficult task task difficult more far a was movement dissident the in participation

samizdat materials and states that that states and materials samizdat was an important factor tha factor important an was often oe wr rsrce t ter taiinl shr, I sphere, ―traditional‖ their to restricted were women

ae ae f household of care take Soviet women actively participated actively women Soviet 90

also

those because their ―spir their because labor t excluded them from the narratives the from them excluded f e. oee, h patriarchal the However, men. of - Soviet Soviet opening of the woman question, woman the of opening

between 1966 and 1969 and 1966 between was vitally important for the the for important vitally was human rights activists and activists rights human

n families. and e arrested any time, but time, any arrested e e fo historical from ded itual ancestors,‖ the the ancestors,‖ itual

in the Soviet the in Moreover Andrei , CEU eTD Collection isdns ee wr o te oa qeto, n icue te edr ieso i their in analysi dimension his in gender However, agenda. the included and question, woman the of aware were dissidents divisions.‖ other and religions, sexes, races, among also but classes among only not equality genuine be should goal the that point the ―made democrats) that claims regardingdiscussions woman question. the onwa century eighteenth the from intelligentsia, tsarist 1976. 13, August 368 367 366 Marsh(N Rosalind 365 book his in Sakharov only that noted also He sexes.‖ both embraces rights human for struggle ―the because circles, dissident in discussed not were magazine underground the of of correspondents the of one line, similar raised. is equality women‘s of question the when blankly react who but rights, human risks great take often who dissidents Soviet outspoken by even unquestioningly, accepted are they that women] towards men Soviet of attitude misogynist [the in mentioned Sh K. David Union, Soviet the in inequality women‘s about writing While media. mass argument lessthenconvincing. a his from excludes and group oppositional this about known group. is much not that footnotes in acknowledges and Tallinn, in based Union, t of memorandum the mentioned, is politics in inequality

David K. Shipler, ―Soviet Women Not Liberated Despite Professional Roles,‖ Roles,‖ Professional Despite Liberated Not ―Soviet Women Shipler, K. David 57. Ibid Hyung in ―Introduction,‖ RosalindMarsh, 367 Hyung Soviet - min Joo, ―Narratives of Inequality Under Communism,‖ 52. Communism,‖ Under ofInequality ―Narratives minJoo,

Hyung , in contrast to all other dissident groups, liberal dissidents (he refers to them as as them to refers (he dissidents liberal groups, dissident other all to contrast in ,

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dissidents‘ indifference towards the woman question was noticed even by Western by even noticed was question woman the towards indifference dissidents‘ min Joo in his 2005 article on the narratives of inequality under state socialism state under inequality of narratives the on article 2005 his in Joo min ew York: Berghahn Books, 1998), ix. 1998), Books, Berghahn York: ew - i Jo ae hs ocuin bu te iea dsiet o te ny one only the on dissidents liberal the about conclusion his bases Joo min

ещн и Женщина Women and Russian Culture: Projections and Self and Projections Culture: Russian and Women s he points to the only record where the problem of women‘s of problem the where record only the to points he s The 365 nalyses nalyses

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CEU eTD Collection The answer to that question consists of several parts. First of all, even though various policies various though even all, of First parts. several of consists question that to answer The ‗returngive tothe homeand socialism‘.‖ women them arestfrom to need the about theory old same ―the on relied and issues‖ women's of understanding naive oppo political N A Russia: Russia.‖ in rate birth of decline resulting Soviet of effect disastrous Guild,‖ 373 372 the of problem. as part women‘s 371 370 369 a that forgot and family]‖ the [in equality word the in interested much ―too became women that collective the without factory, my without life myimagine cannot I ―no, answered, and children?‖ and family my to life my devote and job l a Ya. 1975 In households. the managing in men of involvement greater a by and leaves, maternity longer and kindergartens facilities, dining as such support, wanted and work their praised benefits. significant with them towardsemancipation. women‘s media, mass Soviet the in years Khrushchev the during started that masculinity and femininity about debates The years. Brezhnev‘s during society, family the in women of position the change to order in Union Soviet the in introduced were

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, 239, 246. 239, , ‖3. ‖3. sidents ignore the woman question or hold such conservative views? views? conservative such hold or question woman the ignore sidents

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378

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According to Soviet poet and dissident Julia dissident and poet Soviet to According

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CEU eTD Collection eaie onttos i te ae f oa sgiis e aeult o her or asexuality her professionalgrowth family over responsibilities. signifies woman of case the in connotations, negative strictly has and mentality Soviet a with people to refers usually which dissidents, by used widely (literally was leadership Soviet of majority the though even system hated the feminized dissidents Soviet Thus Soviets] the of Power 384 383 382 381 333 (1982): question. woman the to attention pay not did dissidents Soviet why reasons the of one was it fact, in that, me to seems article her in explanation this rejects system. this of part as it rejected therefore and system Soviet hated feminist Russian ideology. and Mitrofanova culture official the with connected problems that,as is women as authorities.‖ theSoviet them of lot a ― because position their endorse 1980 in 1979, in emerged that Union Soviet the in magazine feminist samizdat first the of founder from question woman the excluding wit positions secondary accept women some made only not tradition patriarchal strong prevailing the and K Алла Митрофанова, ―Ленинградский феминизм 70х.‖ феминизм ―Ленинградский АллаМитрофанова, ― Lipovskaya, Ibid.

