The Estate System in Medieval Japan Janet R

University of Hawai'i Manoa Kahualike

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Fall 7-31-2018 Land, Power, and the Sacred: The Estate System in Medieval Japan Janet R. Goodwin

Joan R. Piggott

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Recommended Citation Goodwin, Janet R. and Piggott, Joan R., "Land, Power, and the Sacred: The Estate System in Medieval Japan" (2018). UH Press Book Previews. 8. https://kahualike.manoa.hawaii.edu/uhpbr/8

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Land, Power, and the Sacred Land, Power, and the Sacred

The Estate System in Medieval Japan

edited by Janet R. Goodwin and Joan R. Piggott

23 22 21 20 19 18 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Goodwin, Janet R., editor. | Piggott, Joan R., editor. Title: Land, power, and the sacred : the estate system in medieval Japan / Janet R. Goodwin and Joan R. Piggott, [editors]. Description: Honolulu : University of Hawai‘i Press, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017052550 | ISBN 9780824875466 (cloth alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Manors—Japan—History—To 1500. | Land tenure—Japan—History—To 1500. | Japan—History—To 1600. Classification: LCC HD914 .L36 2018 | DDC 333.3/234—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017052550

University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources.

Cover art: Map of Hineno Village on Hine Estate, dated 1316. Courtesy of the Imperial Household Agency (Kunaichō). To the memory of our professors Delmer M. Brown, University of California at Berkeley Jeffrey P. Mass, Stanford University Contents

List of Figures, Plates, and Tables xi Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations xvii Periods of Premodern Japanese History xix Premodern Provinces and Modern Prefectures xxi

Introduction Janet R. Goodwin xxv

Part I The Big Picture 1 Estates: Their History and Historiography Joan R. Piggott 3 2 Medieval Japan’s Commercial Economy and the Estate System Sakurai Eiji (translated by Ethan Segal) 37

Part II How Do We Know about Estates? 3 Ōbe Estate in the Archaeological Record Nishida Takeshi (translated by Michelle Damian) 61 4 Tōdaiji’s Estates in Its Documentary Record: Perspectives on Ōbe Estate Endō Motoo (translated by Janet R. Goodwin) 81 5 Hine Estate in Izumi Province: Archaeology, Landscape Reconstruction, and Village Structures Hirota Kōji (translated by Janet R. Goodwin) 105

vii viii Contents

Part III. Making the Land Productive 6 Agricultural Expansion and Irrigation in the Early Medieval Age Kimura Shigemitsu (translated by Kristina Buhrman) 143 7 Loggers and Cultivators of Nabari: Tōdaiji’s Kuroda Estate in Heian Times Joan R. Piggott 164

Part IV: Secular and Sacred 8 Hijiri and Temple Monks: Contrasting Styles of Estate Management Nagamura Makoto (translated by Janet R. Goodwin) 197 9 Beyond the Secular: Villages, Estates, and the Ideology behind Chōgen’s Land Reclamation Projects Ōyama Kyōhei (translated by Janet R. Goodwin) 211 10 Claiming the Land: Chōgen and the Development of Ōbe Estate Janet R. Goodwin 231 11 The Jōdoji Amida Triad: How Its Iconography Advanced Chōgen’s Mission Yoshiko Kainuma 253

Part V. Power, Space, and Trade 12 Nyoin Power, Estates, and the Taira Influence: Trading Networks within and beyond the Archipelago Sachiko Kawai 281 13 Networks of Wealth and Influence: Spatial Power and Estate Strategy of the Saionji Family in Early Medieval Japan Rieko Kamei-Dyche 319 14 As Estates Faded: Late Medieval Maritime Shipping in the Seto Inland Sea Michelle Damian 351 Contents ix

Part VI. Power: Challenges and Conflicts 15 Bad Neighbors and Monastic Influence: Border Disputes in Medieval Kii Philip Garrett 377 16 The Akutō on Ōbe Estate: Lawsuits, Evidence, and Participation in the Late Kamakura Legal System Dan Sherer 403 17 Warriors and Estates in Muromachi-Period Harima Noda Taizō (translated by David Eason) 427

Part VII. Getting the Word Out 18 Teaching Japanese Estates: Old Challenges and New Opportunities Ethan Segal 441

Some Afterthoughts Janet R. Goodwin 457

Glossary 461 Bibliography 473 Contributors 511 Index 517

Color plates follow pages 140 and 374. List of Figures, Plates, and Tables

Figures Figure I.1 Map of Japan’s medieval provinces Figure 3.1 Site of Ōzuka tomb, Ōbe Estate Figure 3.2 Kiyotani archaeological site, Ōbe Estate, early medieval period Figure 3.3 Jōdoji subtemples Figure 3.4 Site of a Jōdoji building Figure 3.5 Remains of pit dwellings, Ōji Shiro-no-shita Figure 3.6 Yayoi period pottery, Ōji Shiro-no-shita Figure 3.7 Tumulus period artifacts, Ōzuka tomb Figure 4.1 Map of medieval Tōdaiji Figure 4.2 Tōdaiji organizational chart Figure 4.3 Classification and disposition of Tōdaiji documents over time Figure 5.1 Map of Ōgi Village Figure 5.2 Map of Tsuchimaru Village Figure 5.3 Map of Hineno Village Figure 7.1 Map of Kuroda Estate Figure 9.1 Map of villages drawing irrigation water from Sayama Pond Figure 11.1 Jōdodō section diagram, Jōdoji, Hyōgo Prefecture Figure 11.2 Jōdodō ground plan, Jōdoji, Hyōgo Prefecture Figure 11.3 Amida Triad, Jōdoji, side view Figure 11.4 Amida Triad by Kaikei, c. 1221 Figure 12.1 Royal family genealogy Figure 12.2 Jōsaimon-in’s estates (all) Figure 12.3 Map of Jōsaimon-in’s estates, Yamashiro Province Figure 12.4 Map of Jōsaimon-in’s estates, Ōmi Province

xi xii List of Figures, Plates, and Tables

Figure 12.5 Map, properties of Hachijōin and Kōkamon-in in the capital Figure 12.6 Map of Hachijō-in’s estates Figure 13.1 Map of the Saionji family estates Figure 13.2 Map of maritime trade routes Figure 13.3 Map of the River Yodo basin Figure 13.4 Map of waterways around the capital Figure 15.1 Map of northern Naga District, including Nate Estate Figure 15.2 Map of the upper Kinokawa Valley Figure 16.1 Map of Harima Province

Color plates Plate 1 Seated image of Chōgen, Jōdoji, Hyōgo Prefecture Plate 2 Terraces of Ōbe Estate Plate 3 Pre-Kamakura archaeological sites on Ōbe Estate Plate 4 Kamakura-period archaeological sites on Ōbe Estate Plate 5 Model of the abandoned Kōdoji Temple, Hyōgo Prefecture Plate 6 Edo-period illustration of Jōdoji buildings Plate 7 Nigori Pond, Ōbe Estate Plate 8 Map of the site of Hine Estate Plate 9 Map of Hineno Village on Hine Estate, dated 1316 Plate 10 Site of three inner villages, Hine Estate Plate 11 Terraced rice fields on the site of Hine Estate Plate 12 Location of Tsuchimaru Village, Hine Estate Plate 13 Location of Hineno Village, Hine Estate Plate 14 Yugawa Canal, Hineno Village, Hine Estate Plate 15 Plaque with account of Chōgen’s repairs of Sayama Pond, dated 1202 Plate 16 Amida Triad by Kaikei, c. 1195, Jōdoji, Hyōgo Prefecture Plate 17 Chōgen, ﬁrst half of thirteenth century Plate 18 Jōdodō, 1194, Jōdoji, Hyogo Prefecture Plate 19 Amida Triad, 1148 Plate 20 Head of Amida (before restoration) by Kaikei, c. 1202 Plate 21 Amida Triad, Ming period, China Plate 22 Amida Nyorai by Kaikei, 1201 Plate 23 Masks by Kaikei and others, c. 1201 Plate 24 Map of Kōkamon-in’s estates List of Figures, Plates, and Tables xiii

Plate 25 Map of all ports shipping salt to the Hyōgo checkpoint Plate 26 Map of major ports shipping salt to the Hyōgo checkpoint Plate 27 Map of all ports shipping rice to the Hyōgo checkpoint Plate 28 Map of major ports shipping rice to the Hyōgo checkpoint Plate 29 Map of Kii Province

Tables Table 4.1 Superior management rights to Ōbe Estate, twelfth to fifteenth centuries Table 4.2 Current locations of Tōnan’in and corporate temple documents Table 4.3 Selected documents related to Ōbe Estate, Muromachi Period Table 5.1 Chronology of Hine Estate in Izumi Province Table 5.2 Archaeological sites on Hine Estate Table 5.3 Archaeological remains of the Hine site according to type Table 5.4 Hine Estate communities: Kamakura period Table 5.5 Hine Estate communities: Muromachi, Sengoku periods Table 6.1 Extant decrees: “Measures for the Increased Production of Miscellaneous Grains” Table 6.2 Cultivation at Ōbe Estate in the Nanbokuchō period Table 6.3 Approximate acreage of “loss” and “flooded” fields at Ōbe Estate Table 8.1 Strata within Tōdaiji in the Kamakura period Table 11.1 Sculptures at Chōgen’s Bessho (Namu Amidabutsu Sazenshū) Table 13.1 Landholdings of the Saionji family Table 14.1 All goods shipped on Onomichi boats to Hyōgo, 1445 Table 16.1 Akutō in the second Ōbe Estate case, 1322 Acknowledgments

Even more than a monograph, a collective work such as this one is the product of many contributions and many interactions. As detailed in the introduction, the chapters in this volume are based on talks first presented at a conference on the estate system at the University of South- ern California in June 2012. We would like to thank each contributor to the volume not only for his or her chapter or translation, but also for the questions and comments on other contributions at the conference and for lively participation in discussion and analysis of the estate system. Participants at the conference shaped the volume as a whole, and not only through their own presentations and essays. We would especially like to thank Professor Endō Motoo of the University of Tokyo Historiographical Institute, who introduced us in the first place to Ōbe Estate, a major topic of the conference and this volume, and who of course contributed one of its chapters. His assis- tance, in fact, went much further than that: along with his colleague, Professor Takahashi Toshiko, he helped to organize the conference from the Japan side and assisted with editing the bibliography, and he was our “point man” who contacted the Imperial Household Agency and secured their permission to reproduce the map that appears on the cover of our book. We are very grateful for the efforts of Professors Endō and Takahashi; without them there would have been neither a conference nor a conference volume. Others who helped greatly with the conference and the volume are Kainuma Ken’ichi, who secured permissions and photographs for many of our illustrations; Kana Yoshida of the Center for Japanese Religion and Culture (CJRC) and Lori Rogers of the Department of History, both at the University of Southern California, for help with organiz- ing the conference; Yoshiko Kainuma for invaluable translation assis- tance; Emily Warren, PhD candidate in Japanese history at USC, for

xv xvi Acknowledgments

proofreading the manuscript; and Philip Garrett, Jim Goodwin, and the late Arnie Olds, for yeoman work on the maps and illustrations. Ono City in Hyōgo Prefecture and the Ono City Education Committee (Kyōiku Iinkai) are to be thanked for maintaining museums and archaeological sites, and producing publications, that became the sources for many of the chapters in this volume. We wish to thank the two anonymous readers for the University of Hawai‘i Press, whose constructive criticism assisted us to shape this volume. Patricia Crosby and Stephanie Chun, Hawai‘i Press editors, were both encouraging and helpfully critical; we hope that Pat, who is now retired, will enjoy reading our work after evenings at the Met and that Stephanie will find our volume one of many bright spots in her editing career. Thanks also to managing editor Cheryl Loe for seeing this volume through the production process, and to copy editor Drew Bryan for his careful reading. We are grateful for financial help from various sources. The Cressant Foundation provided substantial funding for both the conference and the volume. The Northeast Asia Council of the Association for Asian Studies, the CJRC, and the USC History Department helped to support the conference with generous contributions of funding or personnel. We are also grateful to the following organizations for allowing us to reproduce their images or supplying us with photographs: the Impe- rial Household Agency, Jōdoji, Kōdaiin, the Nara National Museum, the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, the Ono City Kyōiku Iinkai, the Osaka Prefectural Sayama Pond Museum, Saihōji, Sanzen’in, Shin Daibutsuji, Stanford University Press, and Tōdaiji. Finally, we would like to thank Arnie Olds (Joan Piggott’s husband) and Jim Goodwin (Janet Goodwin’s husband) not only for their con- crete help with the volume, but for their support through many years of our research history. We regret that Arnie passed away before he could see the results of our hard work together. Abbreviations

