Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: a Comparative Study

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 383 683 SP 036 023

AUTHOR Darling-Hammond, Linda, Ed.; Cobb, Velma L., Ed. TITLE Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: A Comparative Study. INSTITUTION Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat (Singapore).; Department of Education, Washington, DC. Office of the Under Secretary. REPORT NO APEC-95-HR-01.1; ED/OUS-95-22 PUB DATE May 95 NOTE 248p.; Published for the APEC Education Forum, Human Resources Development Working Group by the U.S. Department of Education. PUB TYPE Collected Works General (020)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Beginning Teacher Induction; Comparative Education; Elementary Secondary Education; *Faculty Development; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; *Inservice Teacher Education; Preschool Education; *Preservice Teacher Education; Student Teaching; Teacher Certification; Teacher Characteristics; Teacher Distribution; *Teacher Education Programs; Teacher Employment; Teacher Salaries; Teacher Shortage; Teacher Supply and Demand; *Teaching (Occupat!.on) IDENTIFIERS Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation; Australia; Brunei; Canada; China; Hong Kong; Japan; Korea; Malaysia; New Zealand; Singapore; Taiwan (Taipei); United States

ABSTRACT This document is the final report of Phase I of a comparative study of teacher-training practices among 12 nation members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The purposes of the study were to:(1) provide concrete, comparable descriptions of teacher-preparation systems useful to educators, researchers, and policymakers in all APEC member countries;(2) identify the key issues and challenges facing members with respect to teacher preparation and professional development; and (3) identify practices conducive to preparing teachers whose vision and methods of teaching enable students to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The reports prepared by the APEC members, following a common framework, describe each member s teaching force and labor-market conditions, teacher-preparation programs, licensing provisions, induction practices or internships, and ongoing professional development for teachers. An introductory section, "Highlights of the Study," summarizes the similarities and differences among the 12 nations. Chapter 1is "Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: An Overview of Policy and Practice" (submitted by Office of the Under Secretary, U. S. Department of Education; prepared by V. L. Cobb, L. Darling-Hammond, and K. Murangi). Chapters 2 through 13 are the individual reports on teacher training and professional development from the participating countries: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, and the United States. (ND) APEC Education Forum

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TEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproauced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this locument do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy.

ASIA - PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION BEST COPY AVAILABLE

711:111%; 11. ItiII I, Y fl p, TEACHERPREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT INAPEC MEMBERS

A COMPARATIVESTUDY

Edited by

LINDA DARLING-HAMMOND and VELMA L. COBB

TEACHERS COLLEGE

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY U.S.A.

FOR ASIA-PACIFICECONOMIC COOPERATION

APECEDUCATION FORUM HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENTWORKING GROUP MAY 1995

OF EDUCATION PUBLISHFD FORAPEC BY THE U.S. DEPARTMENT

3 0 APEC 1995

This work is copyright. Apart fromany use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced byany process without prior written permission from APEC. Requests and inquiriesconcerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to:

Asia-Pacific riconomic CooperationSecretariat 438 Alexandra Road #19-01/04 Alexandra Point Singapore

APEC Number: #95-HR-01.1

Education Forum Number: EF9

The findings and conclusions presented herein do not necessarilyrepresent the official positions or policies of thefunders.

4 Preface Highlights of the Study vii

Chapter 1 Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: 1 An Overview of Policy and Practice SUBMITTED BY: Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education PREPARED BY: Velma L. Cobb, Linda Darling-Hammond, and Kavemuii Murangi, Teachers College, Columbia University, U.S.A.

Chapter 2Teacher Training and Professional Development in Australia 17 SUBMITTED BY: Teaching Policy Section, Schools and Curriculum Division, Department of Employment, Education and Training, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Chapter 3 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Brunei Darussalarn 29 SUBMITTED BY: Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam

Chapter 4Teacher Training and Professional Development in Canada 35 PREPARED BY: Louise Bussiere, Ministry of Education, Quebec, Canada

Chapter 5Teacher Training and Professional Development in China 57 SUBMITTED BY: Department of Teacher Education, State Education Commission, People's Republic of China

Chapter 6Teacher Training and Professional Development in Hong Kong 89 SUBMITTED BY: Education and Manpower Branch, Government Secretariat, Hong Kong

Chapter 7Teacher Training and Professional Development in Japan 113 SUBMITTED BY: International Affairs Planning Division, Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, Japan

Chapter aTeacher Training and Professional Development in Korea 131 SUBMITTED BY: International Education and Cooperation Division, Ministry of Education, Republic of Korea PREPARED BY: Chung-Wha Suh, College of Education, Hong-Ik University, Republic of Korea 5 III iv CONTENTS

Chapter 9Teacher Training and Professional Development in Malaysia 143 SUBMITTEDBY: Teacher Education Division, Ministry of Education, Malaysia

Chapter 10 Teacher Training and Professional Development Practices in 147 New Zealand SUBMITTEDBY: Ministry of Education, New Zealand

Chapter 11 APEC Report on Teacher Education and Professional Development: 179 The Case of Singapore PREPARED BY:Joy Oon Ai Chew and Ruth Yeang Lam Wong, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Chapter 12 Teacher Training in Chinese Taipei 207 SUBMITTED BY:Dr. Kuo-shih Yang, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education PREPARED BY:Bih-jen Fwu, Department of Secondary Education, Ministry of Education, Chinese Taipei

Chapter 13 The Teaching Profession and Teacher Education in the United States 221 SUBMITTED BY:Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education PREPARED BY:Linda Darling-Hammond and Velma L. Cobb, Teachers College, Columbia University, U.S.A. Preface

APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) is an organ- Hong Kong ization of 18 economies that border the Pacific Ocean. It Japan aims to promote economic growth, development, and Republic cf Korea improved living standards in the Asia-Pacific region and Malaysia the world through cooperation on trade and other issues. New Zealand The APEC Education Forum promotes dialogue and Singapore cooperation on education issues among APEC members. Chinese Taipei A comparative study of teacher-training practices United States was one of the original projects proposed by APEC members at the first meeting of the APEC Education The contribution of these member economies, Forum in January 1993. Eleven members joined the and in particular the work of the authors of each mem- United States in carrying out this study. Members agreed ber's report, is gratefully acknowledged. In addition, that teachers are the key to success in achieving their special thanks are extended Linda Darling-Hammond education goals and that a broader understanding of (co-principal investig:'.tor), Velma L. Cobb (co-principal teacher-training practices across the region could help investigator), and Kavemuii Murangi, all from the members strengthen their own policies to enhance the National Center for Restructuring Education, Schools profession, from initial training and induction to ongo- and Teaching at Columbia University Teachers College, ing professional development. Until now, very little the United States. Several individuals provided ongoing comparative information was available. advice to the project: Harry Judge (Oxford University), The purposes of the study were to provide con- Lynn Paine (Michigan State University), Harold Steven- crete, comparable descriptions of teacher-preparation son (University of Michigan), Gary Sykes (Michigan systems useful to educators, researchers, and policymak- State University), and Michael Timpane (formerly Pres- ers in all APEC members; to identify the key issues and ident of Teachers College, Columbia University). For the challenges facing members with respect to teacher prepa- U.S. Department of Education, Lenore Yaffee Garcia, ration and professional development; and eventually, to project officer for the study, and Christy Smith, both of identify practices conducive to preparing teachers whose the Office of the Under Secretary, also contributed to vision and methods of teaching enable students to meet this report. the challenges of the 21st century. This publication is the final report cf Phase I of the project; Phase II, which focuses on teacher induction, is now underway. NOTES ON TERMINOLOGY USED IN THIS REPORT At the core of this publication are the 12 reports prepared by APEC members following a jointly devel- This report follows APEC conventions regarding termin- oped, common research framework. Each report ology. In the APEC context, "countries" are always describes a member's teaching force and labor-market referred to as "memberz," and terms implying recogni- conditions, teacher-preparation programs, licensing pro- tion of members as sovereign states (such as national visions, induction practices or internship, and ongoing authorities or central governments) are not used. The professional development for teachers. The following names of the members are those agreed upon for use members contributed reports: within APEC. For the purposes of this report, "APEC members" and "APEC member economies" refer to the Australia 12 respondents listed above. "Schools" means both pri- Brunei Darussalam mary (elementary) and secondary schools. The word Canada "regions" means provinces, states, or territories in Cana- People's Republic of China da or Australia. Highlights of the Study