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so Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union Soviet the Ideology in and Women strengthening ofstrengthening peace complete and and disarmament security - with indignation indignation with

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nd always pref always nd osss f te olcin f ieay ok dee spro ad oty f study,‖ of worthy and superior deemed works literary of collection ―the of consists The majority of Soviet Soviet of majority The At the same time, women writers women time, same the At The the Brezhnev years. All dissidents used samizdat as a medium to circulate information information circulate to medium a as samizdat used dissidents All years. Brezhnev the Women in Russia in Women

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ev Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: critical essays and documentary materials documentary and essays critical Solzhenitsyn: Aleksandr the question why Soviet dissid Soviet why question the ,

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Soviet population, were exposed to active propaganda about the about propaganda active to exposed were population, Soviet - 80

- 1, Boxes 256 Boxes 1, nd Yana Knopova‘s that, although the historiography historiography the although that, Knopova‘s Yana nd motne I importance. mainly agenda widely popularized in the Soviet mass media mass Soviet the in popularized widely 99 will will

the Soviet Union that defended and promoted promoted and defended that Union Soviet the tn aog isdns pno ta women‘s that opinion dissidents among sting ected by the Western influence Western the by ected - 258 (1957 258 argue that the role of the Soviet Union as a as Union Soviet the of role the that argue

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Yana Knopova in her Master Thesis Thesis Master her in Knopova Yana example For

new just world, the necessity to compete with the United States made the issue of women‘s women‘s of issue the made States United the with compete to necessity the world, just new dissidents‘ writingsdissidents‘ and activities.

The assumption that the Soviet Union and the United States embodied two systems that systems two embodied States United the and Union Soviet the that assumption The 5.1 , 33: 40; Barbara Einhorn, Barbara 40; , 33: supports Yana Knopova‘s argument that ―the Soviet Union played a persistent a played Union Soviet ―the that argument Knopova‘s Yana supports - only rights, which further which rights, only

h Cl Wr optto ad oe’ Rgt: h ws t the at was who Rights: Women’s and Competition War Cold The ,

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a significant dimension of that competition. It can be suggested that for that suggested be can It competition. that of dimension significant a

Heinen, ― Heinen, in the contemporary United States in which women‘s rights w rights women‘s which in States United contemporary the in

Cinderella goes to market: citizenship, citizenship, market: to goes Cinderella The Soviet Union and the international domain of women's rights and and women'srights of domain the international and Union Soviet The 114. Women in the S the in Women lways the most important element of element important most the lways

predetermined the exclusion of the woman question from from question woman the of exclusion the predetermined

100 oviet Union and Eastern Europe,‖ Eastern Unionand oviet

- is o all of first niee fr ln tm a al This all. at time long a for onsidered term perspective because theirterm interests, perspective 's Committee (1941 's Committee gender, and women's movements in East East in women's movements and gender, 406 ,

but the role of the USSR for USSR the of role the but s ptnil eae The menace. potential a as 407

make all possible efforts possible all make

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Kristen Ghodsee, ―Revisiting the United Nations decade for women: Brief reflections on feminism, capitalism capitalism feminism, on reflections women:for Brief decade Nations theUnited ―Revisiting KristenGhodsee, Areassessment country: one in ―Socialism ErikVan Ree, Клара (1870 Lenin Vladimir Vladimir kin, ―The 8 ―The kin,

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New Step Towards the World Revolution‖ stated that ―working women women ―working that stated Revolution‖ World the Towards Step New

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101 , accessed 10.06.2013. 10.06.2013. accessed ,

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o eape te oit ersnaie oesy a oe f hs wo poe the opposed who those of one was Koretsky representative Soviet the example, For

The So The the 413 ,

favorable see Charlotte Bunch, ―Women‘s Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Rea Toward Rights: as Human Rights ―Women‘s Bunch, Charlotte see ng a fighter for the inclusion of gender dimension in the text of the in dimension gender of inclusion the for fighter a ng

American representative and the first chairperson of the preliminary UN UN preliminary the of chairperson first the and representative American viet Union and the international domain of women's rights and struggles and rights women's of domain international the and Union viet “ unknown and unrecognized achievements of the Soviet Union in the in Union Soviet the of achievements unrecognized and unknown Women‘s Rights in the Universal Declaration,‖ Declaration,‖ the Universal in Rights Women‘s

12 (1990): 487. (1990): 12

environment

(New York: Random House, 2001), 68. 68. 2001), House, Random (New York:

women‘s rights is the inclusion of gender equality in the 1948 United 1948 the in equality gender of inclusion the is rights women‘s President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the ―First Lady of the World‖ the of Lady ―First the and Roosevelt D. Franklin President -

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Begtrup and the steady pressure of the Soviet delegation [that [that delegation Soviet the of pressure steady the and Begtrup - ai and Claudia Jones. Claudia and ai “

Women‘s Rights in the Universal Declaration,‖ 233. Declaration,‖ theUniversal in Rights Women‘s s

for the emergence and/or development of local women‘s local of development and/or emergence the for A world made new: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal the Universal and Roosevelt Eleanor new: made world A 102 414 ‖

According to Johannes Morsink, it was the was it Morsink, Johannes to According ion because they were ―historical atavisms ―historical were they because ion

Human Rights Quarterly Rights Human 415

Morsink also claims that Soviet that claims also Morsink - half of the human species‖ of half - y f e ad women and men of ty Vision of Human Rights,‖ Rights,‖ ofHuman Vision , the UDHR the

13 .