DNK Dai Nihon komonjo DNS Dai Nihon shiryō HI Heian ibun KI Kamakura ibun KM Kōyasan monjo OS Ono-shi shi SHM Shōsōin hennen monjo

xvii Periods of Premodern Japanese History

Jōmon 縄文 To ninth or Hunting and gathering culture sixth c. BCE leading to beginnings of (scholarly agriculture debate rages!) Yayoi 弥生 To 250 CE Rice agriculture; small chiefdoms Tumulus 古墳 250–552 Chiefdoms expand and (Kofun) consolidate power; seeds of a “realm” that came to occupy much of the archipelago Asuka- 飛鳥— 552–710 Early royal polities; expansion Hakuhō 白鳳 of Buddhism as an officially supported religion Nara 奈良 710–794 Throne consolidates power through law codes and control over the land Heian 平安 794–1185 First long-term capital established in present Kyoto. By the tenth century a courtier family, the Northern Fujiwara, comes to dominate the throne and government.

(Insei) (院政) (c. 1100–1185) Retired sovereigns lead the court, involving themselves in accumulation and development of estates. Warriors, especially the Ise Taira, dominate the court at the end of this period. Kamakura 鎌倉 1185–1333 After a civil war with the Ise Taira, victorious Minamoto forces establish a military government (shogunate) in Kamakura; at first the shogunate shares power with the throne and court, and then it becomes dominant.

xix xx Periods of Premodern Japanese History

Kenmu 建武新 1334–1336 Go-Daigo Tennō attempts to Restoration 政 restore the power of the throne

Nanbokuchō 南北朝 1336–1392 Civil war between supporters (Northern of two courts: the northern and Southern court in Kyoto supported by Courts) the new Ashikaga shogunate, and Go-Daigo’s court-in-exile at Yoshino

Muromachi/ 室町/ 1392–1568 Power is consolidated under Ashikaga 足利 the Ashikaga shogunate and provincial overlords (shugo)

(Sengoku) (戦国) (1467–1568) Civil wars. Warlords (daimyō) control territories and vie to expand them.

Azuchi- 安土桃 1568–1603 Civil wars come to an end under Momoyama 山 three successive unifying generals

Edo/ 江戸/ 1603–1867 The final unifier, Tokugawa Tokugawa 徳川 Ieyasu, establishes a shogunate in Edo (modern Tokyo). Japan enters its early modern age. Premodern Provinces and Modern Prefectures

5 Inner provinces (Kinai) and 7 circuits (Shichidō) 五畿七道 Province Japanese Prefecture Honshu and nearby small islands Yamashiro 山城 Kyoto Yamato 大和 Nara Kinai 畿内 Kawachi 河内 Osaka Izumi 和泉 Osaka Settsu 摂津 Osaka Iga 伊賀 Mie Ise 伊勢 Mie Shima 志摩 Mie Owari 尾張 Aichi Mikawa 三河 Aichi Tōtōmi 遠近 Shizuoka Suruga 駿河 Shizuoka Tōkaidō 甲斐東海道 Kai Yamanashi Izu 伊豆 Shizuoka Sagami 相模 Kanagawa Awa 安房 Chiba Kazusa 上総 Chiba Shimōsa 下総 Chiba Hitachi 常陸 Chiba Musashi 武蔵 Saitama, Tokyo, Kanagawa

xxi xxii Premodern Provinces and Modern Prefectures

5 Inner provinces (Kinai) and 7 circuits (Shichidō) 五畿七道 Province Japanese Prefecture Ōmi 近江 Shiga Mino 美濃 Gifu Hida 飛騨 Gifu Shinano 信濃 Nagano Tōsandō 東山道 Kōzuke 上野 Gunma Shimotsuke 下野 Tochigi Mutsu 陸奥 Fukushima, Miyagi, Iwate, Aomori Dewa 出羽 Yamagata, Akita Wakasa 若狭 Fukui Echizen 越前 Fukui Etchū 越中 Toyama Hokuriku 越後北陸 Echigo Niigata Kaga 加賀 Ishikawa Noto 能登 Ishikawa Sado 佐渡 Niigata Tanba 丹波 Kyoto Tango 丹後 Kyoto Tajima 但馬 Hyōgo

San’indō Inaba 因幡 Tottori 山陰道 Hōki 伯耆 Tottori Izumo 出雲 Shimane Iwami 石見 Shimane Oki 隠岐 Shimane Premodern Provinces and Modern Prefectures xxiii

5 Inner provinces (Kinai) and 7 circuits (Shichidō) 五畿七道 Province Japanese Prefecture Harima 播磨 Hyōgo Mimasaka 美作 Okayama Bizen 備前 Okayama

San’yōdō Bitchū 備中 Okayama 山陽道 Bingo 備後 Hiroshima Aki 安芸 Hiroshima Suō 周防 Yamaguchi Nagato 長門 Yamaguchi Kii 紀伊 Wakayama Awaji 淡路 Hyōgo Shikoku Nankaidō 阿波南海道 Awa Tokushima Sanuki 讃岐 Kagawa Iyo 伊予 Ehime Tosa 土佐 Kōchi Kyushu Chikuzen 筑前 Fukuoka Chikugo 筑後 Saga Buzen 豊前 Fukuoka Bungo 豊後 Ōita

Saikaidō Hizen 肥前 Nagasaki 西海道 Higo 肥後 Kumamoto Hyūga 日向 Miyazaki Satsuma 薩摩 Kagoshima Ōsumi 大隅 Kagoshima Iki 壱岐島 Iki Island Tsushima 対馬 Tsushima Island Introduction

Janet R. Goodwin

Landed estates known as shōen played a central role in the society and economy of late classical and medieval Japan. Estates produced much of the material wealth that supported all levels of society, from the aristocratic court in the capital of Kyoto to the farmers who worked the land. At various times during the tenth through sixteenth centuries, estates were locations of de facto government, homes to communal structures, nodes along trade networks, sites of developing agricultural technology, and centers of religious practice and ritual. Although mostly farmland, they yielded many nonagricultural products: lumber, salt, fish, and silk, to name a few. As Amino Yoshihiko has shown, estates also provided livelihood for craftsmen, seafarers, peddlers, and performers as well as for cultivators.1 By the twelfth century at the very latest, we can talk about an estate “system” that permeated all institutions and social classes across much of the Japanese archipelago. (For a list of premodern provinces and their modern equivalents, see page xxi.) While many of the first estates arose as simple holdings of a single family or institution, they eventually took on a complex system of ownership.2 By the later Heian age, no single entity had absolute ownership rights to an estate; rather, a hierarchy of individuals and institutions held rights (shiki ) to income from the land or specified portions of it. These rights also involved various responsibilities. Moreover, through the system that granted income rights to various parties, estates created vertical ties between those on different social levels, a point made eloquently some years ago by Cornelius Kiley.3 At the very top level, a high-ranking courtier or member of the royal family, well-placed to protect the estate from confiscation or increased taxation, might serve as supreme proprietor (honke, also translated as guarantor or patron). Not all estates had supreme proprietors, however, and superior tenure was often held

xxv Fig. I.1. Japan’s medieval provinces. From Jeffrey P. Mass, ed., The Origins of Japan’s Medieval World, Stanford University Press, 1997. Originally drawn by Arnie Olds. Used with permission. Introduction xxvii by a court noble or a powerful religious institution—a proprietor or ryōke —that controlled the estate as an absentee landlord. On- and off- site managers, known by a number of different titles depending on their duties and the estate in question, also had rights to income; these rights, and the duties that came with them, often became heritable and their holders could not be easily dispossessed. At the next lower level were headmen called myōshu, who supervised cultivation and collected rents from designated fields—myōden or named fields—and delivered them to estate managers. Such headmen were the most prominent among the hyakushō, prosperous local residents analogous to medieval English yeomen, who increasingly claimed and defended their own rights to occupy and exploit the land.4 In the later twelfth century, leading estate residents of the manage- rial and yeoman class were sometimes warrior retainers of powerful military commanders.5 And later, in Kamakura times, the most prominent of these warriors were military stewards (jitō ), who oversaw individual estates on behalf of the warrior government (shogunate) at Kamakura. The stewards were initially Minamoto Yoritomo’s retainers placed on estates confiscated from the Taira after the Genpei War (1181–1185), but they eventually were assigned to more estates and made responsible for policing and ensuring that rents were delivered to proprietors. Like other holders of rights to income, stewards took a portion of the estate’s receipts. Estates were not always contiguous territories, and some fields within them, as part of the provincial domain, might be subject to taxation by the provincial government. In many cases as time went on, however, borders were set to enclose their territory and provincial officials were forbidden to enter the estate to conduct cadastral surveys, pursue crimi- nals, or levy taxes. Often no taxes at all were paid to the province. This situation, increasingly common from the twelfth century on, has led some observers to refer to estates as private holdings, but the bound- ary between the public and private spheres was fuzzy, and the individuals, families, and institutions in the proprietary class were in essence the government of the realm. Major landholders, in fact, belonged to a category that the historian Kuroda Toshio has dubbed kenmon —“gates of power”—the elite triumvirate that included the throne, the retired sovereign, and leading nobles in Kyoto; important Buddhist temples as well as shrines where mostly indigenous Japanese deities called kami were propitiated; and from the end of the twelfth century, the military xxviii Introduction

establishment.6 Over time, the dominant political power shifted from the throne itself to the court, then to the retired sovereign, and finally to the military. By around 1200, however, all three elements of the “gates of power” derived much of their economic support from the estate system and exercised governmental powers on their holdings.7 (For an overview of premodern historical developments, see page xix.) Estates existed in tandem with lands taxed by the province, and neither management structures nor agricultural practices differed drasti- cally from one to the other. In fact, Nagahara Keiji refers to the estate and provincial land (shōen-kokugaryō) system, emphasizing the overlap between the two landholding categories. While revenues from provincial lands went to the government rather than to royals, nobles, or religious institutions, local officials played roles similar to those of estate managers, forwarding taxes and keeping a percentage of the take for themselves. Eventually, like estate managers, many such local officials secured hereditary rights to their positions and income.8 And as Ishii Susumu has pointed out in a study of Tashibu Estate in Bungo Province, landholdings called villages (gō) or bays or ports (ura) often operated in the same way as those called estates (shō).9 While provincial lands were often incorporated into estates in the later twelfth century, provincial and local governments and officials continued to reap benefits from publicly taxed holdings, and in some cases dues were shared: those calculated in rice were paid to the government, and those in labor (cor- vée) to the estate proprietor, or vice versa.10