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEACHING FORCE ers' wages compare favorably with wages of civil servants. Teacher shortages rarely occur The characteristics of the present teaching force across in these members. APEC members are similar in many respects, particular- While teacher supply exceeds demand in some ly in terms of age and gender composition. members and falls short of demand in others, across APEC members, unmet demand is greater Most APEC members report an increase in the for secondary than for primary teachers. A num- average age and experience of their teaching ber of members report shortages of secondary forCe over the last decade, with most teachers school teachers in subjects such as mathematics, now having over 10 years of experience and science, and various foreign languages. averag:ng between 35 and 45 years of age. Further, several members find it more difficult to Across APEC members, women make up the meet demand for teachers in remote areas. Some bulk of the teaching force at the pre-primary and members provide additional compensation to primary school levels. While this pattern also teachers who will teach in high-need areas. On applies at the secondary level in many members, the other hand, the United States is experienc- in Japan and the Republic of Korea, men make ing its highest demand for teachers in central up the bulk of the teaching force in secondary cities and in growing regions of the country schools. In most APEC members, men continue where immigration is highareas typically offer- to dominate employment in senior administra- ing lower teacher salaries relative to the labor tive positions such as principalships. markets in surrounding districts. In many APEC members, teaching salaries Members facing teacher shortages use a variety increase as school level increases, both as a func- of ad hoc solutions, including hiring teachers tion of school level and of the greater education- wtihout full preparation by establishing emer- al level typically attained by secondary school gency and alternative routes to licensing. teachers. Teacher wages often compare unfavorably with salaries in other professions. For example, in New Zealand, on average, "a CANDIDATE SELECTION primary teacher with the same qualifications and teaching and doing similar tasks receives All APEC members but one now require the about 10 percent less than her secondary completion of secondary education for entry teacher colleague." into teacher preparation programs. Entry into In the People's Republic of China and the teacher preparation programs tends to depend United States, teachers earn less than do heavily on the candidate's prior academic members of the general, college-educated achievement. work force and of other professions. In Chi- In many APEC members, student intake is deter- nese Taipei and Japan, on the other hand, mined by government bodies in collaboration annual wages for teachers are competitive with teacher preparation programs. In these with those for other profession,i1 occupa- cases, APEC members underwrite some or all of tions. In both of these APEC members, teach- the costs of education for candidates.

vii 8 viii HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STUDY

PROGRAMS In New Zealand, though registration is not a compulsory requirement, new teachers are not In many members, elementary teachers have eligible to become fully registered until they been trained in normal schools or teacher col- have completed at least two years' classroom leges operating below the bachelor's degree experience. An "advice and guidance" pro- level, while secondary teachers have been gram is available to all beginning teachers dur- trained in bachelor's degree programs in col- ing their initial two years. The program leges and universities. But if there is a common includes resources and personal support from trend, it is toward more extensive preparation colleagues; a program of visiting and observ- for teachersespecially elementary teachers ing experienced teachers; meetings with other across virtually all members. staff; appraisals of the beginning teacher's While for the most part primary teachers prepare progress, and a written record of the induction as "generalists" to teach all content areas, there program. In addition, primary schools that are exceptions. In Alberta, Canada and in Chinese employ beginning teachers receive 0.2 teach- Taipei, for example, those studying to become ing entitlement per week for each new primary teachers are required to focus on a spe- teacher's first year, to facilitate released time cific subject area, and in Hong Kong, they are for the beginning teachers or senior Staff required to specialize in two subject areas. working with th...m. Funding arrangements for teacher education In Japan, beginning teachers maintain a range from wholly national or centrally funded lighter work load of teaching duties; attend programs in Malaysia, Japan, Chinese Taipei, in-school training two times per week, with Singapore, :ind Brunei Darussalam, to New assistance from designated guidance teach- Zealand, the United States, and Canada, where ers; and receive out-of-school training once teacher educa ion is financed in part by state or per week. Out-of-school training covers a provincial go ierriments with additional funds wide range of activities including volunteer coming from student tuition, endowments, work, lectures, seminars, and visits to other donations, and research. schools, child welfare facilities, and private corporations. To support induction activities, schools employing one beginning teacher are STUDENT TEACHING OR INTERNSHIP assigned a part-time lecturer; those employing two beginning teachers are assigned a The duration of practice teaching differs consid- full-time teacher. erably across members, ranging from a few weeks in some members, to one year for all teachers in Chinese Taipei. While student teach- PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ing occurs most frequently toward the end of the preparationprogram.increasingly,clinical Professional development practices vary widely. experiences are spread over the period of pre- As one example of the range of practice, Japan- service training. ese, schools provide teachers with 20 or more Increasingly in Japan, the United States, Canada, hours each week for collegial work and plan- Australia, and the Republic of Korea, some ning, visitations to other classrooms and schools, teacher preparation programs are affiliated with and demonstrations of teaching strategies. By primary and secondary schools that are orga- contrast, U.S. teachers are allotted almost no in- nized and supported to provide sites for practice school time for professional development or col- teaching and for year-long internships. legial work. Almost all professional development occurs in formal workshops or in courses after school, on the weekend, or on a small number INDUCTION of specially designated professional days. The range of professional development activities Interest and support for providing beginning include those designed to upgrade the education teachers with a transition period from formal level and qualifications of the current teaching preparation to practice is growing among APEC force; familiarize teachers with national, state/ members. New Zealand and Japan offer exam- provincial, and local curriculum developments; ples of highly developed induction or internship and to help experienced teachers keep pace programs. with the ever-increasing knowedge base in sub-

9 ix HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STUDY

ject areas and pedagogy, and with the useof TRENDS technology as an aid in instruction. Some APEC members report that teaching iscurrently still a field with little opportunity for advancementand leave LICENSURE promotion; to advance in the field one must teaching. The number of administrators needed in the While licensing or registration systems are com- field is small, and, other than salary increments or cre- mon, several APEC members have nolicensure dentialing for advancement, there are reported to be systems. In Singapore and BruneiDarussalam, few external incentives to participate in professional there is one teacher training program under gov- development activities. ernment control that maintains strict admissions and academic preparations standards. In these In New Brunswick, Canada, and the United members and in the People's Republic of China, States, there is great interest in creating a career completion of a preparation program constitutes path that would yield a coherent, progressive authority to practice. conception of teachers' growth toward highly In many cases, APEC members have different accomplished practice over the course of the license categories depending on position level, teaching career. subject area, and school level and type. In the There is also increased emphasis on revising and Republic of Korea, teachers can obtain a higher improving the nature and quality of teacher rank license and an increase in salary through in- preparation. In Chinese Taipei, for instance, a service training. Teacher licensing consists of four new law "requires that all newteachers be structures or levels: Grade 2 teacher, Grade 1 licensed like lawyers and doctors." teacher, vice-principal, and principal. However, Teaching in most APEC members is a highly reg- with the exception of Korea and Japan, most ulated profession. However, efforts are under- APEC members' licensing structures tend to be flat. way in several members toprovide teachers APEC members report differing license or regis- greater professional autonomy and greater voice tration renewal policies, ranging from two to in creating standards for preparation, licensure, three years in Australia to lifetime registration/ and practice. licensure in Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, and Malaysia. 1 Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: An Overview of Policy and Practice

Submitted by: Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education Prepared by: Velma L. Cobb, Linda Darling-Hammond, and Kavetnuii Murangi, Teachers College, Columbia University

This analysis provides a brief synopsis of the trends, technological changes affecting APEC members. Educa- issues, and challenges identified by Asia-Pacific Eco- tion is seen as an important avenue toward growth and nomic Cooperation members with respect to teacher development in meeting the needs of an increasingly preparation and professional development. It is based global society in the 21st century. A qualified teaching on reports prepared by APEC members following a force is thought to be integral to this vision. jointlydeveloped, common research framework. Following a brief discussion of the characteristics Reports provided by participating APEC members var- of the present teaching force across APEC members, this ied widely in terms of detail and availability of data to chapter looks at three central themes: the preparation answer each of the research questions; thus, specifics of teachers, the induction of teachers, and licensure and are noted here as they are available. Documents used other policy issues. The chapter concludes with a sum- for this analysis include reports (Chapters 2-13) from mary of future goals and trends. Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Chinese CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEACHING FORCE Taipei, and the United States. Across APEC members, the preparation of new The characteristics of the present teaching force across teachers and the professional and academic growth of APEC members are similar in many respects, particular- experienced teachers are reported to be major priorities. in terms of age and gender composition. However, While the educational attainment and qualifications of there are differences across APEC members in terms of teachers have steadily increased over the last decade, salary scales and relative attractions of teaching and in there are many social, demographic, economic, and terms of how teaching is perceived. Also, qualifications for entering teaching differ across APEC members. The types of qualifications required to teach at different levels are discussed later in this chapter. Support for this overview was provided by the Office of Most APEC members report an increase in the the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education. The findings and conclusions presented herein do not necessarily rep- average age and experience of their teaching force over resent the official positions or policies of the Department. the last decade, with most teachers now having over 10

