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Gendering Soviet Dissent GENDERING SOVIET DISSENT: HOW AND WHY THE WOMAN QUESTION WAS EXCLUDED FROM THE AGENDA OF SOVIET DISSIDENTS (1964 – 1982). By Svetlana Zakharova Submitted to Central European University Department of Gender Studies In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of European Master in Women‘s and Gender History Supervisor: Professor Francisca de Haan Budapest, Hungary CEU eTD Collection 2013 Abstract This thesis is devoted to the phenomenon of Soviet dissent during the years when Leonid Brezhnev was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1964 – 1982). This thesis aspires to contribute to the historiography of Soviet dissent by considering it as a complex and diversified phenomenon, by analyzing the gender dimension of Soviet liberal dissent and by placing the activities of dissenters in the wider context of the Cold War competition. In this thesis I focused on Soviet liberal dissent and explored the questions why the so- called ―woman question‖ was excluded from the agenda of Soviet dissidents, why women are excluded from the historiography of Soviet dissent and how the Cold War competition between the Soviet Union and the United States of America affected these issues. Based on research in the Open Society Archives in Budapest, I argued in my thesis that the Cold War and the situation at the international arena had and still have a profound impact on Soviet history, and particularly, on the history of Soviet oppositional movements. Moreover, I argue that the fact that almost all Soviet dissidents ignored the woman question was preconditioned by both the domestic situation in the Soviet Union and the global situation in the international arena, and that these two structural levels should be considered together. More broadly, I also tried to explore how the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union affected the ways, in which the history of the USSR and state socialism is constructed in contemporary historiography, and to challenge the approach that blurs more than seventy years of Soviet history into ahistorical sameness and replaces it with the image of Stalin‘s totalitarian rule. CEU eTD Collection ii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to express my genuine gratitude to my supervisor Professor Francisca de Haan for her patient guidance, critique, thoughtful advices and encouragement, which enormously helped me to conduct my research and to write this work. I am also particularly grateful to my family and friends who were always supportive and encouraging in spite of everything that was going around, and, especially, to Tatiana Prusakova without whom this work would never have been written. CEU eTD Collection iii Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ iii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1 - Theoretical chapter .................................................................................................... 14 1.1 The Cold War and the New Cold War History ............................................................................... 14 1.2 Gender order in the Soviet Union ..................................................................................................... 18 1.3 Dissidence and dissent in the Soviet Union .................................................................................. 23 Chapter 2 - Historical background: why was the woman question re-opened in the Soviet Union during the Brezhnev years? .................................................................................. 32 2.1 The period of détente: origins, spirit, and consequences ........................................................ 33 2.2 Leonid Brezhnev’s years: the Era of stagnation or the Golden Age of the Soviet history? .............................................................................................................................................................................. 40 2.3 The Gender Order in the Soviet Union during Brezhnev’s years: re-opening of the woman question ............................................................................................................................................. 46 2.3.1 Transformations of the gender order in the Soviet Union: from 1917 to 1964 .................... 46 2.3.2 Gender order in the Soviet Union during Brezhnev’s years .......................................................... 51 Chapter 3 - Soviet dissidents: a history of Soviet dissent and of women’s exclusion from the historical narratives ........................................................................................................ 57 3.1 Soviet dissidents: A history of the movement .............................................................................. 57 3.1.1 Soviet dissent:a new milestone in the history of Russian oppositional movements or a product of the Soviet epoch? ................................................................................................................................. 58 3.1.2 The phenomenon of Soviet dissent from a historical perspective .............................................. 61 3.1.3 Samizdat: one of the key elements of Soviet dissent ........................................................................ 67 3.1.4 The Moscow Helsinki Group and the woman question: inclusive exclusion .......................... 70 3.2 Женщина и Россия [Woman and Russia]: first feminist writing from the Soviet Union? .............................................................................................................................................................................. 73 3.3 Soviet dissidents in the Western and Soviet mass media: constructing the image of Soviet dissent .................................................................................................................................................. 77 3.3.1 The image of dissidents in the Soviet mass media ............................................................................ 78 3.3.2 The image of Soviet dissidents in the Western mass media .......................................................... 82 Chapter 4 - Gendering Soviet dissent: the domestic factors explaining why the woman question was absent from the Soviet dissidents’ agenda ..................................... 87 4.1 Women’s roles and responsibilities within the Soviet dissident movement .................... 88 4.2 Soviet dissidents and the woman question: the internal reasons of indifference .......... 90 Chapter 5 - Gendering Soviet dissent: external factors explaining why the woman question was absent from the Soviet dissidents’ agenda ..................................................... 99 5.1 The Cold War Competition and Women’s Rights: who was at the forefront? ................. 100 5.2 Soviet liberal dissidents and their contacts with the West ................................................... 108 CEU eTD Collection 5.3 Human rights and women’s rights ................................................................................................. 112 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 119 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................... 121 iv Introduction This thesis analyses the phenomenon of Soviet dissent in the Soviet Union during the years of Leonid Brezhnev (1964 – 1982), the so-called Era of stagnation. Scholars widely agree on the significance of Soviet dissent for the development of the human rights movement in the USSR and the liberalization (and even dissolution) of the Soviet Union. The work of the people who tried to attract attention to the violation of human rights in the Soviet Union challenged Soviet authorities‘ monopoly on the truth and provided alternatives for the development of the country. However, the main body of historiography considers the phenomenon of Soviet dissent almost exclusively as liberal dissent, and the activities of liberal dissidents are surrounded by myths about the ―heroic dissidents‖1 that for a long time impeded critical historical analysis. This thesis aspires to move forward towards a re-thinking of Soviet dissent by considering it as a complex and diversified phenomenon; it does so by analyzing the gender dimension of Soviet liberal dissent and by placing the activities of dissenters in the wider context of the Cold War competition. Despite the fact that women actively participated in the Soviet dissident movement, they are mostly excluded from the mainstream narrative about heroic Soviet dissent. This situation is not unique: as Shana Penn pointed out in her 2005 book Solidarity’s Secret: the women who defeated communism in Poland, women are also excluded from the historiography about Poland‘s Solidarity, although, as the author convincingly shows, they were active participants in the movement.2 But according to historian Francisca de Haan, ―the question is not only who or what were excluded, but what worldview was constructed as a result.‖3 The exclusion of
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