How and Why Do We Study Estates? Estates have long been a fertile field for Japanese historians. As Joan Piggott demonstrates in chapter 1 of this volume, scholars have offered a number of different interpretations of the inception and evolution of the estate system and its relationship to the economy and society. How do we know what we do about estates? More broadly, how do we go about studying a distant past that supplies us with only fragments of evidence? Chapters by Nishida Takeshi, Hirota Kōji, and Endō Motoo help us to do just that. Archaeological investigations such as those described by Nishida and Hirota provide one view, based on remains of paddy fields, irrigation systems, dwellings, and official structures. One way modern historians learn about an estate’s past is to “walk the land” of the estate, a pro- Introduction xxix cess discussed in Joan Piggott’s chapter 1. Several years ago, guided by Nishida, Endō, and Noda Taizō, she and I did just that: we explored the land that was once Ōbe Estate. We tried to envision what that land must have looked like to Chōgen (1121–1206), the monk who developed the estate on behalf of its proprietor, Tōdaiji, and how it would have evolved through land reclamation and irrigation projects over the centuries. We viewed the remains of villages, irrigation canals, and an old castle, and we visited the still-extant temple Jōdoji on a bluff overlooking the estate. Joan Piggott accompanied Hirota Kōji on a similar journey across the landscape of Hine Estate, viewing the sites of old temples, graveyards, and irrigation canals, and both of us have visited the Izumisano Museum, which contains maps, artifacts, miniature reproductions of Hine Estate sites, and even an animation demonstrating the way proprietors, on-site managers, and cultivators quarreled over the estate’s harvest. Much of what we saw is detailed in the chapters by Nishida and Hirota, and we hope readers will virtually “walk the land” along with us. The written record, too, is extremely important and often requires considerable detective work for proper evaluation. Sometimes we are fortunate to have diaries of those involved in estate management, such as the sixteenth-century proprietor of Hine Estate introduced by Hirota. More commonly, however, we rely on documents that relate everyday matters such as rents assessed, profits distributed, and quarrels launched and settled. Sometimes a historian needs to examine documents as if they were archaeological artifacts, finding clues to their sig- nificance even in where and how they were stored, as does Endō in his chapter. Exploring documents in detail this way helps us to understand the way in which estates were developed and managed. Research on estates, moreover, reveals concerns of and interactions among human beings that might otherwise be occluded from history. Many of these concerns and interactions are featured in this volume. Land surveys reporting fields lost to drought, as discussed by Kimura Shigemitsu, for example, give some sense of the suffering of ordinary farmers from disastrous weather. Conflicts within estates and between estate residents and outsiders were often presented to higher authorities for judgment, and as detailed here by Hirota, Dan Sherer, and Noda, we learn just how the disputants related to one another. Ōyama Kyōhei examines a plaque, discovered in archaeological investigations of an irrigation pond, that shows how common people, including those con- sidered outcasts, crossed village and estate boundaries to collaborate in xxx Introduction repairing the pond (see plate 15). Close study of estates shows us how proprietors of the highest class developed tactics for increasing both power and income; see the chapters by Sachiko Kawai and Rieko Kamei- Dyche. But we are also given a window into the lives of the other 99 percent in medieval Japan. In part because they are messy, estates challenge historians. Case studies of estates abound, proving that not all estates looked alike. Ōbe Estate in Harima Province, the focus of several chapters in this volume, developed along a different trajectory than Hine Estate in Izumi (studied by Hirota), the Kii Province holdings of the temple complex on Mount Kōya (examined by Philip Garrett), or Kuroda Estate in Iga Prov- ince (researched by Piggott). Estates were formed in different ways and at different times, as Piggott shows us in chapter 1. While the same titles were often used for officials on various estates, moreover, we should not be fooled into thinking that everyone who had the same title also had the same duties or even lived at equivalent places. For instance, the custodians (azukaridokoro) who represented the interests of estate proprietors included the capital-based female attendants of royal ladies (see the chapter by Kawai) as well as persons who lived on the estate and directly managed the land (see the chapter by Goodwin). Important as it is to look at estates one by one, it is also important to contextualize estates, as have many Japanese scholars, such as Amino Yoshihiko, who has looked at estates within a framework that included sea transport and nonagrarian people.11 In our volume, Ōyama’s chapter helps us to view estates, with their vertical ties between central elites and the local population, as only one structure in a complex system that included lateral ties among villages as well. Since developments in agriculture, commerce, and transport contributed to the evolution of estates, we need to look at the estate “system” not as a closed structure, but as a component of a broader sociopolitical order. Estate structures and practices also cast a long historical shadow: for example, travel and shipping routes that carried goods from estates to proprietors, and proprietors’ representatives to estates, continued as trade routes even as estates crumbled. Michelle Damian’s chapter illustrates this quite suc- cinctly. Moreover, scholars have cited the vertical estate structure as a template for the early development of merchant and artisan guilds (za), which also depended upon patron-client ties.12 This volume provides views of a number of different estates, as well as a focused look at one example, Ōbe Estate, which several of the con- Introduction xxxi tributors to this volume have studied closely (see figure 16.1). What insights into the estate system as a whole might a study of Ōbe Estate provide? First of all, the estate was instituted by its would-be proprietor, Tōdaiji, in negotiation with court authorities, not through a process of commendation from below, which is more familiar to English readers. Thus the Ōbe case supports recent scholarship that points to central proprietors rather than local landholders as those who initiated estate development in the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Second, shortly after Ōbe Estate was established, Tōdaiji and the Harima provincial government quarreled over its tax-free status, a common conflict throughout the estate system. Third, Ōbe provides a prime example of complexities in ownership and control that charac- terize most if not all medieval estates. Fourth, the early development of Ōbe Estate depended ultimately on religious authority, a common thread in an institutional arrangement in which temples and shrines managed landholdings as major players in realm-wide economics and politics (see the chapters by Ōyama, Nagamura Makoto, and Yoshiko Kainuma, as well as my own; for comparison, see Piggott’s chapter on Kuroda Estate). Finally, like many estates, Ōbe Estate saw endemic conflict, both within its borders and with outsiders (see the chapters by Sherer and Noda, and for comparison see Garrett’s chapter on Mount Kōya holdings). Thus while there are many differences among estates in their genesis, management, and ultimate control, a focused look at a single estate can provide insights into the way the system operated as a whole.

How Our Volume Came to Be This volume, in fact, owes its genesis to documents from Ōbe Estate. Seeds were planted in the summer of 2005, when Professor Endō Motoo of the University of Tokyo Historiographical Institute, then teaching the Kanbun Workshop at the University of Southern California, introduced some examples from a volume of all extant available documents related to Ōbe Estate, from its founding in 1147 to its demise in the late sixteenth century.13 All the documents were conveniently contained in a single volume: how could we resist? The USC Library obtained Ono-shi shi (The history of Ono City), the series that contained this volume, and a group of us, including faculty, independent scholars, and graduate students, began to interpret its documents in English. xxxii Introduction

As time went by we found that we needed to study not only Ōbe Estate but also the entire estate system. In addition to launching a graduate seminar on the history of estates at USC to do just that, we organized an international conference to which we invited specialists in medieval history from Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom. In three days in June 2012 at USC, some twenty of us explored various aspects of estates: developments in agriculture and irrigation systems, the role of religious institutions and individuals, aristocratic and temple proprietors, conflict on and among estates, and the role of estates in a developing commercial economy. We asked how we know what we do about estates, explored ways we might find out even more, and discussed the teaching of estates to undergraduates to give them more insights into the lives of people from all walks of life, from both the capital and the countryside. Most of the presentations at that conference have been developed into chapters, and you can read them in this volume. For the first time, a rich variety of perspectives on the field of estate studies has been made available outside of the Japanese language. As supplemen- tary materials, translated documents and commentary can be accessed on Piggott’s website Shōen Documents and Materials, as can her database of published Tōdaiji archives.14 An important feature of both conference and volume is the collaboration between scholars from Japan and those from the West. Fellow editor Joan Piggott and I were fortunate to have dissertation advisors who encouraged such collaboration. Delmer M. Brown, my advisor at the University of California, Berkeley, is known for working with Ishida Ichirō on a study and translation of the thirteenth-century historical text Gukanshō,15 and Jeffrey P. Mass, Piggott’s advisor at Stanford, worked on several projects with Takeuchi Rizō, Seno Seiichirō, and Ōyama Kyōhei (one of our authors). Our advisors, unfortunately, have both passed away, but we hope that they would have been pleased with our work on this project.

Structure and Themes of This Volume The chapters in this volume focus largely on estates themselves and the people and institutions connected with them, but all the contributors have kept in mind the larger picture of Japan’s historical development. What we hope to present in this volume is a view of that development through the lens of individual estates and the people involved in them, Introduction xxxiii within the context of the broader estate system and Japan’s medieval economy. The volume begins with two contextualizing chapters: Piggott’s overview of the history of estates, based on the work of a number of distinguished scholars, primarily in Japanese; and Sakurai Eiji’s examination of the way the economy developed, from Kamakura times until the first century of the early modern age. Sakurai shows how commercial- ization fundamentally changed estates, which became sites of markets and monetary exchange. After setting the overall scene, we then turn to methodological issues: “How Do We Know about Estates?” The chapters by Nishida Takeshi, Endō Motoo, and Hirota Kōji not only indicate the bases for our current understanding of estates, but also suggest how future research might progress to expand our knowledge further. As the title indicates, this volume explores three closely interrelated themes: land, especially how it was made fruitful; power, as derived from the land and shaped by conflicts over its people and produce; and the sacred, aspects of which were intimately connected to the development and control of land and to the exercise of power. Just as these themes were interwoven in actual medieval practice, so they are in the chapters of our volume. As one example, Hirota’s chapter, besides informing us on methodologies, shows how one estate embodied these themes as he explores the development of irrigation facilities on Hine Estate, conflicts over control among proprietors and local warriors, and the role of temples and shrines in estate management. One important issue addressed in this volume is how land was developed into dry fields and paddies that provided livelihood for residents as well as revenues for absentee proprietors. In a section titled “Mak- ing the Land Productive,” chapters by Kimura Shigemitsu and Joan Piggott discuss, from two totally different perspectives, how arable was developed and managed and how estates were formed. Kimura uses examples from the eighth through the fourteenth centuries, from both estates and provincial land, to examine agricultural and irrigation technology; he points out the importance of dry fields, often overlooked in studying landholdings that calculated their tax or rent payments in terms of wet paddy rice production. Kimura, in fact, was a pioneer in revising the “paddy-centric” view of the medieval society and economy, a revision that has exploded not only in Japanese-language studies but in those in English as well. In her chapter, Piggott examines the establishment of Kuroda Estate in the Heian period and the often difficult xxxiv Introduction relationships of its proprietor, its residents, and outside entities such as provincial officials. The chapter clarifies the arduous and contested process of converting provincial lands into estates. Both chapters make it clear that cooperative relationships among the various social levels engaged in the estates were absolutely necessary, even though conflict, exploitation, and resistance certainly did take place. Next, in “Secular and Sacred,” we explore religious factors as they intersect with themes of land and power in the establishment and management of estates. Nagamura Makoto examines the different ways regular temple monks and unofficial religious practitioners called hijiri engaged in estate management. One crucial point here, of course, is the involvement of religious figures in such seemingly “secular” activities. This point is also explored by Ōyama Kyōhei, who demonstrates that religious figures such as Chōgen, who established and managed Ōbe Estate while rebuilding Tōdaiji’s Great Buddha and its hall in the late twelfth century, did not view “the secular” and “the sacred” as totally different spheres. The two chapters that follow investigate Chōgen’s activities on Ōbe Estate: my chapter traces the connections among religious proselytization, land reclamation, and community formation, while Yoshiko Kainuma’s focuses on the temple Chōgen established on the estate, asking how its architecture and images contributed to estate management and control. Not only monks and hijiri had religious motivations for establish- ing and managing estates. Aristocratic laymen and women often sought estate revenues to support “vow temples” they had founded to pray for the souls of deceased ancestors. Sachiko Kawai cites examples of such in her examination of royal ladies called nyoin as estates’ supreme proprietors. Kawai’s chapter is thus linked to the previous section, but it and the chapter by Rieko Kamei-Dyche primarily concern power as mani- fested by strategies of estate accumulation. Both these chapters, in the section titled “Power, Space, and Trade,” demonstrate the importance of estate location and the development of estate networks, which were often engaged in trade and transport. The power obtained by such proprietors was derived not only from agricultural produce from the land, but also from estates’ participation in new forms of income generation and control over dispersed population. Michelle Damian’s chapter also focuses on trade, in this case lateral exchange between estates and between ports in the twilight age of the estate system. This chapter resonates with those by Kawai and Introduction xxxv