1 2 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

years of experience and averaging between 35 and 45 others in occupations requiring similar educational years of age. Japan, the United States, and Canada have preparation. In the People's Republic of China,the aver- the most experienced teachers. In these APEC members, age income of a teacher in 1991 was 9.8 percent lower the modal teacher has over 15 years of experience. than that of workers in industrial trades, 15 percent APEC members such as the United States, Singa- lower than those in scientific and technological jobs, pore, Canada, Australia, and Chinese Taipei report that and 17.6 percent lower than workers in architecture. the teaching force is primarily composed ofwomen, In Chinese Taipei and Japan, teaching is a respect- ranging from 59.8 percent of the teaching force in Chi- ed profession and annual wages for teachersare com- nese Taipei to 72 percent in the United States. Across petitive with annual wages in other professionaloccu- APEC members, women make up the bulk of the teach- pations. In Chinese Taipei, teachers earn more than civil ing force at the pre-primary and primary school levels. servants. (Teachers are not considered civil servants, In APEC members like Singapore, Chinese Taipei, New although their basic pay scale is fixed on the same stan- Zealand, and Australia, women constitute the majority dards as those for civil service employees.) This ispart- of the teaching force at the secondary level (62.8%in ly due to the fact that teachers receivea research Singapore, 52 percent in Chinese Taipei, 51 percent in allowance, and they also receive "13.5 monthlypay- New Zealand, 50.4 percent in Australia). However, ments, even though they don't work in summer and win- Japan and the Republic of Korea report thatmen make ter sessions." Also, primary and junior high school teach- up the bulk of the teaching force in secondary schools. ers earn tax-free income for working in compulsory In most APEC members, men continue to dominate education (the nine years of schooling required of all employment in senior administrative positions suchas students). principalships. For instance, in New Zealandwomen In Japan, teachers' salaries compare favorably with constitute 51 percent of the secondary teaching force those of other government employees. For instance: but only 19 percent of secondary school principals. Variations in teacher salaries can result from dif- As of the 1992 academic year, the starting monthly ferences in schooling level, years of experience, and salary for a government employee engaged in general levels of responsibility, as well as from the socialstatus administration was yen 161,400 (at the exchange rate of teaching. In many APEC members, teaching salaries concurrent with this writing, one U.S. dollar was equiv- are higher for secondary than elementary teachers, alent to 100 yen) while teachers at national elementary and lower secondary schools received yet., 180,800. either due to separate salary scalesor to the greater edu- Teachers at national elementary and lower secondary cational le vel typically attained by secondary school schools also receive a special allowance for compulso- teachers. New Zealand is not unusual in that "onaver- ry education teachers. (Chap. 7) age, a primary teacher with the same qualifications and teaching and doing similar tasks receives about 10per- Japan tries to equalize teachers' salaries across its three cent less than her secondary teacher colleague."' types of schools: national, public, and private. National In Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia the major- schools are those schools founded by the nationalgov- ity of teachers are employed by the governmentor government. Most other schools are public and are founded ernment aided organizations and are salaried according and administered by local governments at the city,town, to civil servant or government pay scales. In Japan, the or village level. In order prevent salary disparities majority of teachers are employed by localgovern- resulting from varying local l ..idgets, the prefecturegov- ments. However, in order to help equalize salary scales ernment is responsible for the salaries of teachers at these throughout the country, the national governmentpays schools. The national government aids in these efforts by half the salaries of all teachers. In the United States and providing 50 percent of the salaries of all teachers Canada, teachers are employed by governmental school engaged in compulsory education. As a result, thecom- districts or by private schools, and while salariescon- pensation of teachers in the various prefectures iscom- form to local salary schedules, theyvary from one loca- parable to the compensation of teachers at the national tion to another. schools. Teacher wages do not always compare favorably with salaries in other professions. In the UnitedStates and in the People's Republic of China, for example, Supply and Demand teachers earn less than do members of the general, col- Before discussing the characteristics of the teaching force, lege-educated work force and of other professions. In it is important to note that accurate projections regarding the United States, teachers earn 20-30percent less than the supply and demand of teachers andways of attracting and retaining highly qualified teachersare challenges 'Quotations in this chapter are taken from the relevant each APEC member is currently attemptingto address. APEC member chapter. Changes in teacher supply and demandare largely

9 1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 3

dependent on economic and demographic factors, such guage, and computer studies as well. In Canada, areas as size of the student population, immigration and emi- of teacher shortage vary by province, but in general gration rates, and turnover or retirements. Teacher attri- Canadian schools have some difficulty hiring qualified tion, one component of turnover, is often related to staff to teach French, English, mathematics, and science. unemployment rates in other occupations as well. Australia also reported persisting shortages in the areas APEC members such as Brunei Darussalam, the of mathematics and the sciences. People's Republic of China, and the United States report Supply and demand are in some cases influenced an overall rising demand for qualified teachers. In by structural and demographic changes affecting the Brunei Darussalam, expanding enrollments and a grow- school system. Singapore has experienced a surplus of ing number of specialized areas, including the bilin- teachers for the primary education cycle since 1993. gualism policy of the Ministry of Education, have This surplus was created by a structural change in the increased eacher demand. In the People's Republic of education system when the Preparatory Year Project, a China, the 9-year compulsory schooling requirement pre-school program that had been part of the primary has increased the demand for teachers. In the United school phase, was discontinued. In the People's Repub- States, increased immigration and rising birth rates, cou- lic of China, due to a program of "reform and opening pled with growing retirements, are dramatically raising to the outside world as well as modernization," there the number of new teachers hired each year. has been a great emphasis on vocational education, Other APEC members report a declining demand which has led to a sudden increase in the number of for teachers. Japan, for example, is currently experienc- vocational secondary schools. In turn, this has increased ing a decline in student population, and fewer teachers the demand for teachers and created a situation where- are needed. New Zealand is also experiencing static or by teachers without the necessary qualifications are declining student populations in primary schools. hired on an emergency basis. Similarly, structural fac- Falling attrition rates contribute to decreasing overall tors contribute to teacher shortages in the United States. demand for teachers in New Zealand and Canada. New Recent reforms requiring more mathematics and science Zealand attributes decreasing attrition rates for teachers courses for graduation from high school have height- to an overall high level of unemployment in the wider ened demand for teachers in those subjects, while fed- economy. In Canada, turnover has decreased given the eral programs requiring bilingual and special education rising age of teachers; most teachers are in their mid- have increased demand in these areas. career years, when attrition is generally quite low. In APEC members such as the United States, Sin- Geographic factors also influence supply and gapore, Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, demand. APEC members like Australia, the People's Australia, and Canada, teacher shortages are addressed Republic of China, and Canada, for instance, report that with a variety, of ad hoc solutions, such as dropping the unmet demand for teachers is consistently higher in courses, increasing class sizes, and/or lowering qualifi- remote areas of their countries. Some members provide cations for those entering the profession in order to fill additional compensation to teachers who will teach in vacancies. In the United States, for example, an under- high-need areas, so as to avoid shortages of teachers. supply of teachers is often met by reducing standards On the other hand, the United States is experiencing its for entry by establishing emergency and alternative highest demand for teachers in central cities and in routes to licensing. Candidates in many of these shorter growing regions of the country where immigration is term routes engage in little or no education coursework high. Typically, areas with unmet demand offer lower or student teaching prior to entering the classroom. In teacher salaries relative to the labor markets in sur- Hong Kong as well, "schools are permitted to take on rounding districts. less qualified staff.... When teachers for specific subjects Supply-ad-demand levels also vary considerably cannot be found, schools have to make do by falling according to school level and subject area. Across A.PEC back on teachers with closely related training." members, the unmet demand for secondary teachers Alternative programs for recruiting teachers are tends to be greater than the unmet demand for ele- also found in Singapore. The Cadet Graduate Teacher mentary teachers. APEC members such as the United Scheme recruits students who are enrolled in the States, Singapore, Hong Kong, Canada, the Republic of teacher preparation institute but who have not yet had Korea, and Australia reported having shortages of sec- professional training. Similarly, under the Provisional ondary school teachers in subjects such as mathematics, Graduate Teacher Scheme, "untrained candidates" are science, and various foreign languages. In the United offered a temporary contract for one year. The Ministry States, fields like computer science, education for stu- of Education of Singapore also recruits teachers from dents with disabilities, bilingual education, and early abroad, especially mathematics and English teachers. childhood education also join the list. Hong Kong The extent to which supply and demand vary by reports shortages of teachers in literature, English lan- locality depends in part on the degree of centralization

