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Women and Martyrdom in Soviet War Cinema of the Stalin Era

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Women and Martyrdom in Soviet War Cinema of the Stalin Era Women and Martyrdom in Soviet War Cinema of the Stalin Era A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2019 Mozhgan Samadi School of Arts, Languages and Cultures CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES 5 ABSTRACT 6 DECLARATION 7 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 7 A NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION 8 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS 9 THE AUTHOR 10 Introduction: Background and Aims 12 Thesis Rationale: Female Role Models and Soviet Identity-Building 15 Literature Review: Existing Scholarship on Women and Martyrdom in Stalinist War Cinema 20 Aims, Objectives and Research Questions of the Thesis 26 Original Contribution to Knowledge 28 Structure of the Thesis 29 Chapter One: Historical and Ideological Context 1.1 Introduction 32 1.2 Russian Orthodox Political Culture 33 1.2.1 Russian Orthodoxy and the Values of Suffering and Martyrdom 33 1.2.2 Orthodox Princes: The Role Models of Sacrificing the Self for Faith and the ‘Holy’ Lands of Rus’ 35 1.3 The Ideas of ‘Holy’ Rus’ and Russian Messianism and the Adoption of the Russian Orthodox Traditions of Suffering and Martyrdom in the 19th Century 38 1.4 Soviet Reinterpretation of Russian Orthodox Values of Suffering and Martyrdom 44 1.4.1 Resurrection of the Idea of Russian Messianism under the Name of 2 Soviet Messianism 44 1.4.2 The Myth of the Great Soviet Family 51 1.5 Conclusion 54 Chapter Two: Theory and Methodology 2.1 Introduction 57 2.2 Women and Martyrdom in Russia and the Soviet Union 57 2.2.1 The Russian Orthodox Valorisation of Suffering and Female Believers 57 2.2.2 The Valorisation of Female Suffering in Orthodox Russia before the Establishment of the Soviet Union 60 2.2.3 Soviet Women and Dual Patriarchy under the Stalin Regime 64 2.3 Theoretical Context 68 2.3.1 Soviet Socialist Realism 68 2.3.2 Althusserian Theory of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) 70 2.3.3 Althusserian Theory of ISAs and Stalinist Social Realism 71 2.4 Methodology and Primary Sources 73 2.4.1 Post-1970s Psychoanalytic Film Theory 73 2.4.2 Primary Sources 78 2.5 Conclusion 82 Chapter Three: Cinematic Images of Soviet Women and Martyrdom 1941-1945: Heroines as Fiancées, Wives and Widows 3.1 Introduction 85 3.2 Warrior-Heroine as Fiancée and Symbolic Sister in Frontovye Podrugi (Frontline Girlfriends, 1941) 85 3.3 Heroine as Loyal Wife and Symbolic Sister in Zhdi Menia (Wait for Me, 1943) 97 3.4 Heroine as Widow-Warrior and Symbolic Sister in Malakhov Kurgan (The Last Hill, 1944) 107 3.5 Conclusion 115 Chapter Four: Cinematic Images of Soviet Women and Martyrdom 1941-1945: Heroines as Symbolic Mothers and Chosen ‘Sons’ of the Family 3 4.1 Introduction 118 4.2 Heroine as Symbolic Mother in Ona zashchishchaet rodinu (She Defends the Motherland 1943) 118 4.3 Heroines as Symbol of the Motherland and Suffering Mothers in Raduga (Rainbow 1944) 127 4.4 Heroine as Ideal ‘Son’ of the Great Soviet Family in Zoia (1944) 136 4.5 Conclusion 150 Chapter Five: Cinematic Images of Soviet Women and Martyrdom 1945-1953: Heroines as Red Army Officers and Symbolic Suffering Mothers and ‘Sons’ of the Great Family in the GPW 5.1 Introduction 154 5.2 Red Army Female Officers in the GPW in Nebecnyi ikhokhody (Sloth of the Skies 1946) 159 5.3 Heroines as Symbolic Suffering Mothers and ‘Sons’ in the Great Family in Molodaia Gvardiia (The Young Guard 1948) 170 5.3.1 Vulnerable Mothers and Brave Daughters of the Great Family 172 5.3.2 Elena, the Symbol of Defenceless Motherhood Appealing for Her Son’s Self-Sacrifice 176 5.3.3 Representation of Suffering ‘Sons’ of the Great Family 182 5.4 Conclusion 185 Conclusion Revisiting the Thesis Objective 190 Revisiting the Research Questions 193 Research Question One 193 Research Question Two 195 Research Question Three 198 Research Question Four 202 Contributions of the Study 205 Bibliography 208 Filmography 223 Word Count: 79,990 4 LIST OF FIGURES Figures on page 11: First, Captured Red Army nurse, Smolensk, (October 1941), BARch, Bild 1011-449-0779-20; Second, Nurse Valya Gribkova evacuating a wounded soldier from the battlefield (September 1944), SPUTNIK / Alamy Stock Photo; Tird, A woman and two girls looking at their destroyed house, USSR (1943), RIA Novosti. Fig. 3.4.2 on Page 109: Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov (1806-1854) (https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/11970/vladimir-alekseyevich-kornilov, accessed 22/05/2019). Fig. 4.2.6 on Page 125: Poster The Motherland Calls (Podina-Mat’ zovit!) (1940) by Iraklien Toidze (https://www.pencioner.ru/news/moya-istoriya/istoriya-plakata-rodina- mat-zovyet, accessed on 22/05/2019). Fig. 4.4.3 on Page 139: Poster Stalin