Kamei-Dyche in demonstrating the role of the sea as a connective force and also with Ōyama’s demonstration of the lateral ties among villages that had begun to develop centuries before. Along with the chapter by Sakurai, the chapters by Damian and Ōyama point to horizontal forces that competed with, and eventually helped dissolve, the old vertical hierarchies that had formed the basis for both the estate system and the larger society. Neither lateral nor vertical ties prevented conflict. One might even argue that estates might be formed through the process of conflict and resolution, as we see in the battles between the proprietary temple Tōdaiji and the Iga provincial government from which Kuroda Estate emerged (see Piggott, chapter 7). Conflicts played out in courts of law and on the battlefield, and they involved such issues as border disputes, water rights, and the involvement of warrior authorities in estate opera- tions, even on the holdings of religious institutions. Chapters by Philip Garrett, Dan Sherer, and Noda Taizō introduce some of these conflicts in a section titled “Power: Challenges and Conflicts,” which explores how disputes were settled (or not) and the way they were entwined with the exercise of power. These three chapters, along with the overview of Hine Estate history in the chapter by Hirota Kōji, emphasize the momentous change in medieval Japanese history as warriors displaced civilian aristocrats as top elites and chief local holders of power. Beginning with the “dual polity” of the Kamakura period, in which the warrior shogunate shared power with the court, the process reached a watershed in the mid-fourteenth century, when the sovereign Go-Daigo’s attempt to restore the throne to power resulted instead in the firmer establishment of warrior dominance in the form of the Muromachi shogunate. While Garrett and Sherer demonstrate the ubiquitous armed conflict on estates well before that, Noda’s chapter focuses on the Muromachi aftermath. Noda exhib- its in detail the course and results of warrior interference in estates held by others, particularly the religious establishment. This was one way, of course, in which warriors ended up as the dominant figures in the elite triumvirate and it is part of the process by which Japan broke into “warring states” in the late medieval age. Finally, in this volume’s last chapter—in a section titled “Getting the Word Out”—Ethan Segal asks how best to teach the estate system to undergraduates in American universities, and he critically examines the textbooks and other materials available for the task. The chapter xxxvi Introduction explores both the value and the problems of teaching about estates, often regarded as difficult even by Japan specialists. At the conference, Segal’s presentation on this subject generated a great deal of interest among the Japanese scholars attending, who saw the issue as a crucial concern in their own teaching of this important aspect of their own country’s history. Our intent is that this book prove helpful to professors who endeavor to teach estates—the history of the 99 percent—to their students, as well as to students themselves; to scholars conducting research on medieval Japanese history; and to those in other fields—premodern China and Korea, or medieval Europe, for example—seeking comparative materials for the phenomena they study. The volume might also be used as a handbook for those seeking information on various aspects of medieval society. With these goals in mind, we introduce a series of chapters dealing with the significant issues of land, power, and the sacred in medieval Japan.

A Note on Measurements In premodern Japan, the standard measure for land area was the chō, equivalent to about 2.94 acres until Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s cadastral survey in 1582. (In medieval times, however, the area of the chō varied according to geographical location.) A tan was one-tenth of a chō and a bu was 3.95 square yards. The common equivalent given for the koku, a measure of capacity, is 180 liters, but the measure seems not to have been standardized throughout the archipelago in medieval times, and the actual equivalent may be less.16 A to is one-tenth of a koku and a shō is one-one-hundredth of a koku. As for linear measurement, the shaku is almost equal to a foot.

A Note on Style and Translations The editors have decided to accept minor variations in style, including the way some personal and estate names are written and in the translation of some Japanese terms. It should be noted that some terms changed in meaning over time and others were broadly and imprecisely applied. For clarification, see the glossary. In the text, we have translated titles of Japanese works unless, as in some cases, the English ren- derings do not make much sense.

All maps and diagrams are by the authors unless otherwise indicated. Introduction xxxvii

Notes

1. In English, see Amino 2012, 65–78. 2. Some early estates, called shoki shōen by modern scholars, were established in the eighth century, but structurally, they were quite different from later estates. For details see Piggott, chapter 1. 3. Kiley 1974. 4. The terms myōshu and hyakushō resist easy translation and are variously rendered. I have chosen Jeffrey P. Mass’ translation of myōshu (1976, 204) and Philip Garrett’s translation of hyakushō (see his chapter in this volume). In some cases “cultivator” may be an appropriate term for hyakushō, but for an argu- ment against seeing hyakushō simply as cultivators, see Conlan 2003, 108–109, 112–114. 5. Kamakura 2008, 53–55; Conlan 2003, 116–121. 6. Kuroda 1976. For a discussion of Kuroda’s ideas in English, see Adolph- son 2000, 10–20. 7. Joan Piggott’s historical overview in this volume (chapter 1) covers many of these topics in more detail. 8. Nagahara 1975. 9. Ishii 1995a, 14. 10. Nagahara 1975, 295. 11. For example, Amino 2012, 65–78. 12. Endō 1933, 3–4; Tonomura 1992, 105; Gay 2001, 56–57. 13. OS 4. 14. Both forthcoming. 15. Brown and Ishida 1979. 16. See Farris 2006, 19–20, and the chapter by Michelle Damian in this volume. Index

Numbers in bold refer to figures, tables, and plates. agriculture: expansion of, 150–153, also Kobayakawa warrior family; 154–156, 187n.3; on Kuroda Nuta Estate Estate, 164–165; on Ōbe Estate, akutō (“evil bands”): dress of, 407, 415, 156–161. See also dry field 422n.25, 425n.67; identification agriculture; land opening, land of, 404–405, 406, 422n.18; as ikki, reclamation; rice production; 408, 423n.31; in the Mineaiki, wet field agriculture 406–408, 415, 419; Nagahara Akamatsu family: Akamatsu Mitsu Keiji on, 13, 405; as precursors of masa, 432, 433; Akamatsu ikki, 408, 423n.31; residences of, Norihisa appointed as governor 416, 416 of Harima, 435–436; assassina- —Ōbe Estate cases: first case (1295), tion of Ashikaga Yoshinori, 25, 411–416, 420–421; second case 374n.37, 431–432; conscription (1322), 416–419, 420–421; table of akutō involved in, in Harima Province established 417 —shogunate laws and edicts concern- by, 428; fortress at Kinoyama, ing, 422n.17, 426n.80; akutō 428; incorporation of the Ogawa used as a legal term, 412, 413, family into their administration, 419–421 429; management of Iwa Shrine, Amino Yoshihiko: on the estate 429; replaced by Yamana as strategy of the Saionji, 322, 325, governors of Harima, 432–435; 339–340; on the range of liveli- support for Tōdaiji’s recovery of hoods supported by estates, xxv, control over Ōbe Estate, 95, 102 xxx, 17, 385; on rent payments, Akanabe Estate, 30–31n.29, 186, 42–44 190–191n.47, 192n.68; silk pro- Arai Takashige, 191n.54, 244, 407 duction, 44 Arakawa Estate in Kii Province: attacks Akashi: as a fortification against akutō from Tanaka Estate and Yoshinaka in the Mineaiki, 407, 417; as one Estate, 306–308; challenges from of Akamatsu Mitsumasa’s hold- Taira followers, 293; dispossession ings, 433 and exile of its reeve, 383; Hachijō- Aki Province: opening of land desig- in’s management of, 305–308 nated as a hereditary township Asakawa, Kan’ichi, 9, 25n.83, in, 8; warlord families of, 15. See 29–30n.18, 138, 448–449,

517 518 Index

450, 453, 455–456n.28, in the development of, 45–46; 456nn.30–31 shift from local salt to cash at Ashikaga Yoshinori, assassination of, Yugeshima, 355 25, 374n.37, 431–432 Chen He-qing: and Ōbe Estate, 203, azukaridokoro. See custodians 235; restoration of the head of the Great Buddha at Tōdaiji, Banse Akemi, 284, 305 260; and Tōdaiji, 89, 235, bessho (autonomous temples): ambigu- 248–249 ous status of, 237; and hijiri, 209 Chikuzen Province: Kanzeonji in, 6; —Chōgen’s establishment of, 204, Munakata Shrine and Munakata 223–227, 272, 273n.1; examples Estate in, 332, 337, 338, 340, of (see Jōdoji Temple); five tiered 349n.61 “triangular” stupas erected Chōgen, Plate 1, Plate 17; arrival at at, 218, 229n.23; Iga Bessho, Ōbe Estate, 73; autobiography of 276n.41; images of Amida (see Namuamidabutsu sazenshū); enshrined at, 237, 258; Jōhan construction of Jōdoji (see under as heir to them, 244, 269; Kōya Jōdoji Temple); his legend- Shin, 250n.23, 257, 259; Wata- ary creation of Nigori Pond, nabe Bessho, 213, 221, 222, 75–76; as a kanjin hijiri, 198, 224–225, 237, 258, 259, 276n.49 202–203, 205, 270; management Bifukumon-in: commendation of of Ōbe Estate, 203–206, 231, Arakawa Estate to Kongōbuji, 234–237, 256–267; reconstruc- 306–307; as provincial proprietor tions at Sayama (see Sayama of Echizen, 307 Pond); reconstructions at Bingo Province: estates of (see Ōta Uozumi Anchorage (see Uozumi Estate in Bingo); salt shipments Anchorage); Shingon beliefs of, from, 358–359, 361, 363; shugo 218–219; Tōdaiji rebuilding by, (constable or military governor) xxix, 75, 87, 198, 202–203, 212, of, 15, 372 232, 253. See also Ōbe Estate— Bourdieu, Pierre, 346n.4 management by Chōgen Byōdōin temple in Uji, instituted prop- —Amidism of: “amidabutsu” appella- erties donated to support it, 23 tions associated with, 241, 244, —Phoenix Hall (Hōōdō) of: the 246, 271; and the concept of design of the Jōdoji Jōdodō com- kechien, 214–215; and the design pared with, 261–263, 275n.28; of the Jōdoji Jōdodō, 263; and as the manifestation of Amida’s the design of Jōdoji’s Amida Western Paradise on earth, 261; triad, 268, 270, 272; establish- mudra of Amida at, 266 ment of autonomous temples (see under bessho); and his cash commutation, 41–49; and the reconstruction of Sayama Pond, autarky of the estate system, 10, 219; public works projects, 212, 17; and Chinese money, 40–42, 226–228; “the secular” and “the 50–51, 55n.6; and the growth of sacred” not viewed as totally commercial crops, 48; and new different spheres by, xxxiv, 228, kinds of products, 48–49; pay- 272; and Shingon esotericism, ments for shipments from ports 218, 257 at Onomichi and Setoda, 359; commendation of estates: and aggres- role of commodity exchange sive tax collection in the late Index 519