13 4 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS of teacher employment. APEC members report many THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS different recruitment and hiring practices. In APEC members where teachers are considered government Goals and Institutions employees or civil servants, recruitment is often centralized and handled by the Ministry of Education or the APEC members report similar goals and aims for teacher equivalent. This is the case in Korea, Malaysia, Singa- education: All APEC members see the professional pore, and Brunei Darussalam. Singapore and Brunei preparation and development of "quality teachers" as a Darussalam have a single teacher training institution that major aim for teacher education. Quality teachers are serves and responds to the needs of the central gov- described as having some combination of the following ernment. By contrast, in the United States, Canada, and attributes: Australia, education is a function of the state or province, and hiring and recruitment operations are del- Pedagogical knowledge egated to city, town, and local school districts, where Subject area content knowledge hiring practices and salaries differ substantially. As a The skills and attitudes necessary for effective consequence, some districts may experience shortages teaching while others in the same region are experiencing sur- A strong understanding of human growth and pluses of teachers. child development In New Zealand, hiring and recruitment are the Effective communication skills responsibility of the local board of trustees, which, A strong sense of ethics except for senior positions, most often delegates this A capacity for renewal and ongoing learning responsibility to the principal. Other than those of senior staff members on contract, teachers' salaries are The social missions of teacher preparation are governed by the national collective agreement between broad. New Zealand, Hong Kong, the People's Repub- the teacher unions and the State Services Commission lic of China, and the United States cited the importance (representing the government). Variations in salaries are of training a teaching force that is well equipped to pre- due to different levels of qualifications, teaching expe- pare students to function competently within an increas- rience, school level, and degree and types of responsi- ingly competitive and interdependent global society. bilities. In some cases regional and local authorities Brunei Darussalam and the People's Republic of China offer incentivessuch as low-rent housing or higher discuss the key role of teacher preparation in fostering levels of responsibilityto attract teachers to remote national unity, pride, and identity. areas or to teach subjects in which there is a shortage For the most part, institutions set their own guid- of teachers. ing principles for their teacher preparation programs, In Japan, as was discussed earlier, differences in although it is likely that this may occur within a frame- teachers' salaries are prevented by the prefecture gov- work of national goals in some cases, or through ernment's paying the salaries of teachers at the various state/province guidelines in others. In Japan and the local levels: city, town, and village. In order to ensure People's Republic of China, the Minister of Education, nationwide uniformity in terms of salaries, salaries in Science, and Culture and the State Education Commis- each prefecture are matched to the pay received by sion, respectively, set national goals for teacher educa- national school teachers, which is determined by law. tion. In Quebec, Canada, the province's Ministry of Edu- While the impact of teaching compensation and status cationiscurrently defining the "orientations and on the supply of teachers is difficult to assess, there are principles teacher training programs must comply with, some indications that high status and competitive com- as well as the competencies expected of new teachers pensation do have positive effects on supply. Accord- at the end of their studies." ing to the Chinese Taipei report, "because school teach- In the United States, each state sets standards for ers are well paid, highly respected, and have high job recruiting, preparing, and licensing teachers. Recently, security, teaching tends to be their profession for life." more than half the states joined together to develop While occasional teacher shortages occur in Chinese model standards for licensing beginning teachers that Taipei, these are attributed to unpredictable events, such will be compatible with the standards for advanced as the inability of the teacher. preparation system to certification established by a national professional adjust quickly to changes in demand, since teacher body, the National Board for Professional Teaching training institutions recruit and prepare a fixed number Standards. About 40 percent of the teacher preparation of students. At present, Japan is reporting a decline in programs in the United States, representing about 70 the demand for new teachers due to a decline in the stu- percent of teacher candidates, are professionally dent population and low attrition of current teachers. accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Shortages of teachers are quite rare. Teacher Education (NCATE), which uses a common set

14 1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 5

of standards tc evaluate programs. In the United States, imum score on a nationally normed college entrance professional education accrediting organizations for test is required. In addition, 15 states and over 70 per- law, medicine, architecture, teaching, and other pro- cent of colleges have set minimum grade-point averages fessions are recognized by the U. S. Department of for entry into teacher education. Education. In most APEC members, entry into teacher prepa- The APEC members' reports reflect a wide range ration programs depends heavily on the candidate's aca- of qualifications for entry into teaching, from those who demic achievement in secondary school (or in the first acquire a bachelor's or master's degree at universities to years of college, if teacher preparation occurs in thelat- those who have received no special preparation for ter years). Grades and test scores are often used as indi- teaching at allalthough no country has the latter as a cators of academic achievement. Some APEC members basic policy. All APEC members, with the exception of also assess the language and communication skills of the People's Republic of China, now require the com- candidates, conduct interviews, and consider aptitudes pletion of secondary education for entry into teacher for leading cocurricular activities. preparation programs. In the People's Republic of China, Admission interviews for the purpose of judging a pre-primary and primary school teachers typically have candidate are also used in some universities in the Unit- completed junior high school plus a three- to four-year ed States, Canada, and New Zealand. Interviews are also teacher training program. (See Table 1.1 for an outline used in some Japanese prefectures' Teacher Employ- of qualifications required by the APEC members partic- ment Selection Tests for the purpose of assessing gen- ipating in this report.) eral qualities and attitudes toward the profession. In Secondary education ranges from three to seven New Zealand, involvement in cultural, sporting, social, years in duration. Six years of secondary education and welfare activities, and attitudes that affirm New seems to be typical of many APEC members (Republic Zealand's equity and bicultural values, are also consid- of Korea, Japan, the United States, Chinese Taipei, and ered. Some universities in the United States and Cana- many provinces in Canada). The People's Republic of da require confidential statements from referees that China and Hong Kong have three years of compulsory attest to the candidate's suitability for admission. secondary education. In Hong Kong, about 85 percent In many APEC members, including Brunei of the relevant age population also receive a noncom- Darussalam, the People's Republic of China, Singa- pulsory, two-year upper secondary level education, and pore, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Hong Kong, 28 percent go on to receive an additional two years, or and Chinese Taipei, student intake is determined by "sixth form," matriculation education. government bodies in collaboration with teacher preparation programs. In these cases, APEC members Candidate Selection underwrite some or all of the costs of education for candidates. The total number of candidates admitted Across APEC members there is considerable variety in is typically based on the supply and demand of teach- the ways in which teaching candidates are selected and ers and/or the funding available for candidates. In prepared to enter the field of teaching. Within any given Chinese Taipei, the number of entrants into teacher APECmember, there are a multitude of entry points for preparation programs is fixed at the same level each teaching candidates. These vary by the type of prepar- year and is not responsive to supply-and-demand ing institution and by the school level at which candi- trends. This causes some difficulties in responding to dates plan to teachelementary or secondary. changes in demand. Examinations are widely used to determine can- In the United States, Canada, and Japan, there are didates' readiness and capacity for teacher education no established processes for determining the number of programs. In APEC members like the Republic of Korea, students admitted to teacher education programs. In the Malaysia, the People's Republic of China, and Singa- United States and Canada, program size largely depends pore, national examinations are taken by all graduates on the number of interested candidates meeting entry of secondary education. Minimum scores for entry into requirements and the admission policies of individual teacher preparation programs are established by the institutions. In many Canadian provinces, faculties of preparatory institution, and may vary according to the education have intake quotas for specific areas of con- type of preparatory program and the educational level centration. Canada's report notes that "except in the and subject area to be taught. New Zealand, Canada, area of mathematics and sciences, applicants outnum- and Japan report that there are no national examina- ber available quota slots." While teacher education pro- tions, and teacher preparation institutions have their grams receive some government funds in the United own criteria for entry. In the United States, an increas- States and Canada, much of the cost of preparation is ing number of states require some form of testing before borne by candidates themselves, in the form of tuition entry into a teacher education program. Usually, a min- payments. o QualificationsTABLE 1.1 Required to Teach at Various School Levels by APEC Members APECAUSTRALIA Members Post-schoolPre-Primary diploma toward3-yearPrimary diploma4-year degree or degree. Trend GraduateBachelor'sJunior High Diploma Degree-4 School of years;Education 1-year SeniorBachelors High SchoolDegree-4 years; 1-year DARUSSALANIBRUNEI semestertionin-serviceEducationUniversity Postgraduate ordegreeB.A.; 'Certificate Certificate in2- Educa- or 3- in tionin-serviceEducationsemester4-year degree Postgraduate or Certificate CertificateIn Educa- in preservice; 2 or 3 tionin-servicesemester4-yearGraduateEducation degreepreservice; PostgraduateDiploma or Certificate of Education Certificate in2- Educa- or 3- in OFPEOPLE'SCANADA CHINA REPUBLIC viceJuniorB.Ed. training orHigh the piusequivalent 3-4 years preser- trainingJuniorB.Ed. High or plusthe equivalent-4 3-4 years preservice years trainingSeniorB.Ed. or High the plus equivalent-4 2-3 years yearspreservice B.A.B.Ed.-4 or B.S. years HONG KONG have3,At plusleast completed in-service Secondary Secondary training. 5 or Secondary Most 5* have2preserviceMainly years secondary Secondarypreservice training; education training;Secondary5, plus plus 3a yearsminority 7, 2 plus preservicetraining;Secondary Secondary teacher 5 plus 3training; 7yearspreservice plus 2 degree years inDegree Education plus Postgraduate Certificate JAPAN** ateM.A. Degree (Advanced); (2nd) B.A. (1st); Associ- yearsateM.A. in-serviceDegree (Advanced); (2nd) teacher B.A. training (1st); Associ- DegreeM.A.cationplus Postgraduate(Advanced); (2nd) B.A Certificate (1st); Associate in Edu- M.A. (Advanced); B.A. (1st) MALAYSIA educationTrained and Untrained "0" Level Basic"0" primaryLevel Certificate teacher training plus 2.5 years. tificategraduateBachelor's of DiplomaTeaching Degree plusin plus Teaching 1 Bachelor's year Post- or Cer- tificategraduateBachelor's of DiplomaTeaching Degree inplus plus Teaching 1 Bachelor's year Post- or Cer- NEW ZEALAN. (Earlytions,A range including Childhood)diploma of education Diploma and of qualifica-Teaching not universityDiploma of degree Teaching. Trend toward a jectUniversityDegree specialty degree or in oreducation diploma in sub- jectUniversityDegree or education degree or diploma in sub- KOREAREPUBLIC OF college;4-yearrequired college; air but and preferred juniorcorrespondence vocational Graduates of 4-year National Teach- Graduates of colleges of education; Graduates of colleges of education; SINGAPORE colleges"0"General Level Certificate or less of Education, Level,Generalers College and Certificate Diploma inof EducationEducation,"A" generalDiplomaB.A. orcolleges, B.S.-4 in Education years;and universities Postgraduate DiplomaB.A.general or B.S.-4colleges, in Education years; and Postgraduateuniversities 18 UNITEDCHINESE STATES TAIPEI TrainingHigh Schoolat Teachers College B.A.;Training M.A. at inTeachers some states College TeacherB.A.; M.A.Training in some at Normal states University B.A.;4-year M.A. undergraduate in some states education **Japan*Secondary has 1-3several equals types lower of standardsecondary certificates (compulsory). for each Secondary school category;4 and 5 equals advanced, upper first secondary. class and Secondary second class. 6 and There 7 is no second-class certificate for BEST COPY AVAILABLE are also referred to as Sixth Form. upper secondary. 7 1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE

Programs 3. Master's degree and/or fifth-year programs: These programs are open to candidates who Several decades ago, attendance at a normal school have completed a bachelor's degree and lead to for one to three years was deemed to be sufficient a master's degree or postgraduatediploma in training for teachers. More recently, normal schools education. The duration of these programs have been transformed into regular four-year colleges ranges from one to two years. in many APEC members. The duration and qualityof the training progams have increased and the mission In the United States, Canada, and Japan, the of many teachers' colleges has changed so that requirements for the preparation of teachers are the teacher preparation is no longer their only function. same for all school levels. In these countries,both ele- Increasingly, teachers are also trained in multipurpose mentary and secondary school teachers areprepared in universities. bachelor's degree programs or fifth-year programs that The nature of teacher preparation programs across can lead to a master's degree. In theUnited States, vir- APEC members often differs according to the educa- tually all teachers (98 percent) have at least a bachelor's tional level to be taught. Elementary school teachers degree and most (53 percent in 1991) now have a mas- have frequently had lower levels of education than sec- ter's degree or higher. In Hong Kong and Australia, secondary school teachers, and the two types of teachers ondary school teachers earn a bachelor's degree plus a have frequently been educated in different types of one- or two-year diploma/certificate in education. institutions: In many members, elementary teachers In Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong have been trained in normal schools or teachers' col- reforms in the last decade reveal a trend toward prepar- leges that often operate below the bachelor's degree ing primary teachers as well as secondary teachers in level, while secondary teachers have been trained in bachelor's degree programs. New Zealand has recently bachelor's degree programs in colleges and universities. begun preparing primary teachers in programs yielding Many APEC members are questioning whether require- a four-year Bachelor of Educationdegree. This trend has ments for teaching elementary and secondaryschool been supported and facilitated by changes in govern- pupils should differ so markedly in organization and ment policies to raise primary teacher preparation to duration, especially in view of the importance of pri- degree status, and to encourage nondegree colleges to mar school as preparation for later grades. Ifthere is a become affiliated with degree-granting universities. In common trend, it is toward more extensive preparation Australia, all Colleges of Advanced Education, which for teachersespecially elementary teachersacross provided initial teacher training, are now universities. In virtually all members. This often means embedding Hong Kong, Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree teacher preparation in an undergraduate degree pro- programs have recently been introduced. gram, or, for members that already requireundergradu- Across APEC members, the length of teacher ate degrees for all teachers, extending preparation preparation programs generally ranges from one to two requirements into graduate school programs. years, depending on the school level at whichcandi- Across APEC members, institutions responsible for dates are expected to teach and the type of programs in teacher education vary considerably in type, level, and which they are enrolled (whether undergraduate or post- duration, and generally fall into three categories: .graduate). In some instances, programs are embedded in four-year undergraduate degrees and teacher educa- 1. Certificate or degree programs housed in normal tion coursework may be carried out in a less concen- colleges, normal schools, and colleges of educa- trated manner throughout the four years, or may be con- tion established solely for the purpose of training centrated in the last two years. For primary-level teachers: These programs are usually for ele- teaching, teachers' postsecondary education may be mentary school teachers and emphasize peda- from two to four years, with the portion devoted to spe- gogical preparation more than subject area cific preparation for teaching comprising about two preparation. In most cases these are two- to four- years. For secondary level teaching, courseworktends to year programs leading to a certificate ordiploma take place in a four-year undergraduate degree program, in teaching. with a smaller proportion (about one or two years) 2. Degree programs housed at general, multipur- specifically devoted to education coursework. pose universities: These programs tend to entail While there is some variability in terms of curricu- greater subject matter preparation and relatively lum content, teacher preparation programs generally less pedagogical preparation. These are gener- provide students with some combination of coursework ally three- or four-year programs leading to a in subject matter, teaching methods and materials, child bachelor's degree, with the teacher preparation growth and development, and other education courses, portion lasting one to two years. such as educational psychology, history and philosophy 13 8 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS of education, and practical teaching experience. (See secondary school teaching requires four years of course- Table 1.2 for selected examples of the content of teacher work (general and professional coursework) and one preparation programs in APEC members participating in year of teaching practicum. During these four years, pre- this report.) In Alberta, Canada, students are also service students are required to take 148 credits-20 required to take some educational administration cows- credits more than the number required at other univer- es. The extent of education coursework tends to vary sities and colleges. Of the 148 credits, professional edu- for elementary and secondary teachers, with elementary cation coursework consumes 20 and primary and sec- teachers pursuing a relatively greater number of cours- ondary school teaching consume 16 credits each. In es on teaching and learning and secondary teachers pur- Chinese Taipei, professional training for primary school suing a relatively greater number of courses in the sub- teachers includes "courses in primary education, edu- ject area(s) they plan to teach. cational psychology, teaching principles, types of teach- Many APEC members report that primary teachers ing materials and methods in language arts, social stud- do not concentrate in a specific subject area but prepare ies, mathematics, natural sciences, music, fine arts, as "generalists" to teach all content areas. There are, crafts, and teaching practice." For secondary schools, however, several exceptions to this trend: In Alberta, professional training includes courses such as "the intro- Canada, and in Chinese Taipei, for example, students in duction of education, secondary education, education- primary education are required to focus on a specific al psychology, teaching principles, teaching method and subject area in addition to the generalist focus. In Hong teaching practicum; and four credits of elective courses, Kong, primary education students are required to spe- chosen from educational philosophy, educational soci- cialize, in two subject areas. And in the United States a ology, vocational guidance, audio-visual education, and few states no longer permit students in elementary edu- moral principles." Completion of preservice secondary cation to major in education but require them to major programs usually yields a Bachelor of Education degree in a liberal arts discipline in college while they are also or a Bachelor of Science in Education degree. taking the requisite courses for teacher preparation. In British Columbia, Canada, a strong emphasis is The reports of APEC members indicate that sec- placed on the theoretical bases of modern educational ondary school teachers are generally required to major practice, as well as on intensive opportunities for prac- in the subject area they will ultimately teach. The lib- tice. "Studies include analysis of the nature and objec- eral arts programs are, on average, four years in dura- tives of education and of the developmental character- tion, with one of the four years spent on teacher prepa- istics of learners. Attention is given to candidates' own ration. In members like the People's Republic of China, interpersonal and communication skills and to strategies Chinese Taipei, Japan, Singapore, and Canada, the cur- and methods of teaching." Practicurn experiences, riculum for secondary teacher preparation involves a including 12 or more weeks of student teaching, are combination of general education, teaching pedagogy, interwoven with courses on teaching methods across psychology courses, and practice teaching. The num- subject areas, educational applications of learning, ber of education courses seems to vary among APEC development, and measurement theories, and social members and depends on the program. For instance, foundations of education across a two-year period for in the United States, education courses typically con- elementary teachers and a one-year period for sec- stitute one-fifth of the total courses for secondary edu- ondary teachers. This model is similar to prevalent mod- cation majorsan average of about 26 credits out of a els in the United States as well. total of 135. Elementary education majors take about 50 In APEC members like the United States, Australia, credits of education courses out of a total of 125 cred- Singapore, Japan, New Zealand, Canada, and Hong its. The examples cited below were selected because of Kong, some students enter teacher education programs the amount of detail provided on the content of pre- having already completed a bachelor's degree. In these service curricula. cases, preparation programs are usually one to two In the People's Republic of China, the curriculum years in length and students are awarded postgraduate for secondary school teachers' preparation consists of diplomas in teaching and/or a master's degree (see Table five components: political theory (philosophy, eco- 1.1). For example, in Australia, the general pattern of nomics, etc.); foreign languages; education courses secondary teacher preparation consists of a three- to (educational theories, psychology, and methodology of four-year university degree program in which the stu- teaching); physical education; and specialized courses dents specialize in the subject areas they will teach, fol- in major fields (basic specialized courses and elective lowed by a one-year master's degree program in educa- courses). Students are also expected to do an eight- to tion. Alternately, prospective teachers pursue a four-year ten-week student teaching practicum, depending on Bachelor of Education degree, integrating subject disci- whether they are in a three- or a four-year program. plines, education, and teaching practices. Most universi- In Chinese Taipei, education for both primary and ties in Australia are gravitating toward a two-year add- 13 1/ POLICY AND PRACTICE 9

TABLE 1.2 Professional Content of Teacher Preparation Programs in some APEC Members*

APEC Members Elementary Teachers Secondary Teachers

BRITISH COLUMBIA, PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Analyses of education; PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Analyses of education; CANADA principles of teaching; pre-practicum experience; principles of teaching; orientation school experi- (2-YEAR PRO(3RAM) communication skills in teaching; educational ence; education during adolescent years; develop- application of developmental theories; development and exceptionality in the regular classroom; ment and exceptionality in the regular classroom; courses related to first teaching subject; courses introduction to reading and language arts instruc- related to second teaching subject; communication; curriculum and instruction (art, physical edu- tion skills; school organization in its social context; cation, elementary, language arts, mathematics, learning measurement, and teaching; language music, reading, science, social studies). STUDENT across the curriculum; educational anthropology, TEACHING: about 12 weeks. history of education; philosophy of education; social foundations of education; educational sociology; credits for prescribed courses related to teaching subject(s). STUDENT TEACHING:about10 weeks.