13/2 (1991): 13/2

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d 1970s played a significant role in the ideological competition between the Soviet Union and and Union Soviet the between competition ideological the in role significant a played 1970s d For example, the editors of the feminist samizdat almanac almanac feminist samizdat ofthe example,the editors For ― deHaan, ‗Femmocracy‘ Washington ―Attacking the Storrs, itics,‖ 2. 2. itics,‖ the - wingers viewed communism as a challenge not only to capitalist class relations but also to to also but relations class capitalist onlyto not challengea as communism viewed wingers n h Uie Sae in States United the In Second Wave feminism that emerged and blossomed in the United States in the 1960s the in States United the in blossomed and emerged that feminism Wave Second gender dimension wasgender animportant dimension andfu

Eugenie Cotton, Pak Cotton, Eugenie 423 Western

was constructed is backward, harmful for women and characterized by a lack of lack a by characterized and women for harmful backward, is constructed was the ation. -

alist states and especially of especially and states alist only feminism,‖ was constructed as hegemonic, ―real,‖ ―real,‖ hegemonic, as constructed was feminism,‖ only the 194

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Politics during the Cold War,‖ CEU Gender Studies Gender CEU War,‖ Cold the Politics during (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 150. 150. 1997), Macmillan, (Hampshire:Palgrave 105 in 1963 in

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d 11. Ibid ― deHaan, in AmericanKitchen‖ the to Responses Soviet isGood‘: Just as Kitchen ―‗Our Reid, SusanE. 223. Kitchen,‖ Khrushchev ―The Reid, ) eHaan, ―Continuing Cold War Paradigms,‖ 548. War Cold ―Continuing eHaan,

Ruth Oldenziel and Karin Zachmann (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2009), 83. 83. 2009), Press, MIT The Massachusetts: (Cambridge, Zachmann Karin and Ruth Oldenziel h Behe yas witnessed years Brezhnev The 439

i Federation tic women‘s rights: ―your capitalist attitude to women does not occur under under occur not does women to attitude capitalist ―your rights: women‘s

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the achievements of Soviet women and the active role of the USSR in the the in USSR the of role active the and women Soviet of achievements the 448

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s to defeat liberal dissidents) and would allow the Soviet officials to label dissent as dissent label to officials Soviet the allow would and dissidents) liberal defeat to

Richard N. Dean, ―Contacts with the West: The Dissidents‘ View of Western Support for the for Support ofWestern Dissidents‘ View The West: with the ―Contacts Dean, N. Richard enterprise in both Western and Russian historiography), which claims that Soviet dissent did dissent Soviet that claims which historiography), Russian and Western both in 450 was the

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. Others (and Andrei Sakharov was among them) believed that intensive that believed them) among was Sakharov Andrei (and Others . strategy of the United States under Nixon and Kissinger, Kissinger, Nixon and under States the United of strategy 449

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Pflüger, ―Human Rights Unbound: Carter's Human Rights Policy Reassessed,‖ Reassessed,‖ Policy Rights Human Carter's Unbound: Rights Pflüger,―Human

who were who His work shows not only that the United States officials prioritized Soviet Soviet prioritized officials States United the that only not shows work His ver, D ver,

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Dominique Clément, ―‗I Believe in Human Rights, Not Women's Rights‘: Women and the Human Rights State, State, Rights Human the and Women Rights‘: Women's Not Rights, in ―‗IHuman Believe Clément, Dominique ―Human Pflüger, 289. Policy,‖ Rights Human Carter ―The Howell, –

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importance and that basic that and importance the struggle for universal for struggle the . ‖ 469

oevr one Moreover, CEU eTD Collection Jacksson w rights traditions,to the narrow group rights. political andcivil of betwee and states participant all between compromise a on based from changed choice campaigns. their for tool main the as Rights, Human of Declaration 476 ResearchInstitute. Europe Free Liberty/Radio by Radio the was prepared thatdocument this into HU 300 OSA 1973, September Rights,‖ 475 474 473 resignationof 472 471 470 publications). samizdat dissidents‘ R Human of Declaration UN Rights Human to Attitude Soviet one was it that claimed both and dissimilarities poin constantly Union Soviet the and States United the Both rights. human of concepts and theUSA. USSR an became act Final Helsinki the and Watergatescandal the of legacies moraland political overcomethe to instrumen country. the leave to right the of implementation the on dependent Union) Soviet the with all, of first(and

Ibid. Rights Human Snyder, Parchomenko only Nixon,the President the resignationof to that led in 1970s States United in scandal the Political The 706. Unbound,‖ Rights ―Human Pflüger, 289. Policy,‖ Rights Human Carter ―The Howell, , non , account that the Report belongs to the Red Archive of the Open Societies Archives in Budapest, one cansayone Budapest, Archives in Societies Open Archive ofthe the Red to belongs Report thatthe account

was that in the Helsinki Final Act, as I discussed in the previous chapters, the focus had had focus the chapters, previous the in discussed I as Act, Final Helsinki the in that was vntog rsdn Carter President though Even In their competition, both countries extensively exploited the differences between the two two the differencesbetweenthe exploited extensivelycountries both competition, Intheir 471 ere - - Human rights activi rights Human politicized ai Aedet ae cnmc eain wt te onre o te atr Bloc Eastern the of countries the with relations economic made Amendment Vanik t of Americanforeignpolicies of t

a From n motn isrmn o Aeia frin oiy led i 1 in already policy foreign American of instrument important an

president in American history. history. American in president , Soviet images of dissidents and nonconformists and dissidents of images Soviet , – a

The Soviet Record: The Soviet Attitude to Human Rights, Rights, Attitudeto Human Soviet The Record: Soviet The ie rne f ihs icue i te N elrto o Hmn ihs and Rights Human of Declaration UN the in included rights, of range wider the