eleventh century, 6; of Ara- dōshū (service monks): and Kakunin’s kawa Estate to Kongōbuji by takeover of Yanase, 181; and Bifukumon-in, 306–307; and the Tōdaiji’s organization, 199–200, expansion of the estate system, 200 8, 22; Ikadachi Estate’s com- dry field agriculture: and agricul- mendation to Mudōji, 313n.27; tural productivity, 154, 158; instituted estates compared irrigation ponds and channels with, 35–36n.87; institution of for, 154–156; management by Ōbe Estate distinguished from, cultivators, 149–150; opening of xxxi; Kanokogi Estate in Higo fields in Hisatomi Township by Province, 6, 8–9; of Ōta Estate Hata no Tametoki, 151–152, 153, to Kōyasan by Go-Shirakawa, 12; 154–155; and “paddy-centric” his- transformation of commended toriography, xxxiii, 143, 145, 148 fields into temple estates at Kanzeonji, 6 Ebisawa Tadashi, 44 commercial crops: lack of written Echizen Province: Asakura warlords documents regarding, 49–50; in, 15; Chimori Estate in, 21; and the spread of cash commuta- Ippon Royal Grant Fields in, 307; tion, 48. See also rice shipping Kuwabara Estate in, 5; labor and custodians (azukaridokoro): on Ara- production in, 144; Ushigahara kawa Estate, 306; definition of, Estate in, 24, 29–30n.18, 35n.83 xxx, 315n.70, 443; duties of, 92, Enkyōji Temple on Mount Shosha, 293, 302, 315n.70; Fujiwara no 416, 429 Teika as, 308; on Hine Estate, estate managers. See geshi, gesu 107, 111; income of, 284; on estates (shōen): and the broader socio- Kuroda Estate, 192n.66; on political order, xxx, 283; of noble Kuroda New Estate, 200–201; on and religious overlords as epi- Munakata Estate, 337; on Nate centers of unrest, 430–431; and Estate, 381; on Nuta Estate, shared rights to income from 348n.41; on Ōbe Estate, 256, the land (shiki), xxvii, 283–284; 428; on Ōta Estate, 8, 284, 354; social and economic roles, xxv, Ōuchi family as, 369, 370, 371; xxx; spatial power of, 323–324; as rent collectors, 32n.50; tem- ties between social levels created ple monks as, 199; on Wakayama by, xxv, xxx, 35n.84. See also com- Estate, 302, 308 mendation of estates; instituted estates; supreme proprietors Daidenbōin, 397, 402n.67 —early estates (shoki shōen): Chimori daikan: as agents or proxies, 43, 89, Estate in Echizen, 21; failure of, 100, 409, 417, 428; as contrac- 5, 21, 34n.72; institution of, 20, tors, 15, 25, 32n.50, 95, 100, 113 21; structure of, xxxviin.2 documentary records: lack of written —management of. See proprietors records regarding commercial (ryōke); supreme proprietors crops, 49–50; pronouncements (honke). See also commendation concerning disputes, 441; regard- of estates; instituted estates ing Ōbe Estate, 90–92, 93, 96; —and the official land system (shōen- Tōdaiji monjo collection, 81, 101, kōryōsei ), xxviii, 8 412, 425n.76; types and features —as a template for merchant and of, 81–84 artisan guilds, xxx 520 Index

Fujiwara Yorimichi: on the manage- Go-Shirakawa Tennō: commenda- ment of estates, 22; as the patron tion of Ōta Estate to Kōyasan, of Byōdōin temple in Uji, 23, 12; favorable treatment of 262; and the reign of Go-Reizei Tōdaiji, 181–184; house arrest Tennō, 191n.55 by Kiyomori, 308; Kuroda Estate Fukuda Township (ho), 416, 435 expansion recognized by, 186; Funaki Estate: location of, 286, 289, mother of (see Taikenmon-in); 290, 312n.22; shipbuilding asso- Ōbe Estate income donated ciated with, 290; Upper Kamo to Chen He-qing, 203, 235; Shrine, 291, 313n.30 orders related to Upper Kamo Shrine, 313n.30; as proprietor of gakuryo (scholar monks): Shōgen, 200– Yugeshima Estate, 353–354; sister 201; and Tōdaiji’s Kuroda cul- of (see Jōsaimon-in); as supreme tivators, 182, 183; and Tōdaiji’s proprietor of Ōta Estate, 8, organization, 199–200, 200 354; victory of his faction in the Genpei civil war: allegiance of the Hōgen coup, 181 Matsuura League during, Go-Toba Tennō, 248, 276n.49, 331; 349n.75; fundamental causes of, consort Shumeimon-in, 337; and 24–25, 197; lawsuits related to, the dismissal of Chen He-qing, 390; reconstructions by Chōgen 89; Jōdodō designated as a royal following, 75, 87, 212, 232 prayer chapel, 238; and the geshi, gesu (estate managers), 13, 107, management of Tōnan’in, 89; 175, 254, 381; the Nakahara as, Minase Palace of, 350n.90; and 111, 139n.6; Narisuke’s illegal Ōbe Estate, 89; and the victory holding of the title of, 306. See of Kamakura forces in the Jōkyū also shōkan War (1221), 10 gō (townships) and ho (new town- Goffman, Erving, 323 ships): and the expansion of the Gomi Fumihiko, 19, 284, 305, 316n.84, estate system, 8, 153–156; hitosato 329, 347n.30 or murazato as proper terms for medieval gō, 221; individual Hachijō-in: and Arakawa Estate, examples of (see Fukuda Town- 306–308; donation of an estate ship; Hisatomi New Township; to support nenbutsu practitioners, Koinumaru Township; Suchi 225; estates of, 295, 298 (see also Township) Arakawa Estate in Kii Province); Go-Daigo Tennō: court-in-exile at maritime trade networks of, 75, Yoshino, xx, 95, 108; estates 298–300; and Prince Mochihito’s donated to Tōji, 17; Kenmu rebellion, 281, 312n.4; properties Restoration attempted by, xx, in the capital of, 295, 296 xxxv, 13; and landholdings of the Hachiman shrines (Hachimangū): Saionji family, 326–327 Iwashimizu Hachiman Shrine, Go-Fushimi Tennō, edict pertaining to 48, 379, 380, 397, 400n.15, treason, 418 402n.66; Jōdoji Hachiman Go-Murakami Tennō, 396 Shrine, 77; Tōdaiji Hachiman Go-Saga Tennō: ivory baton presented Shrine (see under Tōdaiji); Yusu- to, 333; ox presented to, 343 hara Hachiman Shrine, 339 Go-Sanjō Tennō, failed effort to stop Hall, John Whitney, 450–451, 456n.31, the proliferation of estates, 446 456n.33 Index 521 hanzei (half-tax) system, 13–14, 25, 114, —Iriyamada Village: and Hine Estate 352–353, 441–442 village structure, 133–134; Harima Province, 416; estates of (see structural changes during the Hirano Estate; Ōbe Estate; Yano Muromachi and Warring States Estate); military governors of periods, 109–110 (see Akamatsu family; Hoso- —Tsuchimaru Village: archaeological kawa family; Yamana family); sites in, 115–116, 119, 123–125, Tendai complex establishments 127–128, 137; community of, on, 416, 429. See also Uozumi 109, 136; location of, 126, 127, Anchorage 130–131, Plate 12; mountain Harrington, Lorraine, 405, 426n.80 fortifications, 108, 112, 119, 124, Haruta Naoki, 144 126, 131; rice paddy landscape Hashimoto Masataka, 108, 112, 119, of, 132–133, Plate 12 124 Hirano Estate, 417, 418, 419–420, Hashimoto Michinori, 156 425nn.75–76 Higo Province, Kanokogi Estate, 6, 8–9 Hirata Tenshu, 303 hijiri (unofficial religious practi Hisatomi New Township (gō ), 151–152, tioners): Chōgen as a kanjin 153, 154–155, 191–192n.57 hijiri, 198, 202–203, 205, 270; historiography: on akutō, 405–406; cremation specialists (sanmai and English readers, 28, 36n.89, hijiri), 119; estate management 444–448; Kamakura Saho’s by, xxxiv, 203, 205–206; kanjin overview of current research on hijiri activities, 202, 254, 255 estates, 27–28, 36n.88; “medi- Hikoyoshi Mieko, 312n.4 eval” (chūsei ) applied to Japanese Hine Estate, Plate 8; chronology of, history, 448, 455n.23; “paddy- 111–115; Izumi military gov- centric” views of medieval society ernors and, 16, 108, 109, 113, and economy, xxxiii, 143–145, 114, 122, 130, 132, 134–135, 148; reassessment of the activities 136, 139n.7; Kujō Masamoto’s of yeomen, 385. See also Shōen residence at, 110; Ōgi District of, History Research Group 125–126, 126; self-government of Hōgen coup: abbot Jien on, 194n.97; villages during the Muromachi victory of Go-Shirakawa’s faction period, 133–134; terraced rice in, 181 fields on, 132–133, Plate 11 Hōjōji Temple: Kitayama villa built —archaeological sites: list of, 116–122, by Saionji Kintsune compared 127; as National Historic Sites, with, 347n.40; as the propri- 115–116; types of, 123–125, etor of Yoshinaka Estate, 306; 127–128 Tachibana no Tomonobu’s —Chōfukuji: Kujō Masamoto’s residence repairs of, 331 at, 118, 125, 130; as a National Hosokawa family: Izumi Province mili- Historic Site, 123, 125, 128 tary governors from, 108–109, —Hineno Village, 129, Plate 9, Plate 113, 114; as kanrei (deputy sho- 13; Hine Shrine (Ōizeki Shrine), guns), 360, 434; as military gov- 126–127; Masamoto’s manage- ernors of Awa Province, 372; as ment of, 110; Negoroji’s manage- military governors of Bizen Prov- ment of, 110–111; Yugawa Canal, ince, 371; as military governors 120, 123, 127, 131, 135, 136, 136, of Harima Province, 15, 430, 433; 155, Plate 14 as military governors of Sanuki 522 Index