in the Kremlin cares about each of us (O kazhdom pozabotitsia Stalin v Kremle) (1940) by Victor Govorkov (https://gallerix.ru/storeroom/1973977528/N/857362725/, accessed 22/05/2019). Fig. 4.4.6 on Page 146: Poster Thank You Dear Stalin for a Happy Childhood! (1939) by Nina Votolina (https://artchive.ru/artists/16641~Nina_Nikolaevna_Vatolina/works/540798~Thank_you _dear_Stalin_for_a_happy_childhood, accessed on 18/05/2019) Fig. 5.1.1 on Page 156: Poster Long Live Mother-Heroine! (Slava Materi-Geroine) (1944) by Nina Vatolina (http://museum-schel.ru/ meropriyatiya/virtualnye-vystavki/247- zhenshchina-v-plakate, accessed 22/05/2019). Fig. 5.2.7 on Page 170: Poster Glory to the Heroic Soviet woman! (Geroicheskoi Sovetskoi zhenshine − Slava) (1946) by Nina Votolina. (https://artchive.ru/artists/16641~Nina_Nikolaevna_Vatolina/works/485213~The_heroic_ Soviet_woman_glory, accessed on 18/05/2019). 5 ABSTRACT The thesis examines representations of women and martyrdom in Soviet war cinema of the Stalin era through an analysis of eight fictional films made between 1941-1953, that is from the German invasion of Soviet territory to the end of the Stalinist regime. This research draws a comprehensive picture of the evolution of the cinematic imagery of women and martyrdom in Stalinist war cinema through the examination of the primary sources which provide a spectrum of cinematic heroines from different generations with different social, cultural, economic and educational backgrounds and different functions in war. Drawing on the Althusserian theory of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) as well as post-1970s psychoanalytic film theory, this thesis examines the female and martyrdom theme as mediator between, on the one hand, ideal female heroism and patriotic duties, and on the other hand, everyday citizen and family responsibilities. The clash between Soviet planning and social reality resulted in a gap between the intentions of the Soviet leadership and their consequences. Accordingly, the interrelationship between Soviet planning and reality merits consideration within Soviet scholarship. This thesis, hence, studies the impact of Russian cultural heritage on the Stalinist ISAs, which reveals strong connections between Russian particularism and Soviet universalism. This thesis provides the first book-length study of representations of the female in Soviet war cinema. It sheds new light on the employment of pre-revolutionary Russian cultural heritage in the creation of representations of the female in Stalinist war cinema. This study identifies the cinematic images of women and martyrdom as representing suffering mothers, sisters and wives of the male warriors, as well as symbolic suffering mothers and sisters of the Great Soviet Family. It demonstrates that Soviet women in Stalinist war cinema were deprived of the privilege of becoming martyrs for the Motherland while fulfilling functions of an ideal female Orthodox believer. This thesis challenges the widespread belief in the compatibility of femininity and combat under Stalinism, which claims that within Stalinist political culture traditional gender differences were radically undone, and new forms devised and run for different generations and social groups of Soviet women. Having identified the main features of cinematic representations of women and martyrdom in Stalinist war cinema, and shown them as derived from the expectations of an ideal female Orthodox believer, the thesis at once examines the two-way nexus of (a) Stalinist Socialist Realist war cinema and the submission of the Soviet people to national Bolshevik ideology; (b) national Bolshevism and Russian religious-traditional heritage. In other words, the thesis studies how Russian religious-cultural heritage was adopted to secure the imagination of the Soviet people in relation to their real conditions of existence and their submission to the dominant/national Bolshevik ideology. Examining this imaginary transposition of reality by Soviet Socialist Realist art, whose aim was to ensure the submission of the people to national Bolshevism and the long-term stability of the Stalinist state, this thesis reveals the adoption of Russian religious-cultural heritage on a broader scale, in the service of Stalinist collective identity-building policies and state-citizen relations. As a result, the theoretical approach of this thesis and its findings innovatively contribute to a range of fields within Russian Studies, including gender studies, Soviet cinema studies and the study of Russian/Soviet identity-building and state-citizen relations. 6 DECLARATION No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 1. The author of this thesis owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and she has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. 2. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time.
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