474 and and

ae 1970s late not sm and the end of the cold war cold end the the of and sm distorted ights and of its own Constitution (and that th that (and Constitution own its of and ights

475 - 80 , 476

stated that the Soviet Union violated many principles many violated Union Soviet the that stated - ua rgt avcc b advocacy rights human

1, Box 688. 688. Box 1,

. T . Its is revealing that the that revealing is Its influential tool in the ideological competition between the between competition ideological the in tool influential a te is t spot openly support to first the was

he 1973 report report 1973 he -

which at least partly can be explained by the US desire desire US bythe explained be partly can least at which

its 114 There is no publisher‘s data in this report. However, taking report. in this data ispublisher‘s no There

understanding that was the only correct and just and correct only the was that understanding

, 3. 3. ,

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1973 report 1973 ecame ― The Soviet attitude to Human Human Sovietto attitude The n different cultural and legal and cultural different n 470 472

an –

Sovi The main reason for reason main The

and the Vietnam warthe and The Soviet Record: The Record: Soviet The includes subsections on subsections includes vn oe important more even is t isdns human dissidents, et

could be proved by proved be could 973, when the the when 973, ted to the the to ted of the of

this 473 -

CEU eTD Collection of social accent justice (within the onlegalsphere the rights).women‘s equality of ri civil and political unions, trade ―real‖ of absence the no discuss did document the are work to right life the to relation in of However, standards adequate and assistance medical to education, to work, to rights the whereas expression, and opinion of freedom religion, and movement of lega 482 481 by the Party. adopted position reflected materials the all almost time that and theofliberalization end witnessed years lib 480 Freedoms,‖ 479 478 477 with other ri comparison in importance privileged of as constructed are (they overestimated is rights political and civil of importance the nowadays that believe I though Even Rights. Human of Declaration rights, political and civil of implementation security. state the endanger or order public the disrupt of pro to aimed restrictions be should there that and absolute‖ be cannot state any accountpeaceissues.securityand into it that stressed were insurance social to and achievemen Новый magazines Soviet popular most example For others. all over prioritized were rights economic competitio ideological of element

eralization the most ―progressive‖ materials (officially permitted) were published there. However, the Brezhnev the Brezhnev However, there. werepublished permitted) materials(officially ―progressive‖ most the eralization Ibid 423. Ibid 425. Ibid Новый и Свободы ―Права Блищенко, И. Human as Rights ―Women‘s Bunch, Ibid. the l rights and penal conditions, political rights, freedom of assembly and association, freedom association, and assembly of freedom rights, political conditions, penal and rights l

population and to curb those who those curb to and population In the Soviet Union the human rights problem was was problem rights human the Union Soviet the In of

Мир was one of the most popular magazines in the Soviet Union and during the years of relative yearsofrelative theduring and SovietUnion the magazines in most popular the was of one Мир

New World New the right to strike and strike to right the t of the Soviet Union that articles regarding free public education, the education, public free regarding articles that Union Soviet the of t ghts), there is nodenyingghts), thereis thatthey theSoviet were Union. constantly violated in was

impossible to achieve the full implementation of human rights without taking without rights human of implementation full the achieve to impossible ghts were far more importa more far were ghts 2 (1974): 423]. 423]. (1974): 2

nldd n h txs f ay nentoa tete. t a also was It treaties. international many of texts the in included

Человека,‖ Человека,‖ of

Rights,‖ 488. Rights,‖ wt te onre o te etr Bloc, Western the of countries the with n unemployment benefits. unemployment 481

Мир [New World], [New Мир

T could НовыйМир he article he

which are also an important element of the 1948 UN 1948 the of element important an also are which

115

nt tha nt violate the rights and freedoms of other people, other of freedoms and rights the violate

2 (1974): 423 [I. Blishenko, ―Human Rights and and Rights ―Human [I. Blishenko, 423 (1974): 2 then n all other all n 482

highlighted that ―individual freedomin―individualhighlighted that Therefore also 480 477

, in 1974 highlighted that it was thewas it that highlighted 1974 in view,of point American the From an article published in one of the of one in published article an acknowledged to be a prominent prominent a be to acknowledged rights ,

the and were the main source source main the were and

almost almost Soviet state Soviet ee mentioned. even t exclusively the the exclusively 479 tect the majority the tect

u sca and social but rights to work to rights 478

limited

the CEU eTD Collection no te cet a md o te eod prah atog i bt css n cn find can one cases Moreov approaches). four both all of in elements (although approach second the on made was accent the Union Soviet the in while approach, first the on stress the with rights human of concept the in included perspective. feminist a from concept rights humanthe oftransformation the on based is fourth andmechanisms legal new createnecessity to rights women‘s considers one first The p rights. women‘s with rights human link can that 486 Load 485 China, Beijing, 484 483 and Union Soviet ―Kitchen Mode Soviet the of Role women that claiming women Soviet of place and role the to devoted articles of amount the détente, of period since least at media mass Western the in discussed saw the separation fromrights of rights asunnecessaryand workers‘ women‘s even harmful. officials Soviet many and ideology official the of part were rights women‘s Union, Soviet the in a all,‖ for and once rights human are rights women‘s and rights women‘s are rights human ―that was Conference Bei in Women on 4 UN the at speech her At rights. human of element integral an as seen were rights women‘s Union Soviet the in rights, human and rights women‘s between division visible s separate from and less and from separate s rimarily as political and civil rights, the second as socioeconomic rights, the third stresses the stresses third the rights, socioeconomic as second the rights, civil and political as rimarily