Province, 361, 368, 369, 370, 372; illegal behavior of his retainer ports affiliated with, 368 Narisuke, 306; Kōfukuji fire set Hurst, G. Cameron, 35n.84 by, 197; Tōdaiji fire set by, 186, hyakushō. See yeomanry 197 Hyōgo checkpoint: registers of goods, Ishida Hisatoyo, 218 46–47, 48, 356–363. See also rice Ishimoda Shō, 3, 164–165, 187 shipping; salt shipping Itabae Soma (Forest), 166, 171, 188n.12 Iga Province: estates of. See Kuroda Iwashimizu Hachimangū: Ōga Estate Estate. See also Nabari District invaded by, 402n.66; Ōyamazaki Ikadachi Estate: and Hiei temples jinin affiliated with, 48; Suda and shrines, 290–291; location Estate of, 23, 379, 397; Tomobu- of, 286, 289, 290, 312n.22; and chi Estate of, 379, 380, 400n.15 Mudōji on Mount Hiei, 290–291, Iyo Province: estates of (see Uwa Estate; 313n.27; shipbuilding associated Yuge Estate; Yugeshima Estate). with, 290 See also Saionji family; Yuge port ikki (leagues): akutō as precursors of, in Iyo Province 408, 423n.31; debt relief move- Izumi Province, estates of. See Hine ments mobilized by, 430–431 Estate indigo, 46, 48, 53, 56n.29, 357; Kujō Indigo Guild, 49, 57n.35 Jigen-in, 120, 123, 127 instituted estates (risshō ): in the era of Jingoji Temple: “Mongaku-i” irrigation retired monarch Shirakawa, 24, system of, 155, 162n.24. See also 35–36n.87; example of Kanakogi Kaseda Estate in Kii Province Estate, 8–9; example of Suda Jōdoji Temple (Harima Bessho): Estate in Kii Province, 23; fiscal agricultural expansion centered and ideological contradiction for on, 157, 160–161; Amida triad court government, 35–36n.87; (see under Kaikei); artifacts from Kawabata Shin on, 35n.80, Kiyotani associated with, 74; 35–36n.87 “bare torso” Amida Nyorai by Inui Naoko, 347n.21 Kaikei, 269, Plate 22; building iron production, 46, 47; and goods site, 67; Chōgen’s founding of shipped on Onomichi boats to it on Ōbe Estate, 213, 236–239, Hyōgo, 367; and rent payments, 254, 256, 258–259; construction 42, 44; skill required for, 43 of, 237, Plate 18; documenta- Ise Taira family: control of Echizen, tion of a dispute involving, 90, 307; dominance at court of, 24, 93; Edo-period illustration of, 186; and the Genpei civil war, 24; Plate 6; and Hachijō-in, 225; Jōsaimon-in’s ties to, 292–293; Kan’amidabutsu’s grave, 66; Minamoto defeat of, 10; Taira no main image from Kōdo ruined Jishi (Kenshunmon-in), 292–293 temple installed in Yakushi Hall —Taira no Kiyomori: clash with forces at, 72–73, 259; masks by Kai- of Minamoto Yoritomo (see Gen- kei and others, 269, Plate 23; pei civil war); daughter Tokushi ruins of subtemples of, 66, 74; (Kenreimon-in), 308; trade con- sculptures at, 258; temple ruins ducted by, 333–334, 349n.60 nearby, 236, Plate 5 —Taira Shigehira: as custodian (azu- —Jōdodō, Plate 18; Chōgen’s estab- karidokoro) of Ōta Estate, 8, 284; lishment of, 204, 237, 273n.12; Index 523

designation as a royal prayer cha- denced by inscriptions, 270–271; pel, 238; as example of daibutsuyō as a raigō Amida triad, 264, 266, style, 260; interior design, 259– 268, 269, 270, 272, 276n.44; 261; and the religious needs of raigō triad at Kōdaiin compared local estate residents, 205–206, with, 266, 267, 268; Saihōji 260 Amida triad compared with, 268, —organization: and the management 276n.44, Plate 21; visual effects of Tōdaiji’s estates, 202–203; of, 239, 263–264 monks’ cottage ruins, 67, 74, Kamakura judicial system: akutō related Plate 6 cases on Ōbe Estate (see under Jōhan (Gan’amidabutsu): as Chōgen’s akutō); and disorder caused heir, 203–205, 225, 229n.5, 236, by the Genpei civil war, 390; 244, 259; and the Shōbō lineage overview of how cases advanced of Daigoji, 213, 236 through the system, 410–411 Jōsaimon-in: as a Kamo priestess, 291; —monchū (judicial hearings), 409, officials in service to, 314n.38; 410–411, 423n.38; and the parents (see also Taikenmon-in; Nate-Niunoya dispute, 389–390, Toba Tennō/In) 400n.30 —estates of: locations of, 287, 288, 289; Kamakura Saho, 22, 27–28, 36n.88 in Ōmi Province, 289, 290; strate- Kan’amidabutsu (Kan’a, Kan Amida- gic access to trade and trans- butsu): amidabutsu suffix of his portation circuits of, 286–287, name, 244, 271; and Chōgen’s 292–295; in Yamashiro Province, development of Ōbe Estate, 233, 288, 290–291. See also Funaki 236, 238–239, 256; grave of, 66 Estate; Ikadachi Estate Kan’ei tsūho coins, 40, 53–54 judicial system: akutō -related cases on Karikome Hitoshi, 237–238, 247, 271 Ōbe Estate (see under akutō ); Kaseda Estate in Kii Province: attack documentation of pronounce- on Kokawadera, 396; disputes ments concerning disputes, 441; with Shizukawa Estate, 380, 397; tōchigyō (long-term land man- Jingoji as its proprietor, 155; agement claims), 419. See also location of, 388, 398 Kamakura judicial system Katsumata Shizuo, 49–50 Kawabata Shin, 34n.74, 35n.80, Kaikei: amidabutsu suffix of, 244; 35–36n.87, 156, 234, 238, 239 Amida triad at Shin-Daibutsuji, Kawachi Province: Amida Nyorai at 263, 268, Plate 20; “bare torso” Kannonji, 254; Jōsaimon-in’s Amida Nyorai at Jōdoji by, 254, estates in, 292; metal cast- 259, 269, Plate 22; masks at ers from, 216, 217, 224, 242; Jōdoji Temple, 269, Plate 23 Saionji family landhholdings —Amida triad at Jōdoji Temple, 237, in, 326; and Sayama Pond, 215, 258, 265, 268, 273–274n.14, 216, 242 Plate 16; Amida triad by Unkei at Keirstead, Thomas E., 448, 451–452, Jōrakuji compared with, 266; and 453, 454n.1, 455n.23, 456n.37 Chōgen’s Amidist beliefs, 268, kenmon (“gates of power”) theory of 270, 272; Goryeo-era Korean Kuroda Toshio, xxvii, 18–19, Amida iconography compared 33n.63, 322, 378, 457 with, 268, 276n.45; iconography Kenshunmon-in, as Taira no Kiyomo- of, 269, 272; local support evi- ri’s sister-in-law, 292–293 524 Index

Kii Province: map of, Plate 29; control over, 394, 401n.57. See partitioning of Minabe Estate, also Uno Minamoto 401n.49; shugo (military gover- Kongōfukuji, sacred and secular roles nors) of, 377, 391; Suda Estate of, 255 in, 23, 397; upper Kinokawa Kōyasan. See Mount Kōya valley of, 398; yeoman activity Kuboki, Kuboki Village: grave complex in, 385. See also Jingoji Temple; on the middle terrace of Ōbe Kaseda Estate in Kii Province; Estate, 64; location of, 416; Nate-Niunoya dispute Shirai Hachirō (land steward of), Kiley, Cornelius J., xxv, 35n.84, 391 416–417, 417 Kimura Shigemitsu, xxxiii, 25, Kudō Keiichi, 34n.66, 180–181 28–29n.5, 165, 174, 187n.3, 190– Kujō house, estates of. See Hine Estate 191n.47, 449; on Ikeda Estate in —Masamoto, 114–115; Hineno and Tōtōmi, 26, 35n.85 Iriyamade delegated to Negoroji, Kiyomori. See under Ise Taira family 109; posthumous name Jigen- Kiyotani archaeological site, location in, 120; residence at Chōfukuji, on Ōbe Estate, , 73–74 65 118, 125, 130; residence at Hine Kobayakawa warrior family, 15; as Estate, 16, 110 military stewards of Nuta Estate, —as one of the one of the five 340, 359 branches of the regents’ (sesshō ) Kōdoji Temple: abandoned temple family, 105 ruins of, 64, 72–73; main image Kujō Indigo Guild, 49, 57n.35 from installed in Yakushi Hall at kumon (reeve, registrar): on Hine Jōdoji by Chōgen, 73, 259; model Estate, 107, 111, 217; on Kuroda of, Plate 5 Estate, 175; on Mount Kōya Koinumaru Township (ho) in Harima holdings, 400n.15, 401n.59; on Province, 149, 154 Kōkamon-in: independence of, 310– Nagataki Estate, 111, 139n.6; on 311; nyoin status of, 297; proper- Nate Estate, 381, 382–383, 384, 395 ties of, 296, 297, 299, 310 Kokawa(dera) Estate, border with Nate —on Ōbe Estate: akutō violations of Estate along the River Minase, fields belonging to, 416, 418, 381, 385, 388, 395 426n.78; documents regard- Kongōbuji of Mount Kōya: annexing of ing, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96; as estate Ōga and Shibuta, 402n.67; and managers, 103n.8, 415; monks Arakawa Estate, 306–307, 308, as, 97; Ō family as, 91, 93, 94, 400n.15; expansion of its estate 101–102, 246, 249, 271, 427, 436; holdings, 379, 399n.2; holdings in a quarrel with Jōdoji monks, of, xxx; participation in provin- 249; Toyofuku family appointed cial disputes, 379–382, 392–393, as, 95, 436; as warriors, 101–102, 395–396, 398–399; Raisen of 428, 436 Renjōin as the administrator of, Kuroda Akinobu, 50–51 400n.17; Renjōin (subtemple Kuroda Estate: commending process of), 394–395. See also Nate Estate of Kanzeonji compared with, 6; in Kii Province; Nate-Niunoya development in Nabari District, dispute; Shizukawa Estate 171–173, 184–185; Ishimoda —and local warrior elite: connections Shō’s seminal work on it, 3, with, 393–395, 398–399; warrior 164–165, 187; kyōdōtai communi- Index 525

ties formed on, 244; location of, in Kii, 382, 385, 387, 389, 390, 167 392; on Ōbe Estate, 427; on Kuroda Hideo, 187n.3, 190–191n.47, Ōyama Estate, 31n.35, 32n.53; 191n.50, 193n.79; on looking at Ōyama Kyōhei on, 31n.33; as old estate maps, 18, 26 rent collectors, 146; and the Kuroda Toshio: on akutō, 405, 407; on Saionji, 340; as silk producers, the decline of courtier authority, 44; and the stabilization of the 346n.6; definition of the estate as estate system, 12, 19, 25, 26; on a stratified structure, 9, 34n.66; Tachibana Estate, 370; textbook kenmon (“gates of power”; “influ- discussions of, 447; and Tōdaiji ence/authority”) theory of, xxvii, reconstruction, 242; on Yanai 18–19, 33n.63, 322, 378, 457 Estate, 371 military stewards’ contracts ( jitō uke- land opening, land reclamation: and sho), 11 agricultural expansion, 150–153; military stewards’ deputies ( jitōdai ): and agricultural technology, 25; at Niunoya in Kii, 382, 385, 387; and Chōgen, 75–76, 212, 213, and Ōbe Estate, 90, 93 221, 222–223, 228, 238–239, Minamiyama grave complex, 72 243, 247, 253, 256, 257, 270, Minamoto no Yoshiharu. See under Uno 271; and classical estates, 21; Minamoto and dry fields, 191n.52, 191n.57; Minase (river), 381, 384, 386–387, 388, on Hine Estate, 107, 109, 112, 389, 390, 391, 395–396 139n.13, 139n.15; and iron tools, Minase Palace: Go-Toba’s fondness for, 191n.49; and irrigation, 154–156; 350n.90; and the Saionji family’s on Kuroda Estate, 168, 173, network of trade and transporta- 175, 183, 185; by local elites, 24, tion, 344 35n.85; methods of, 155; and Mineaiki: akutō in, 403, 406–408, 415, warriors, 19 418, 419; authorship and dating of, 406; fortifications against Mass, Jeffrey P., 187n.5, 451, 453 akutō at Akashi and Nagaishi, Matsubara Estate in Harima Province, 407, 417 340 misshū monks (esoteric monks), at Matsuura League, 339, 349n.75 Tōdaiji, 199, 200 Meigetsuki, 335, 350n.90 Miyoshi Nagahira, as a house manager metal casters in Kawachi Province, 216, for Saionji Kintsune, 330 217, 224, 242 monetary history of premodern Japan, military stewards ( jitō ): and akutō, 37–41. See also cash commutation 416–417, 419; confiscation of Mongols: estate system endangered by, their rights, 13; conflict with 12–13; as kyōto, 405; prayers for proprietors, 26, 93; and control the defeat of, 255; Yuan mon- over estates, 11–12; and criminal etary policies of, 42 matters, 408; cruelty to cultiva- monks: types of (see dōshū; gakuryo; tors, 31n.31; as estate overseers misshū monks; ritsu monks). See on behalf of the Kamakura sho- also hijiri gunate, xxvii, 10; on Hine Estate, Morita Hayato, 24–25, 35n.84 107, 111, 113; Kamakura house- Moriuchi Shuzo, 301–302 men as, 19; Kobayakawa family Mount Hiei—Tendai complex: as, 340, 350n.79, 370; at Niunoya abbot Jien on the Hōgen coup, 526 Index