THE PEOPLE'S PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Psychology; methodolo- PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Education coursesedu- REPUBLIC OF CHINA gies of: primary mathematics, primary science, cational theories, psychology, methodology of physical science, music, fine arts. STUDENT TEACH- teaching: Physical Education. STUDENT TEACHING: ING: 8-10 weeks. .8-10 weeks.

JAPAN** PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Essence and goals of edu- PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Essence and goals of education; physical and mental development and the cation; physical and mental development and the learning process of students; education system learning process of students; educational methods and management; educational methods and tech- and techniques (including the use of computers niques (including the use of computers and educa- and educational materials); subject teaching tional materials); subject teaching methodology; methodology; moral education; special activities; moral education; special activities; student guid- student guidance and educational consultations. ance and educational consultations. STUDENT STUDENT TEACHING: about 2 weeks. TEACHING: about 4 weeks.

SINGAPORE PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Teaching of English; PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Teaching methods of 2 teaching of mathematics; third methodology subjects graduated (majored) in from respective course (chosen from electives); pupil development; universities; pupil development; social context of social context of schooling; applications of psy- schooling; applications of psychology in teaching chology in teaching and learning; instructional and learning; instructional technology. STUDENT technology. STUDENT TEACHING: B.A.-25 weeks TEACHING: B.A.-25 weeks over 4 years. Post- over 4 years. Post-Graduate Diploma-9 weeks Graduate Diploma-9 weeks over 1 year. Diploma over 1 year. Diploma in Education-15 weeks over in Education-15 weeks over 2 years. 2 years.

CHINESE TAIPEI PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Primary education; educa- PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Secondary education; tional psychology; teaching principles; teaching educational psychology; teaching principles; teach- methods and materials (language arts, social stud- ing method; 4 credits of electives chosen from ies, mathematics, natural sciences, music, fine educational philosophy, educational sociology, arts, crafts). PRACTICUM: 1 full-year internship. vocational guidance, audiovisual education, and moral principles. PRAcncum: 1 full-year internship.

*These APEC members were selected because of the amount of detail provided in the initial reports. The lists of courses for individual members are not necessarily complete or comprehensive. **For upper secondary school teachers, moral education is an elective.

ondegree program instead of the one-year course. Some Student Teaching universities are also considering preparing elementary school teachers, who are currently prepared in three- Student teaching is seen as a key component of teacher year diploma/degree college programs. In New Zealand, preparation across APEC members. The duration of a stu- the normal route for most secondary school teachers is dent teaching experience differs from one member to a university degree plus one year of teacher preparation. another and for elementary and secondary teachers. Prac- 20 10 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS tice teaching assignments for primary school teachers environment is created for the ongoing professional range from several sections of 4 weeks (constituting development. and growth of experienced teachers. about one-third of a year's training) in New Zealand to a full-year internship in Chinese Taipei. The duration of Linkages Between Teacher Education and practice teaching at the secondary level also varies wide- Other Curriculum Standards ly, from about 2 weeks in Japan to a minimum of 12 weeks in Canada, to one year in Chinese Taipei. Fre- Only a few APEC members (Malaysia, Japan, and Sin- quently, student teaching occurs toward the end of the gapore) report strong connections between teacher program, after the completion of coursework. However, education curricula and curricular standards for schools increasingly, clinical experiences are spread over the peri- and students. Teacher preparation programs in New od of preservice training. In a growing number of mem- Zealand, Hong Kong, Canada, Chinese Taipei, and bers, elementary and secondary school teaching candi- Brunei D'arussalam are encouraged to take into con- dates go through field experiences in which they observe sideration curricular standards for schools and students classes or serve as tutors or teacher aides prior to student in the design of their own curriculum. In addition, the teaching. In Canada and the United States, there is now introduction of new government curricula is an impor- a trend toward requiring students to undertake observa- tant factor in setting priorities for professional devel- tion or practicum experiences earlier in their programs. opment activities undertaken by schools in New In some instances the length of a student teaching Zealand. In the United States, some states are defining experience also depends on the nature of the pro- curricular standards for what students should know and gramfor example, an undergraduate two- to four-year be able to do and are then using these standards to program or a postgraduate diploma or certificate. In Sin- determine what beginning teachers should know. Aus- gapore, for example, the practicum for a program lead- tralia, too, is bringing "stakeholders in education" ing to a baccalaureate degree can be as much as 25 together "in order to standardize education outcomes weeks over the course of the four-year university pro- across the country." gram. One-year programs leading to a postgraduate diploma in education and two-year programs leading to a diploma in education have practicums 9 weeks and ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 15 weeks in duration, respectively. In the United States, the duration of student teaching programs ranges from Many APEC members feel that the social, demographic, 8 weeks to two full semesters, with most programs economic, and technological changes taking place call requiring 12-15 weeks. New gradui:*e-level programs for greater connections between the aspects of teacher require the most sustained and intensive practice teach- education that deal with subject-area content knowl- ing experience in the form of a year-long school-based edge, pedagogical knowledge, and clinical or practical internship conducted alongside coursework. experiences in teaching. These trends also require New Zealand and Australia report that cooperating ongoing professional development for veteran teachers, teachers, associate teachers, or tutor teachers are respon- whose knowledge is continually challenged bynew sible for mentoring and evaluating the skills of new demands of subjects and students. teachers. In Canada, the United States, and Singapore, faculty from the preparation program and school-based Induction cooperating teachers work together to assess students. In Wellington, New Zealand, cooperating teachers take APEC members report that they increasingly recognize the Advanced Studies in Teaching course to help pre- the first years of teaching as a critical time for develop- pare them for their role. Japan, the United States, Cana- ing effective skills and positive attitudes regarding the da, and the Republic of Korea report that some teacher profession. As a result, interest and support for provid- preparation programs are affiliated with primary and sec- ing beginning teachers with a transition period from for- ondary schools that are organized and supported to pro- mal preparation to practice is growing among APEC vide sites for practice teaching. Schools of education in members. APEC members such as Hong Kong, the Peo- the United States and Australia are increasingly creating ple's Republic of China, the Republic of Korea, the Unit- professional development school relationships with local ed States, Canada, New Zealand, and Japan have or are schools. These school and college partnerships create developing induction programs, transition periods, and sites for preparing new teachers in a manner that inte- on-the-job support for beginning teachers. In Chinese grates theory and practice while also supporting research Taipei, teacher candidates go through a year-long intern- and stimulating reforms of both schools and schools of ship following their coursework and prior to licensure. education. By working with expert teachers to strength- New Zealand and Japan offer examples of highly en the quality of the practice teaching experience, an developed induction programs. In New Zealand "it is

21 1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 11 generally accepted that the first years in the classroom national government covers one half of all related per- are a continuation of the preservice training students sonnel and out-of-school training costs. received in college, and the first stage of their ongoing Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, and the Peo- professional development." ple's Republic of China also reported having induction New 7.ealand's Advice and Guidance Program is programs for beginning teachers. However, available provided f, nr all beginning teachers during their initial information is not sufficient to allow an in-depth discus- two years in the classroom. In fact, new teachers are not sion of these programs. In Canada, the provinces of Que- eligible to become fully licensed (registered) until they bec and New Brunswick are currently piloting induction have completed this two-year experience. Although the programs. And in the United States, approximately 25 program may vary from school to school, it must states have started some kind of induction program, include the following elements to receive approval by although only a few have provided funding for mentors, the New Zealand Teachers' Registration Board: released time, or graduated responsibility for new teachers. In these programs, teachers are generally employed 1. Resources and personal support from colleagues full time on provisional licenses and are observed and in the same curriculum area, school, or educa- evaluated on their teaching performance as a condition tional center for receiving a professional license after one to three 2. Classroom visitations and written appraisals years. regarding the beginning teacher's progress Singapore and Australia have no formal induction toward meeting registration criteria programs. Recently, the Australia Education Union, a 3. A program of visiting and observing experi- national teacher union for government-sector teachers, enced teachers has created policy guidelines for launching induction 4. leetings with senior staff and beginning teach- programs. These policies recommend: ers to "clarify the wider aspects of the beginning teacher's work and responsibilities" 1. An induction period of one year 5. Awritten record of the induction program with 2. Placement in a supportive school environment the advice and guidance received and the extent with senior teachers of participation in planning the corporate life of 3. A reduced teaching load, 0.8 of a fulltime load the school or [early childhood] center (Chap. 10) 4. A period of reflection 5. Review and informal appraisal and professional In addition, primary schools that employ begin- development ning teachers in New Zealand receive an additional 0.2 6. Formal appraisal for permanency or full regis- teaching entitlement per week for each new teacher's tration (Chap. 2) first year, to facilitate released time for the beginning teachers or senior staff working with the beginning Many APEC members continue to explore how they can teachers. At the secondary level, released time is for further enhance and develop these programs to meet the beginning teacher only, who has a workload that the needs of beginning teachers in general, and begin- is 0.8 of the teaching entitlement of a fully registered ning teachers working with specific populations, in spe- teacher. cific subject areas, or in especially challenging (urban In Japan, newly appointed teachers receive for- or rural) geographic locations, in particular. mal induction training during their first year of teaching. Beginning teachers: (1) maintain regular teaching Ongoing Professional Development duties with a "lighter work load"; (2) attend in-school training two times per week; and (3) receive out-of- In most APEC members, efforts to upgrade standards for school training once per week. During in-school train- students have created new demands for investments in ing, "designated guidance teachers" (usually experi- teacher knowledge. Most APEC members are faced with enced teachers) offer support and assistance to the two equally challenging and important concerns in the beginning teachers. Out-of-school training covers a development of a quality teaching force: (1) the recruit- wide range of activities, including volunteer work, lec- ment, preparation, and induction of highly qualified tures, seminars, and visitations to other schools, child new teachers; and (2) the ongoing growth and devel- welfare facilities, private corporations, and social edu- opment of their existing teaching force. Balancing the cation facilities. To support induction activities, schools educational needs and financial demands of supporting employing one beginning teacher are assigned a part- continuing learning for both groups is a concern in time lecturer; those employing two beginning teachers many member nations. are assigned a full time teacher. The appointing author- In this chapter the term professional development ities cover funding for induction programs, and the is used broadly and refers to a wide array of activities:

BEST COPYAVAILABLE 12 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBER!' workshops designed to introduce new policies and approximately $14 million on professional development. practices; activities designed to keep teachers abreast The bulk (53 percent per teacher) was spent on teacher of new developments in education; ongoing in-school released time. opportunities for collegial sharing, observation of other In 1993, Australia announced the federally funded classes, and discussion of teaching; and courses to National Professional Development Program, which pro- upgrade the qualifications of teachers. While all of vides $60 million for staff development activities over a these activities are viewed as important to APEC mem- three-year period, in addition to that provided by teacher bers in ongoing professional development, there are employers. Several Canadian provinces report an aver- differences in terms of which activities are more preva- age allotment of 15 days per school year for activities lent and how professional development opportunities other than teaching. In the United States, inroads toward are structured. funding professional development have been made in As one example of the range of practice, Japanese only a few states, where 5-10 days per year are allotted schools provide teachers with 20 or more hours each for teacher development. In general, U. S. school districts week for collegial work and planning, visitations to spend less than one-half of 1 percent of their budgets on other classrooms and schools, and demonstrations of professional development. teaching strategies. By contrast, U.S. teachers are allotted almost no in-school time for professional development or collegial work. Almost all professional devel- LICENSING (REGISTRATION) AND opment occurs in formal workshops or in courses after OTHER POLICY ISSUES school, on the weekend, or on a small number of specially designated professional days. The diversity among APEC members regarding teacher Ongoing professional development programs may preparation and professional development k.; reflected be supported at the national, state/provincial, or local in the wide variety of approaches to governance struc- government levels, and includeuniversity-based, tures, accreditation, the financing of teacher education, nonuniversity based, and school-site options. Ongoing and licensing requirements. Central to these differences professional development occurs within extensive for- is whether teacher education is perceived as a national, mal structures in some APEC members. Some profes- provincial, state, or local responsibility, or some combi- sional development opportunities, including those in nation of these. Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, and the People's Republic of China, are designed to upgrade the educa- Licensing Requirements tion levels and qualifications of the current teaching force. Professional development opportunities are also In order to maintain standards for teachers, APEC mem- aimedatfamiliarizingteacherswithnational, bers report a wide array of systems for teacher registra- state/provincial, and local curriculum developments. tion or licensing. (Unless otherwise indicated, the terms This was explicitly mentioned by Australia, Singapore, registration, and licensure are used synonymously to and New Zealand. Still other programs are concerned refer to government systems for ensuring minimal quali- with helping experienced teachers keep pace with the fications of candidates allowed to practice.) While licens- ever-increasing knowledge base in subject areas and ing or registration systems are common, several APEC pedagogy, and with the use of technology as an aid in members have no licensure s],stems, including Singapore, instruction. the People's Republic of China, and Brunei Darussalam. Some APEC members cite increases in salary and In Singapore and Brunei Darussalam, there is one teacher career advancement as the major incentives for teach- training program under government control that main- ers to participate in professional development activities. tains strict admissions and academic preparation stan- A concern raised in the .Z:port from the Republic of dards. The People's Republic of China, too, has set up Korea is the view that many teachers may prefer to par- national requirements and standards for primary and sec- ticipate in professional development activities in order ondary school teachers. Completion of a preparation pro- to be promoted and/or to improve their earnings, but gram in these members constitutes authority to practice. that these activities might not affect teacher growth and In Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, competence. and Chinese Taipei, teacher registration is governed by Some APEC members report a trend toward the ministry of education or national education depart- increasing expenditures and released time for profes- ment. New Zealand has a Crown (state) entity called the sional development activities. New Zealand, for exam- Teacher Registration Board whose function is to m in- ple, identified a 30 percent increase in funding for pro- taM a register of teachers. In New Zealand registration fessional development between 1991 and 1993. In New is not a compulsory requirement. However, being reg- Zealand in 1992, primary and secondary schools spent istered is considered favorably in hiring decisions and 1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 13

has a bearing on being recognized as a professional Typically, provisional certificates are issued to teachers teacher. Most private schools require registration. who already have standard certificates for other cate- The United States, Australia, and Canada maintain gories. Both the special certificate and the provisional state or provincial licensing systems rather than a certificate have a limited lifetime and are valid only national framework for licensing. In the United States, within the prefecture or province where they were for example, state requirements vary so substantially issued. Special certificates are valid for a period of three that a teacher licensed in one state frequently does not to ten years, while the provisional certificates are valid meet the licensing requirements in another and is for a period of three years. required to take additional coursework or meet other In the Republic of Korea, teachers can obtain a state-specific requirements on moving from one state to higher-rank license, which means advanced profes- another. sional ability, through in-service training. Teachers who However, even in members with decentralized get a higher-rank license receive an increase in salary. education systems, the idea of national standards is Teacher licensing consists of four structures or levels: becoming more prevalent in education discussions. An Grade 2 teacher, Grade 1 teacher, vice-principal, and independent professional body in the United States, the principal. In the absence of any probation, most teach- National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, has ers start at the Grade 2 teacher level. Higher-level licens- recently begun to offer advanced certification for high- es are based on both seniority and merit. Teachers can ly accomplished veteran teachers. (Certification in this be promoted to a higher-rank license after completing case refers to professional recognition of advanced skills 180 hours of in-service training. Also, promotion is as the term is used in professions such as law, medicine, based on a positive evaluation of such aspects as career, or architecture.) Additionally, over 20 states have joined performance appraisal, and in-service training rating. together to develop model licensing standards and Thus, teachers can be promoted from the classroom to assessments for beginning teachers that are in line with the position of vice-principal or principal. the National Board's standards. In Australia, a new pro- With the notable exceptions of Japan and the fessional body for teachers was created in 1993. Among Republic of Korea, most APEC members' licensing the responsibilities of this body is that of establishing structures tend to be flat rather than hierarchical. In the professional standards for teachers and giving teachers United States, for instance, licensing for teachers is not a voice in professional development issues. In New graduated, except that teachers without full preparation Zealand, there is now a national register of teachers may receive provisional, temporary, or emergency who have fulfilledcertain additional professional licenses of various kinds. Teachers do have to acquire requirements, similar to those kept for lawyers and additional training and an administrative certificate to medical doctors. become a school principal. Requirements for teaching in In many cases, APEC members have different private schools do not differ significantly from those for license categories depending on position level, subject public school teaching. In some states, teachers in pri- area, and school level and type. One highly differenti- vate schools have to be licensed, while in others they ated approach is exemplified by Japan, where there are do not. three types of licenses, or certificates: standard, special, APEC members report differing license or regis- and provisional Standard certificates are the regular cer- tration renewal policies, ranging from two to three years tificates granted to candidates who possess the appro- in Australia in those states that require registration to priate number of subject-matter and education courses. lifetime registration/licensure in Hong Kong, the Repub- There are three categories of standard certificates lic of Korea, and Malaysia. In Chinese Taipei, teachers (advanced, first-class, and second-class) for each school must re-register if they leave the profession for more level, except for upper secondary teachers, to whom than ten years. Until recently, most states in the United only advanced and first-class certificates are issued. The States had few requirements for teachers to satisfy once basic requirements for an advanced certificate are a they were initially licensed. However, most states now master's degree or one year's residence and 30 credits disallow the "lifetime" license and require teachers to in a subject specialty. The basic requirements for the continuously renew their credentials every three to five first-class and second-class certificates are a bachelor's years with additional formal college course work or in- and an associate's degree, respectively. There is also a service training. special certificate "established to allow the utilization of While test scores are widely used to determine individuals from society at large who possess special entry into teacher education programs in many APEC skills or expertise." members, testing for licensure was not as widely dis- In Japan, in the rare cases where there is a short- cussed in most reports, with the exception of the Unit- age of teachers with stand:1rd certificates, those who ed States and Chinese Taipei. In the United States, most have provisional certificates become assistant teachers. states no,. require some form of testing for licensure