―Kitchen Winchester, H. James 1995, September 5 Session, Plenary Women on Conference 4thWorld U.N. the to Remarks HilaryClinton, 493 Rights,‖ Human as Rights ―Women‘s Bunch, , ‖ Christian Science Monitor Science Christian Bunch in her 1990 article 1990 her in Bunch h ise f oe‘ equality women‘s of issue The - Sink Discrimination‖ Sink - Sink Discrimination,‖ SinkDiscrimination,‖ http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/hillaryclintonbeijingspeech.htm 484 oit civmns n h wmns ihs oan Rdo Freedom/Radio Radio domain. rights women‘s the in achievements Soviet ig n 1995 in jing

―Dual Role of the Soviet Modern Woman: ‗Equality‘ Som ‗Equality‘ Woman: Modern ofthe Soviet Role ―Dual which was necessary because they were seen (and sometimes are still seen) still are sometimes (and seen were they because necessary was which

in the Soviet Union were ―enslaved‖ is astonishing. Such titles as ―Dual as titles Such astonishing. is ―enslaved‖ were Union Soviet the in rn Woman: ‗Equality‘ Sometimes M Sometimes ‗Equality‘ Woman: rn

important than ―human rights.‖ ―human than important , May 21, 1964. May21, , The Economist The

486 ,

― reflect the reflect iay lno hd o tes ht h mi msae f the of message main the that stress to had Clinton Hilary Women‘s Rights as Human Rights Human as Rights Women‘s

n wmns ihs n h Sve Uin a broadly was Union Soviet the in rights women‘s and

, July 10, 1982. July , 10, er, one can claim that while in the West there was a was there West the in while that claim can one er, - 483 497. prevailing in the United States United the in prevailing 116

blee ht i that believe I

the

1950s. In Western newspapers of the the of newspapers Western In 1950s. As I showed in the previous chapters, chapters, previous the in showed I As eans Twice the Work Load Work the Twice eans te et oe‘ rgt were rights women‘s West the n etimes means Twice the Work Work meansthe Twice etimes ‖

defines four approaches four defines , accessed 19.05.2013. 19.05.2013. accessed , th attitude towards attitude

World Conference World , ‖ 485 ,

and and the

CEU eTD Collection lesbians, and soon). middle were women American presented, were they when even and rare were with equal men. being from women prevented shortage) food caused and equipment domestic of economicunderdevelopmenthampere (which Soviet and shift second the Union, de were women though even that times many stated reports Europe Free 490 489 488 487 achieve not did still they facto de but equality, mentioned already package howittasted.‖ to findout offrozen pastry was what see to open pillow a cut man ―One ―savages‖: reminds Moscow in Exhibition National 1959 the at journalist Western people‘s Soviet of description the example, For live. to how taught be ― uncivilized and exotic as constructed were people Soviet way, a In unveiled. the with comparable Di wear to want not might women Soviet that possibility the of even negation journalists‘ Western the of part basic a was serfdom abo stereotype The assumptions. false these on based needs and desires lives, their women, Soviet portrayed and simplification) mere a was cases both in course of (which femininity illusory universal some wome American and Soviet that assumed

r rse (u wne to wanted (but dresses or Ibid 230. Ibid ―C Reid, Done,‖ is Never Work Woman‘s Soviet ―A Tenson, Andreas Ibid 240 Ibid 487 - While discussing women‘s rights, needs and problems, problems, and needs rights, women‘s discussing While etr newspapers Western

ls hueie, hs goig l ohr mrcn oe (o wie wrig class, working white, (not women American other all ignoring thus housewives, class However, comparisons between the lives the between comparisons However, . Kitchen in the War old

, it was it , t vrudnd oit women Soviet overburdened ut

current

highlighted quite often that de jure Soviet women possessed full legal full possessed women Soviet jure de that often quite highlighted ,‖ ,‖ often often

nilnns t acp ta nt l Msi wmn at o be to want women Muslim all not that accept to unwillingness

223. elz ter ihs to rights their realize Soviet women‘s Soviet

portrayed Soviet women women Soviet portrayed n had the same needs, based on and connected with with connected and on based needs, same the had n 117 image and the rights the and

490 it .

489 Radio Liberty Research Liberty Radio blee that believe, I

in the West West the in e srnus egnes r ios is pilots) or engineers astronauts, be edn t b svd from saved be to needing inside. Another opened and sampled a sampled and opened Another inside. as victims of Soviet and American women American and Soviet of Western media and politicians politicians and media Western during the years of detente. of years the during etr newspapers Western

- f state of , RL 180/79, June 12, 1979. 1979. RL , June12, 180/79, jure equal in the Soviet Soviet the in equal jure me of the depiction of depiction the of me

osrce a white as constructed behavior other‖ that should that other‖

d the production the d socialism.