194n.97; contract deputies from, Nabari District: in ritsuryō times, 32n.50; Mudōji’s relationship 165–166; wet field agriculture with Ikadachi Estate, 290–291, at, 168–171, 174. See also Kuroda 313n.27 Estate; Yagawa; Yagawa Estate Mount Kōya (Kōyasan): location Nagahara Keiji: on akutō, 13, 405; of, 388, Plate 29. See also on arable land in Heian times, Daidenbōin; Kongōbuji of 187n.3; on estate structure and Mount Kōya; Uno Minamoto history, 4–16, 26–27, 283–284; movement of goods and people, 17; on Fujiwara no Teika, 322, 325; and the demise of cash commuta- Genpei civil war viewed as a tion, 50–54; geographic informa- movement of provincial land- tion system (GIS) analysis of, 357, opening elites by, 10, 24; on 374n.36; maritime trade networks military stewards, 11, 12; on the of Hachijō-in and Kōkamon-in, shōen-kokugaryō system, xxviii; on 295–300; and the relationship silk production, 43; three-stage between nyoin power and estate model of estate development, locations, 295; and Suzuyaki pro- 5, 20 duction, 300–305; water transport Nakahara (later called the Hineno) network built by the Hōjō sho- family, as estate managers, 111, gunal regents, 10. See also Hyōgo 112, 139n.6 checkpoint; indigo; iron produc- Nakahara Yorisada, transference of his tion; rice shipping; salt shipping; inherited rights to Shigetomo vertical estate structure Village, 153 Muromachi shogunate, xxxv; conflict Namuamidabutsu sazenshū (The Good in Harima Province, 95, 112; Deeds of Namuamidabutsu): on and lawsuits filed by temples, austerities Chōgen performed 206–207; Nishi Hachijō legal in his youth, 198; on bessho, 237; complaint, 49; tōchigyō (long- concept of kechien in, 245; on the term land occupation claims) construction of Nagaodera, 76; during, 419; villages on Hine dating of, 213–214, 229n.7, 237, Estate during (see Hine Estate). 246; evidence of Chōgen’s activi- See also Hashimoto Masataka ties recorded in, 213–215, 216, —Nanbokuchō period of, 436n.1; 218, 219, 226–228; on images of involvement of military gover- Amida enshrined at bessho, 237 nors in shrine and temple hold- Nate Estate in Kii Province: border ings during, 428–430. See also with the Kokawa Estate along Ogawa family the River Minase, 381, 384, 388, myō, myōden (named fields): definition 395; conflict with Kokawadera, of, xxvii, 55n.15, 175, 210n.8; 379; dispute with Niunoya Vil- development of, 11, 34n.67; lage (see Nate-Niunoya dispute); rents from, 10, 44, 95, 96, 97, 201 Kongōbuji’s administration of, myōshu (named field holders): added 398–399, 401n.59, 401–402n.61 rent and, 14, 19; definition of, Nate-Niunoya dispute: class and xxvii, xxxviin.4, 443; duties of, regional tensions exposed by, 10, 11; landholdings of, 451; and 377, 382–387; disputed area of Muromachi-period military lead- Mount Shiio, 383–387, 388, 389, ers, 433; sources on, 454n.4; as 390; and Kongōbuji’s involve- temple donors, 247, 271 ment, 380–381, 395–396; monchū Index 527

(judicial hearings), 389–390, Kuboki; Minamiyama grave com- 400n.30; social and political ten- plex; Takada grave complex); sions underpinning the balance Tōdaiji’s institution of, xxxi of power in northern Kii, 377– —management by Chōgen: Jōhan 378, 396–399; and water rights, (Gan’amidabutsu) chosen as his 377, 382–383, 384, 386–387, 389, successor, 203–205, 225, 229n.5, 390, 391, 396 236, 244; reorganization of culti- (New) Nuta Estate in Aki Province, vation efforts on the terraces of, Kobayakawa warrior family as 234; restoration of, xxix, 87 stewards of, 340, 359 —management by the Ordination Niimi Estate of Bitchū Province: Platform–Oil Storehouse, 95, 96; Hosokawa Katsumoto’s confisca- shared rights to income during tion of, 15; villages (see Yoshino the Muromachi period, 101–102 Village) —management—documentary Nishiyama Ryōhei, 189n.24 records, types and features of, Niunoya family, border dispute with 81–84 Nate. See Nate-Niunoya dispute —Nigori Pond, 238, Plate 7; Chōgen’s Noguchi Hanayo, 285 legendary creation of it, 75–76 Noguchi Minoru, 297, 299 —Ō family as reeves of, 91, 93, 94, Nuta Estate in Aki Province, 328; 101–102, 246, 249, 271, 427, 436 Saionji control of, 331–332, —Ōji area: grave complex, 64, 72, 76; 340–341, 348n.41 Ōji Shiro-no-shita settlement, nyoin: changing criteria for, 283; honke 69–70, 69; Ōji Tsuji-no-uchi shiki (supreme proprietorship) settlement, 70; Yayoi pottery held by, 283–284; political and from Ōji Shiro-no-shita, 79 economic power of, 284–285. —Ōzuka mounded tomb: location on See also Hachijō-in; Jōsaimon-in; Ōbe Estate, 63–64, 64; tumulus Kōkamon-in period artifacts unearthed from, 71–72, 71 Ōbe Estate: cases of akutō on (see under —terraces: Chōgen’s reorganization akutō [“evil bands”]); location in of cultivation efforts on, 234; Harima Province, 62, 231, 416; growth of settlements on, 76–77; ties with the warrior establish- maps of, Plate 2, Plate 3, Plate ment, 427 4; overview of three levels of, —agricultural conditions at: cultiva- 62–67; Tera-yu (“Temple Canal”) tion in the Nanbokuchō period, running through the lower ter- 158, 159; irrigation practices, race of, 222 156–161, 159 Ōga Estate, 397, 398, 402n.66, 402n.67 —lands of: boundaries of, 62–63, 68; Ogawa family, 429 Kamakura-period archaeological Ogawa Hirokazu, 190n.37 sites, Plate 4; modern districts Ōi Estate, 30–31n.29, 186, 192n.68 of, 77–78n.6; pre-Kamakura Ōi family, management of Iwa Shrine, archaeological sites, Plate 3; sites 429 within its territory that post- Ōnin War, 15, 25, 114, 370, 371, 436; date its founding (see Kiyotani Kyoto’s destruction during, 16; archaeological site); sites within rivalry between warrior families its territory that predate its estab- as the seeds of, 434 lishment (see Kōdoji Temple; Ono Takashi, 22 528 Index

Ōta Estate in Bingo: Bingo constable’s 5; grain used to fill obligations, control over, 15; commendation 42, 52, 140n.19; in iron, 44; lists to Kōyasan by Go-Shirakawa, 12; of rent payers (nayosechō), 84; institution of, 8; Onomichi as payments in cash, 10, 41–42, 51; the “warehouse” port for, 352, in salt at Yugeshima Estate, 353, 353–355, 359–360, 365–366, 354, 364; variety of goods used 367, Plates 25–28; provincial to fill obligations, 42–43, 52. See constable’s control over, 15; rent also Ōbe Estate—management payment delays, 364, 365–367 by the Ordination Platform–Oil Oxenboell, Morten, 406, 408, 415, 419, Storehouse 422n.25, 426n.80 rice production: and the annual labor Ōyama Estate of Tanba Province, pro- cycle of medieval fishing villages, tests at, 15 144; and rent payments, 42–43 Ōyama Kyōhei: on the financial inde- rice shipping: and the Hyōgo check- pendence of bessho, 237; on mili- point, 357, 374n.32, Plate 27, tary stewards, 31n.33; Ōbe Estate Plate 28; “Sanuki rice,” 357, 361, Survey Committee headed by, 62; 374n.32; and Uozumi Anchor- research on Nishidai Village, 46 age, 241 Ōzu Estate in Kii Province, location of, risshō. See instituted estates 388, 398 ritsu monks (risshū, world-renouncing ascetics): at Tōdaiji, 199, 200, pirates: akutō as, 417; as a problematic 202. See also Tōdaiji—Ordination term, 374n.33; encounters with Platform (Kaidan’in) used as an excuse for not paying royal family: genealogy, 282; royal rents, 364; Fujiwara no Sumi- grant fields (chokushiden), 21, tomo, 339, 349n.72; Uwa and 307; tennō (Heavenly Sovereigns) Uno as bases for, 339–340; wakō (see Go-Daigo Tennō; Go-Fushimi stronghold of Zhangzhou, 50 Tennō; Go-Murakami Tennō; proprietors (ryōke): Saionji as, 325; Go-Saga Tennō; Go-Sanjō Tennō; and the vertical estate structure, Go-Shirakawa Tennō; Go-Toba xxvii, 4. See also supreme propri- Tennō; Toba Tennō/In). See also etors; vertical estate structure vow temples —royal ladies: royal grant fields Raisen of Renjōin: as the adminis- donated by daughters of Kanmu trator of Kongōbuji of Mount Tennō, 21. See also Bifukumon- Kōya, 400n.17; identified as in; Hachijō-in; Jōsaimon-in; Renjōin Sōsenbō, 401n.59; and Kenshunmon-in; Kōkamon-in; Kongōbuji’s administration of nyoin; Taikenmon-in Nate, 401n.57 Ryō Susumu, 330 reeves. See kumon rent payments: “added rent” (kaji- sacred and secular integration: and shi ), 14, 171; and agricultural Chōgen’s Amidism, xxxiv, 272; productivity, xxxiii, 154, 158; and Chōgen’s public works collection by custodians (azu- projects, 212, 226–228; and karidokoro), 32n.50; collection Chōgen’s restoration of Ōbe by Zen monks, 32n.50; and Estate, 231–232, 235–236, 242, “cooking the books,” 49–50; 243–245; and Chōgen’s restora- and early estates (shoki shōen), tion of Sayama Pond (see Sayama Index 529