ae by made communist wrote s I As , 488 a

CEU eTD Collection society. urgent of were that rights political and civil was it that believed who dissidents Soviet the with similarity evident the find can one Here rights. political was that factor de to lead automatically journalists The rights. with granted were women Soviet because rights, not equality, of problem the about mostly rights women‘s agenda.dissidents‘ excluded also that right human of concept American dem Secondly, activities. dissidents‘ from question woman the excluded that factor important an was internationally rights women‘s of promotion the of forefront the at was Union dissid Soviet the from question agenda.dissidents‘ the from question woman the excluding factor the of one was rights human of concept Western time. that had women American that opportunities one American the that progressive more were rights to approach Soviet the that believe I However, women. and men between socio and equality an all not was rights human of concept Soviet the that genderdenying no is There concepts. and only rights political and civil American the than inclusive more was them) d missed many important aspects. Moreover, it is difficult not to agree that women‘s full legal full women‘s that agree to not difficult is it Moreover, aspects. important many missed d onstrated In myview, T

his chapter his

that the active Western support of liberal dissidents made them accept the the accept them made dissidents liberal of support Western active the that missing -

the Soviet the cnmc urnis n h Sve Uin i nt en e at equality facto de mean not did Union Soviet the in guaranties economic has considered has

assumed that in the liberal state (the ―normal state‖) legal equality would equality legal state‖) ―normal (the state liberal the in that assumed

- facto equality (in comparison with the ―abnormal‖ Soviet state Soviet ―abnormal‖ the with comparison (in equality facto n h Sve Uin a te ―prope the was Union Soviet the in

concept of human rights (and women‘s rights as an integral part of integral of rights asan women‘s part rights (and concept ofhuman ents‘ agenda ents‘ the external factors that affected the exclusion of the woman the of exclusion the affected that factors external the . First of all, I showed that the fact that the Soviet the that fact the that showed I all, of First 11 8

h aoto by adoption The ,

n gatd oit oe wt more with women Soviet granted and and only only and ‖ mlmnain f ii and civil of implementation r‖ importance for the Soviet Soviet the for importance the the the concept of human of concept the oit isdns the dissidents Soviet n problems and - encompassing

y research my ) . The The . - from only only all CEU eTD Collection ulc eae in debates public witnessed of the Soviet Union(1964 Party Communist the of Committee Central the of Secretary General the was Brezhnev Leonid 491 the and War Century.‖ Twentieth Short the of half 1914 (including rights). women‘s prioritize which values, liberal Western towards c close ri theinternational ofwomen‘s domain Unionin role Soviet ofthe important most the Among society. Soviet question woman the towards authorities Soviet the of attention revived witnessed years Brezhnev the (although exist not did problem therefore and Union Soviet the in ―solved‖ been had question woman the influen the rights, women‘s and women towards dissidents male identified important most the Among factors. external and domestic both by caused media mass Western and Soviet Open the in research my on Based question. woman the and problems their about

Hobsbawm, – 1991 netos f iea dsiet wt vros etr isiuin ad hi orientation their and institutions Western various with dissidents liberal of onnections Due to the domestic situation in the country the in situation domestic the to Due phenome the on focused has thesis This Eric Hobsbawm in his 1994 book 1994 his in Hobsbawm Eric the patriarchal structure of the Soviet society and family and the misogynist attitude of attitude misogynist the and family and society Soviet the of structure patriarchal the a

suggests that the Cold War ―utterly dominated the international scene in the second the in scene international the dominated ―utterly War Cold the that suggests decisive re decisive The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century Twentieth Short The Extremes: of Age The e at victor facto de the

oit as ei aot h pae f oe i te oit s Soviet the in women of place the about media mass Soviet - opening of the woman question in the Soviet Union. But despite the open open Butthe despite Union. inthe Soviet question woman ofthe opening burdens, –

1982), more preciselyliberalon Soviet dissent. o te ntd S United the of y

sources contemporary 491

), and the relatively advanced position of women in the the in women of position advanced relatively the and ), This is utterly true, but true, utterly is This n isdns eor, I memoirs, dissidents‘ and h g f Ext of Age The Conclusion external 119 ae, hc griae te mrec o the of emergence the germinated which tates, non of Soviet dissent during the years when when years the during dissent Soviet of non Soviet dissidents almost unanimously ignored ignored unanimously almost dissidents Soviet

and the global context, the Brezhnev years Brezhnev the context, global the and factors I defined the active and successful and active the defined I factors civil and political rights over all others others all over rights political and civil , 226. , remes: The Short Twentieth Century, Twentieth Short The remes: oit Acie, n h analysi the on Archives, Society

tial ideological assumption that assumption ideological tial in addition in ghts praised in the country,ghts inthe praised have shown have

the the end of the Cold the of end the domestic gender equality gender

that cey and ociety

atr I factors this this of s was

the the CEU eTD Collection were constructed as males fightingc for males aswere constructed replaced dissent liberal from constructed was historiography of body main the in turn, were Union, Soviet the to contempo in constructed are socialism state and communism Union, Soviet the which in ways the also phenomenon and internationaland correlations about levels,between multiple global local and levels. (wh Union regarding onlynot questions new researchposedof process the and SocietyOpenArchives the in materials hope also I society woman of narratives historical mo oppositional thehistoricaldissent.aboutworkersbut alsosuchgroups Soviet narratives from as or students phenomenon Sov the of history the to contribution meaningful a made has thesis my that hope I question rary the ose

of triumphalism, triumphalism, of

historiography itr o Sve opsto, u as aot w about also but opposition, Soviet of history mere existence is often denied), about Soviet gender policies at both at policies gender Soviet about denied), often is existence mere . By asking normal historical questions about the about questions historical normal asking By . vements

to contribute to the ―normalization‖ of Soviet history. However, the scope of scope the However, history. Soviet of ―normalization‖ the to contribute to and are and of triumphalism of