Pond); and estates, 206–207, communities evidenced by, 255–256, 272, 458; involvement 219–221, 241–242; stone plaque of military governors in shrine inscription detailing his efforts, and temple holdings, 429–430; at xxix–xxx, 217, 241–242, Plate 15; Kongōfukuji, 255; and the prac- Uozumi project compared with, tice of “imprisoning a name,” 241–243 207–209. See also Sayama Pond; Sayama Pond Museum, 229n.10 Uozumi Anchorage Shapinsky, Peter D., 374 Saionji family: landholdings, 324, Shibuta Estate, 397, 402n.67 326–328, 329–330; as ryōke for shiki (rights to income, officerships): royal estates, 325; spatial power Chōgen’s willing of proprietor’s of, 335, 339–345 rights (ryōke shiki ) to Tōnan’in, Saionji Kintsune: Kitayama villa built 88; and estate diversity, 34n.74; by, 319–320, 345, 347n.40; increased complexity of, 25, 28; Makishima villa built by, 342, and the Ise Taira, 24; military 350n.83; power and influence of, stewardships ( jitō shiki ), 10, 321, 329; Uwa Estate controlled 11–12; and the structure of by, 329–330, 338–339 estates, xxv, 4, 5, 8, 9, 18, 26, salt production: and the annual labor 283–284, 457; weakening of, 14, cycle of medieval fishing villages, 15–16, 19, 34n.66, 352, 368. See 144; and estates, 5, 10; and rent also vertical estate structure payments, 42; skill required for, 43 Shimizu Ryō, 25, 374n.37 salt shipping, 358–361, 363, 367; and Shin-Daibutsuji Amida triad, 263, 268; the Hyōgo checkpoint, 46–47, head of Amida, Plate 20 358–359, 360, 367, 367; Plate 25, Shinsarugakuki (New monkey music) by Plate 26 Fujiwara Akihira, 191n.48, 334, sangō (Tōdaiji’s monastic council; 443; description of an agricul- three deans), 172, 199, 204, 411 tural specialist in, 173 Sanuki Province: and salt shipping, Shirakawa Tennō: instituted estates 360–361; and “Sanuki rice,” 357, during the time of, 24, 374n.32 35–36n.87; and Tōdaiji, 178 Sanzen’in Temple Amida triad, 266, Shizukawa Estate: attack on Plate 19 Kokawadera, 396; disputes with Sasaki Ginya, 34n.66 Kaseda Estate, 380, 397; location Sato, Elizabeth, 30–31n.29 of, 388, 398 Satō Kazuhiko, 405, 407 Shōen History Research Group: call Satō Makoto and Gomi Fumihiko, for clearer historicity by, 27; 33n.64 estate development traced Satō Shin’ichi, 34n.65 through five stages, 20–27; Satō Yuki and Itō Rumi, 25 Handbook for Research in Shōen His- Sayama Pond: construction and tory (Shōenshi kenkyū handobukku) repairs of, 215; discovery of edited by, 4, 20 Chōgen’s plaque in it, 215; vil- shōkan (estate management staff): defi- lages drawing irrigation water nition of, 443; eleventh-century from, 219–220, 220 organization of, 23; at Kuroda, —Chōgen’s restoration of: and the 175; and production of non-rice centrality of his Shingon beliefs, agricultural goods, 43. See also 219; his relationship with local geshi, gesu; kumon 530 Index

Shōken (Nyoamidabutsu): as Chōgen’s Suzuyaki ware: emulation of lacquer- initial choice as heir to the man- ware, 303; pot excavated from agement rights of Ōbe and other the remains of Prince Mochi- Tōdaiji estates, 203–204, 205, hito’s residence, 303, 316n.73; 229n.5; and the Shōbō lineage of production on Wakayama Estate, Daigoji, 203, 236 300–305 shugo (constables, military governors), 15, 95, 102; and Akamatsu- Tabata Yasuko, 18–19, 34n.67 Yamana rivalry, 435–436; and Tai Estate in Awa Province, 340 criminal matters, 408; docu- Taikenmon-in: children of (see Go- ments regarding, 99; dues owed Shirakawa Tennō; Jōsaimon-in); to, 428; estate management by, as consort of Go-Toba Tennō, 14, 31n.44; in Harima Province 24; lumber for building Kasuga (see Akamatsu family; Hosokawa Shrine supported by, 193n.81; family; Yamana family); increased royal vow temple supported by, authority of, 12; Izumi Province 24 military governors and Hine Taira family. See Ise Taira family Estate, 16, 108, 109, 113, 114, Takada grave complex, 64, 68–69 122, 130, 132, 134–135, 136, Takahashi Hiroaki, 189n.19, 189n.25 139n.7; in Kii province, 377, 391; Takahashi Kazuki, 49 levy (tansen) imposed on fields, Takahashi Toshiko, 36n.92 15, 113; list of names (1445), 372; Takeuchi Rizō, 9 and Ōbe Estate, 206; Ōuchi fam- Tale of Genji, 39, 164, 443 ily as, 369, 370, 371; punishment Tamura Noriyoshi, 191n.56 of tax rebels by, 174; and the Tanaka Estate, 306, 307, 308 shogunal hanzei (half-tax) system, Tanaka Tan, 273–274n.14, 274n.19 13–14, 25, 114, 352–353, 441–442; Toba Tennō/In: children of (see Go- and Yano Estate, 14, 428 Shirakawa Tennō; Jōsaimon-in); shugodai (shugo’s deputy): and Kujō consort of (see Taikenmon-in); control of the Hine Estate exemption of Yugeshima from (1234), 111; mobilization of taxation requested of, 353; shogunal retainers (gokenin) in expansion of estates, 7–8, 24; Kii, 391; and the Yamana family’s involvement in Tōdaiji’s disputes control of Ōbe Estate, 432–433 with Kuroda cultivators, 180 Shunjōbō Chōgen. See Chōgen Toda Yoshimi, 9, 145–146 silk production: skill required for, 43; Tōdaiji: destruction of its Great Bud- and trade with rice field owners, dha Hall, 186; disputes with Iga 44–45 provincial officials, 178–182, silkworm raising: and the annual labor 184–186; estates of (see Akanabe cycle of medieval fishing villages, Estate; Ōbe Estate; Ōi Estate); 144 map of, 85; organizational Souyri, Pierre-François, 405 structure of, 84, 86; rebuild- Suchi Township (gō ), 165, 188n.6. See ing by Chōgen, xxxiv, 75, 87, also Yagawa 198, 202–203, 212, 232, 253; supreme proprietors (honke): nyoin as, Sōnshōin, 85, 86, 200; subtem- xxxiv, 283; and the vertical estate ples (see Tōnan’in) structure, xxv, 4. See also com- —Great Buddha Hall: casting master mendation of estates of the Great Buddha in (see Chen Index 531

He-qing); location of, 85; rev- Tōji hyakugō monjo, 17, 33n.58, enue from Ōbe and other estates 57n.35, 314n.46 used to support its reconstruc- Tōnan’in, location of, 85 tion, 203–205 —as cloister within Tōdaiji, 84; docu- —Hachiman Shrine, 247–248, 356, ments associated with, 90–92 411; “forcible petition” (gōso) —management of Ōbe Estate: alterna- using the carriage of its kami, tion with corporate Tōdaiji and 206–207; location of, 85; revenue the Ordination Platform––Oil from estates used to support it, Storehouse, 87, 88, 101; in 99, 205, 221 Chōgen’s testament, 88, 88, —Hokkedō (Lotus Hall): Chōgen’s 89–90; Go-Toba’s order, 89 rebuilding of, 202–203; location Toyotomi Hideyoshi: cadastral survey of, 85; monastic factions at, 182; of, xxxvi; invasion of Korea, residences for service monks 51–52; Izumi Province subdued attached to, 199, 200 by, 111, 115; unification of Japan, —Inzō (Archives), location of, 85 51 —Nigatsudō: curse ritual described in the Nigatsudō-e engi, 207–208; Uno Minamoto: and the monks of location of, 85; Shūnie ceremony Renjōin, 394–395; settlement in held at, 207, 210n.16 the Kokawa area of Kii, 382–383, —Oil Storehouse (Aburakura): dispo- 384 sition of its documents, 86, 87; —Yoshiharu: expulsion from Nate, management by the Ordination 382–384; his claim to Mount Platform, 84; and the manage- Shiio, 385; water from Nate ment of Ōbe Estate, 88, 95, 96, diverted to irrigate his fields in 97–101; ritsu monks based at, Niunoya, 382, 384, 387 200 Uozumi Anchorage: Chōgen’s restora- —Ordination Platform (Kaidan’in), tion of, 221, 227, 228; Chōgen’s 85, 87; Oil Storehouse (Abura solicitation of support from kura) under its authority (see the local community, 240–241; Tōdaiji—Oil Storehouse); Sayama Pond restorations com- revenue from the estate used pared with, 241–243 to support it, 205; ritsu monks Uwa Estate: coastal location of, 335, based at, 199, 200 339–340; Nagahira’s negotiations —reconstruction of: and Chōgen’s over the control of, 331; Saionji organizational skills, 239–241, Kintsune’s control over, 329–330, 244, 247–248; Chōgen’s religious 338–339; and the Tachibana ideology, 225–226 family, 329 —three deans. See sangō —Tōdaiji monjo collection, 81, 101, 412, vertical estate structure: and the 425n.76 broader sociopolitical order, xxx, Togawa Tomoru, 21 283; Nagahara Keiji on, 4; and Tōji: estate holdings (see Niimi Estate shared rights to income from of Bitchū Province; Yano Estate the land (shiki), xxvii, 283–284; of Harima Province); estates ties between social levels created donated by Go-Uda and Go- by, xxv, xxx, 35n.84. See also Daigo, 17; as proprietor of commendation of estates; shiki; Yugeshima Estate, 354, 364; supreme proprietors 532 Index von Verschuer, Charlotte, 187n.3, 349 Yano Estate of Harima Province: imposi- vow temples (goganji): Eigen’an at tion of taxes and duties on, 428; Kenninji, 109; Enkōin, 24; ties with the warrior establish- Hachijō-in’s Anrakuju’in, 285; ment, 427; unrest in, 14, 431 Hōkongō’in (of Jōsaimon-in’s Yasuda Motohisa, 28, 36n.99 mother), 291; Jōdodō designated yeomanry (hyakushō): as a term, as a royal prayer chapel, 238; 424n.46; and class tensions, 381, support by nyoin of, xxxiv, 8; on 383; and communal conflict, Ushigahara Estate in Echizen, 387–393, 397–398; reassess- 29–30n.18; Zanmaiin, 23 ment of the occupations of, 385; record of payments to, 99; wet field agriculture: conversion of relationship with local elites rice fields into commercial and external authorities, 384, crop production, 49; dry field 392; rights to land claimed and agriculture compared with, defended by, xxvii, 411–415, 417, 148; irrigation practices at Ōbe 418, 420–421, 425n.65 Estate, 156–161, 159; in Nabari, Yoshimura Takehiko, 21 168–171, 174; “paddy-centric” Yoshinaka Estate, 306, 308 views of medieval society and Yoshino: conflict with Kyoto, 95, 396, economy, xxxiii, 143–145, 148, 436n.1; Go-Daigo Tennō’s court- 150; tax and rent payments in exile at, xx, 95, 108 calculated in terms of, xxxiii. See Yoshino Village (Niimi Estate), rent also rice production payments made in iron by, 44 Yoshioka Yasunobu, 301, 303, 304 Yagawa (or Yakawa), 171, 176, 178, Yuge Estate, 146–147 183; confiscation of crops from, Yuge port in Iyo Province, 352, Plates 181; Jōsaimon-in’s report of theft 25–26; salt shipped from, 359, of lumber by agents of, 293; wet 361, 365 and dry fields in, 170, 179 Yugeshima Estate: Go-Shirakawa as Yagawa Estate, land tax and rent proprietor of, 353–354; rent demands, 170–171, 175 payment delays at, 366; Yamamura, Kozo, 442, 451 rent payments in cash, 355; rent Yamana family: and conflict with the payments in salt, 353, 354, 359, Akamatsu in Harima, 435–436; 364; salt production on, 11, 44, as governors of Harima, 430, 353–354, 358–359, 364–365; Tōji 432–434 as proprietor of, 354, 364