Soviet dissent and why Soviet dissidents almost unanimously ignored the ignored unanimously almost dissidents Soviet why and dissent Soviet the complex and diverse phenomenon of Soviet dissent and dissidents and dissent Soviet of phenomenon diverse and complex the y nwrn te usin wy oe wr ecue f excluded were women why questions the answering by downplayed in downplayed . Based on my research in the OSA, I argued in this thesis that due that thesis this in argued I OSA, the in research my on Based . also deeply affected not only not affected deeply also ,

the achievements of state socialism, and especially of the of especially and socialism, state of achievements the ivil and political rightspolitical and ivil

historical narratives. The h The narratives. historical 120

people , omen‘s movements in the Soviet Soviet the in movements omen‘s

which a dominant a supposedly ‘s

life excluded not onlyexcludedwomen,not istory of Soviet dissent, in dissent, Soviet of istory all over the world, but world, the over all

Western perspective: Western ―abnor mal‖ Sovie mal‖ the o the rom

national

iet iet t CEU eTD Collection 1981, Moscow, 1981, Архив Боннэр,Еле OSA HU 300 N4156]; Moscow, 1980, November 3 letter,‖ Open Agreements. Helsinki signed that countries ofthe 34 Москва, 1980, Ноября 3 Письмо,‖ подписавшим стран, 34 ―Делегатам Елена. Иван; Боннэр, Ковалев, Vishnevskaya,Yulia. Material Primary sources 300 OSA HU ―Harassing K. David Shipler, 300 Diana Loercher, 300 Robert Kaiser, 292. Box F. William Buckley, RFE/RL31208]; [― в роли ―Отщепенцы in Moscow.‖ Freeze ―The 80 Pact.‖ ofHelsinki Results Few See Dissidents ―Soviet 300 OSA ― 25; November ―Liberate ―Kitchen 45. Status.‖ Political Demand SovietDissenters ―Jailed Printed materials 300 OSA HU Andreas. Tenson, OSA HU 300 1973; September ― 300 OSA HU ― ―Russians Lament: The Wom The Lament: ―Russians Sakharov Expects to Answer to Clash at Dissidents‘ Trial.‖ Trial.‖ Clash to Dissidents‘ at Answer to Expects Sakharov The kitchen,‖ many instill but in space, woman‘splace Soviet Space. Renegades -

1, Box 292. Box 1, - - 80 80 Soviet attitude to Human Rights. Human to Sovietattitude , AC , N4245 - - 1, Box 44. Box 44. 1, Box 258. 1, -

- d Trio: Moscow expels feminists. Moscowexpels Trio: d s SinkDiscrimination. 80 of of the на -

as 1, Box 292. Box 1, - - - 80 80 80 .

300 OSA HU

и другие. ―Документ идругие.

―Soviets human Archive Red .

- - - ―CBS‘s Russi ―CBS‘s HU OSAHU 300

1, Box 292. Box 1, 1, 1,

―A Soviet Woman‘s Work is Never Done,‖ Done,‖ is Never Work Woman‘s Soviet ―A , [ Open Society Archive

Box 257. 257. Box 257. Box (preserved in the SocietyOpen Archives, Budapest) ―Russia Contra Natura. ―RussiaContra Bonner,Elena

―Dissidents in the Brezhnev Era Brezhnev the in ―Dissidents правозащитников.‖ Передача правозащитников.‖ -

80 rights

Spirit Feminists Out of Country. of Out Feminists Spirit

- Friday New York Times New York Friday 1, Box 883. Box 1, , ACN4245]; , -

defenders of Dissidents is Camouf ofDissidents

en Are Not What They Used to Be. to Used They What AreNot en ‖ - - a: Heroic riskrights. human for Heroic a: - 80 80 The Economist The 1, Box 257 Box 1, - - 1, Box 294. Box 1, and others, ―Document N 158.‗About female prisoners of conscience‘,‖ 1 March March 1 ofconscience‘,‖ prisoners female 158.‗About N ―Document others, and 1, Красный

Box 688. 688. Box

‖ N .‖ .‖ In 158. 158. The transcript of the Soviet the of transcript The HU OSAHU 300 Human Rights Rights Human ‖ s, Budapest ‖ .

Time Magazine Time International HeraldTribune International ‗Оженщинах

Архив

, July 10, 1982; July1982; , 10,

, April 12, 1968; 1968; April 12, , Bibliography Liberty Tribune Liberty

AC .‖ радиостанции "Юность," 3 Марта 1981, Марта 1981, 3 "Юность," радиостанции laged. International Herald Tribune Herald International

- 1981, 1981, 121

‖ N – - Saturday’s Washington Post Washington Saturday’s

4156 [ 4156

The Soviet Record: The Soviet Attitude to Human Rights, Human to Attitude Soviet The Record: TheSoviet 1, Box 883. 883. Box 1, ‖ , узницах

International Herald Tribune Herald International August 4, 1980; August 4, International Herald Tribune Herald International Red Archives;HU OSA 300 OSA Archives;HU Red Radio Liberty Research Liberty Radio ‖ HU OSA 300 OSA HU Christian Science Monitor Science Christian ‖ Kovalev RL Research RL International Herald Tribune Herald International HU OSAHU 300 , November 1, 1975; 1975; 1, November ,

совести,‘‖ 1 Марта 1981, Москва, Москва, 1981, Марта 1 совести,‘‖ Radio station ―Youth,‖ 3 March, 1981, 1981, March, 3 ―Youth,‖ station Radio

Хельсинкские

, , January 7, 1976; 1976; January7, , Ivan - HU OSAHU 300 80 , Red Red , ; -

- 1 Bonner 80 ,Box 258. 258. ,Box , July 23, 1976; 1976; July 23, , - 1, Box 292. Box 1, Archive, FF041, 240934/82; 240934/82; FF041, Archive, , RL 180/79, June 12, 1979; 1979; RL , June12, 180/79,

Соглашения. Соглашения. , August 10, 1980; HU OSA HU 1980; August , 10, , HU OSA 300 OSA HU Elena - , April 16, 1976; HU HU 1976; , April 16, 80 , July 31, 1970; ,July 31, - , September 17, 1976; 1976; 17, September , 80

HU OSA 300 OSA HU - 1 - . 1 Box 294. Box Red Archive Red ―To the Delegates the Delegates ―To ,Box 258. ,Box RFE Moscow, ,

HU OSAHU 300 / Открытое RL - 80

31208 Красный -

HU OSAHU 1 - 80 , Box Box , , AC , - 1, 1,

CEU eTD Collection off. torn ―Маски Михайлов, В; М. Барсов, ― Аркилович Load.‖ ―Dua H. James Winchester, 1980; Jill Tweedie, Frank Taylor, 1976; 13, Liber Not ―SovietWomen K. David Shipler, [Alekseeva Людмила. Алексеева, And Sakharov, Gorbachev, Mamonova Elena Bonner, 1990) Brown, Alexeyeva Memoirs, autobiographies city?‖ ―Чем Николай. Энтелис, Communist инищие.‖ ―Принц Г. Сомов, Guild. Я.―Мы Рушенене, 256. Н., News ―Судебныи Е. Майоров, Reveals,‖ ―Tribune Листов, Letter First ―The Еременко November ―Женщина Т. Герасимова, New Свободы и ―Права И. Блищенко, Dubious Литературная

World , 29 August, 29 , ‖ HU OSAHU 300 Crocodile Christian Science Monitor Science Christian Truth ‖ В; В;

News HU OSAHU 300 decorations -

, 2, 1975]; 1975]; 2, Середа, О. ―Письмо О. Середа, ,

, Максименко, Максименко, Ludmilla and Goldberg, Paul Goldberg, and Ludmilla (1974)]; 2

Mikhail. Mikhail. 1 (1966)]; 1 Ludmila Tatiana (ed.) Tatiana . А

, . . ―How the Russian Kind of Freedom ofFreedom Kind Russian ―Howthe

January 31, 1975]; HU OSA HU 300 1975]; January31, Alone Together Alone ― . rei ― , Russian Girl in Kremlin Protest. Kremlin in Girl Russian August 14 (1976)]; 14 Сомнительные – . 1973]; HU OSA 300 OSA HU 1973];

Memoirs

to Defend a Man.‖ a Defend to

Газета, Газета, Truth - из 80 HU . Memoirs

.‖ .‖

History of Dissent in the USSR: the newest period USSR: the in Dissent of History

HU - Цеха История -

Literary Newspaper Literary 1, Box 258. Box 258. 1, 27, 1980]; 1980]; 27,

80 OSA . , July 2, 1975]; HU OSA HU 300 1975]; July 2, ,

Woman and Russia: First Feminist Samizdat First Feminist Russia: and Woman

Процесс в Москве.‖ в Москве.‖ Процесс

интересен OSA - OSA Л. ―‗Трибуна Л. l Role of the Soviet Modern Woman: ‗Equality‘ Sometimes Means Twice the Work Work the Twice Means Sometimes ‗Equality‘ Woman: Modern ofthe Soviet Role l (New York: Vintage Books, 1992). Books, Vintage York: (New 1, Box 257. 257. Box 1,

на 3 Августа, 1961[N., 1961[N., 3Августа, HU OSA 300 OSA HU Женского.‖ Женского.‖

300 (London: Doubleday, 1995) (London: Doubleday, Молодой (New York: Vintage Books,1988). (New Vintage York:

работе.‖ работе.‖

300 300 Первое Первое

, May 21, 1964; 1964; May21, , Украшения инакомыслия в СССР: новейший инакомыслия -

HU Человека.‖ Человека.‖ Сорваны.‖ Сорваны.‖ -

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1, 1,

1, 1, . Коммунист Box Известия, 2 2 Известия,

- разоблачает,‖ разоблачает,‖ Правда

- The thaw generation: coming of age in the post in age of coming generation: thaw The - в Защиту Box 1, Box 292. Box 1, Box 80 , June 9, 1965]; June9, ,

ated Despite Professional Roles. Professional Despite ated 47, November 24, 1976]; 24, November 47, 300

257. .‖ .‖ - 1, Box 292. 292. Box 1,

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932. Новый Известия - 292. 292. Известия Литературная ‖ 80 - 80 HU OSAHU 300 , 31 Января 1975 [ 1975 Января 31 , Daily Telegraph Daily LiteraryNewspaper

Turned Women into Monstrosities. into Women Turned - 1, Box 257. Box 1,

1, 1, Мужчины.‖ Мужчины.‖

1 (1966) [ (1966) 1 Ноября

Мир 80 Box 122 Правда , 14 (1976) [Entelis, Nikolai. ―What is interesting in the the in isinteresting ―What [Entelis, Nikolai. , (1976) 14 , 27 Августа, 1980 [Barsov, [Barsov, Августа, 1980 27 , - , 29 Августа 1973 [Maiorov, E. ―Trial in E. Moscow.‖ ―Trial [Maiorov, Августа 1973 29 , . 1, Box 257. Box 1,

2 (1974) [Blishenko, I. ―Human Rights and Freedoms.‖ Freedoms.‖ and Rights ―Human [Blishenko, I. (1974) 2 HU OSA 300 OSA HU 294.

1975 1975 -

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