24 14 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS upon completion of a teacher preparation program. The the funds are allocated. In the People's Republic of nature of these tests is now changing to include more China, there are variations in sources of financial sup- performance-based methods. In Chinese Taipei, there is port from the central government, depending on insti- now a new law requiring all new teachers to be tutional level and type. Initial teacher education that is licensed, a process that involves doing an internship provided at normal universities and colleges is funded and passing a licensing test at the end of the internship. by the central government. Funding levels are determined according to the number of students enrolled in Governance each institution. Funds for continuing or higher teacher education are provided by state budgets for higher edu- The extent of government involvement in setting and cation; normal colleges under direct provincial supervi- guiding policy regarding teacher education varies wide- sion are locally funded. ly. In the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Though some APEC members have experienced and Japan, policy is not exclusively guided by one par- overall economic growth in the last decade, others are ticular body, given the highly decentralized nature of faced with slow or zero growth. Balancing the recruitment education policy and teacher education programs in and preparation of teachers with the upgrading and con- those countries. In the United States, for instance, tinuous development of experienced teachers has creat- teacher education programs are influenced by the col- ed considerable financial challenges for many. leges and universities in which they reside as well as by state government agencies and other state bodies, such Accreditation as professional standards boards. Professional organizations of teachers and a national accrediting body are In general, APEC members report three types of accred- also very influential. By contrast, teacher eaucation is itation systems for teacher training programs and institu- centralized and the direct responsibility of the member- tions: self---xreditation, government-supervised accredi- wide governments in Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Repub- tation, and external professional accreditation. lic of Korea, Singapore, New Zealand, Chinese Taipei, Self-accreditation appears to be a form of assess- and Brunei Darussalam. ment focused on the institution as a complete entity. in the People's Republic of China, policy guidance The institution assesses itself against its own mission takes place at four levels: the State (National) Education and goals. Self-accreditation systems are prevalent in Commission, the provincial education commission, the New Zealand, Australia, and Hong Kong. In these cases, prefecture education commission, and the county-level the process of accreditation is the responsibility of the education commission. The state is responsible for plan- college or university and is aided by a wide range of ning teacher training programs as a whole, and directly internal and external constituents, including employee controls six key universities at which model teacher examiners, peer review groups, and relevant employers education programs are run. Local commissions are and professional associations. Australia is currently responsible for carrying out state policy and instruc- examining a system of external accreditation through tions. Divisions within provinces, regions, and munici- the newly formed Australian Teaching Council. palities are set up to make specific policies regarding All teacher education programs in Malaysia, Chi- the development of secondary teacher education, and nese Taipei, and Japan are under the direct supervision to supervise and evaluate the implementation of poli- of the government. In these cases, the government cies concerning local normal schools. develops and maintains standards for entry, preparation, and graduation of new teachers. Financing for Teacher Education Singapore's and Brunei Darussalam's teacher training institutionsthe National Institute of Education, Teacher education is primarily funded by state/provin- Nanyang Technological University, and the University cial governments, or national/central governments. In of Brunei Darussalam, respectivelyengage external New Zealand, the United States, and Canada, teacher examiners in the review of academic performance of education is financed in part by state or provincial gov- graduates and in determining the quality of degree pro- ernments. In these cases, other forms of funding include grams. In the United States, there is a dual-track system student tuition, endowments, donations, and research for reviewing teacher preparation programs. Each state monies. Preparation programs in Malaysia, Chinese plays a major role in deciding standards for entry, Taipei, Singapore, and Brunei Darussalam are funded preparation, and the licensure of teachers and has a pro- almost wholly by the national or central governments. cedure for approving individual programs. Also, pro- In Australia, too, teacher education programs are fund- fessional accreditation in teaching is conducted by an ed by recurrent grants provided by the Commonwealth external, nongovernmental agency, the National Coun- Government; however, each institution determines how cil for Accreditation of Teacher Education, through a 25 1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 15 peer review process involving external examiners. In There is also an increased emphasis on revising most states, NCATE accreditation is voluntary. and improving the nature and quality of teacher preparation. In Chinese Taipei, for instance, a new law "requires that all new teachers bP licensed like lawyers TRENDS and doctors." Prospective teachers are required to take an additional 20 credits beyond the required amount for APEC members report many strategies aimed at recruit- the bachelor's degree. After completing coursework. ing and retaining quality teachers, effectively preparing students have to do an internship for one year. On com- teachers in a rapidly changing global economy, and pro- pleting the internship, candidates must pass a licensing fessionalizing the field of teaching. Efforts are under test to become a licensed teacher. By the end of this way to strengthen preparation programs and induction century the People's Republic of China is hoping to supports for new teachers. In addition, current licen- increase the number of primary school and middle- sure/ registration policy structures are under review. school teachers with "state-issued certificates of school- While in some APEC members, teaching is a high- ing record and specialty qualification" to 95 percent and ly regarded occupation, most APEC members report that 90 percent, respectively, and to increase the proportion teaching is currently still a field with little opportunity of teachers with a college education. for advancement and promotion; to advance in the field In 1993, Hong Kong began the first phase of reforms is to leave teaching. The number of administrators need- intended to improve the quality of teaching in primary ed in the field is small and, other than salary increments schools. The intentions of the program are to increase the or credentialing for advancement, there are reported to qualifications of at least 35 percent of primary school be few external incentives to participate in profession- teachers to a bachelor's degree by the year 2007, and to al development activities. turn colleges of education into an autonomous institu- In some APEC members, there are efforts to estab- tionInstitute of Educationwith powers to offer degree lish national frameworks for professional development programs subject to external academic accreditation. to expand its use beyond licensure or registration and Teaching in most APEC members is a highly reg- credentialing for promotion, and to encourage profes- ulated profession. Efforts are under way in some APEC sional development as an integral and ongoing compo- members (the United States, Manitoba and Quebec in nctnt of the profession. What is hoped for is a continu- Canada, and the Republic of Korea) to provide fur um of professional development and growth for teachers greater professional authority and responsibility than is that spans the career from preparation to retirement. currently the case. Various initiatives are attempting to In New Brunswick, Canada, and in the United give teachers greater voice in creating standards for States, a great deal of discussion has recently occurred preparation, licensure, and practice in the field. Greater on the need to create a career path that would focus on professional autonomy in teaching would require the "knowledge base and its practice," and would yield increased professional accountability. Consequently, a coherent, progressive conception of teachers' growth means to ensure initial competence and continuing toward highly accomplished practice over the course of competence and growth are part of the accountability the teaching career. In the United States, the recent cre- discussion in many APEC members. Continuous profes- ation of a system of voluntary National Board certifica- sional development is seen as an important part of tion for veteran teachers who pass standards of accom- greater professionalism by many. plishedpracticeprovidesa benchmark forthis There are efforts in some APEC members (the Unit- continuum. The report from the Republic of Korea notes ed States, Australia, and some provinces in Canada) the importance of creating a teaching-oriented career toward greater collaboration among institutions of higher continuum that would reward teachers for becoming education, school districts, and teacher organizations in more accomplished by acknowledging levels of teach- efforts to improve teacher preparation and support. Pro- ing expertise rather than by promoting teachers out of fessional development school relationships and mentor- the classroom into administrative positions: ing programs in the United States and Australia are examples of increased collaboration between schools and It is urgent that a new teaching-oriented licensing sys- colleges of education. In New Brunswick, Canada, the tem be established, reforming the current management- department of education is collaborating with universities oriented licensing system, both to discourage adminis- to revise the criteria for admission to the teaching profes- tration-driven teacher expectations and to expedite sion, and "to change the preservice program in order to professional development. One proposal... would be give greater attention to the study of teaching and learn- to replace the present system with Grade 2, Grade 1, ing.... It is also working with the universities, school dis- senior, and master teacher categories, eliminating the tricts and teacher organizations to revise the practicum vice-principal and principal positions. (Chap. 8) and emphasize a team approach to professional growth."

20 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APECMEMBERS 16

APECmembers are employing a number of strate- Creating forums to ensure teachers a greater gies to achieve these goals and to combat teaching's flat voice in teacher preparation and professional career ladder. The more common strategiesand trends development issues include some combination of the following: Notwithstanding the differencesinterms of Upgrading the level and quality of teacher approaches and emphasis, APEC members seem to be preparation programs unified in their recognition of the importance of teachers Fostering greater links between academic prepa- in achieving their educational goals. Efforts to strengthen ration and clinical experiences teacher preparation programs, supports for beginning Providing induction or transition supports and teachers, and opportunities for the continuous develop- training for beginning teachers ment and growth of experienced teachers areevidence Providing ongoing professional development of the important role attached to teacher preparation and opportunities teacher development in national development. Creating national frameworks to guide initial teacher preparation and ongoing professional development 2 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Australia

Submitted by: Teaching Policy Section, Schools and Curriculum Division, Department of Employment, Education and Training

CONTEXT within a state government system are referred to as the nongovernment sector. Definitions The major nongovemment systems are the Catholic education systems in each state. However, a large number Definitions for year (grade), age, and qualification to teach of schools are run by other religious denominations and, at different stages of Australian education are presented together with a number of nondenominational, non- in Table 2.1. The definitions of preschool and school edu- government sector schoolssuch as schools offering alter- cation, in terms of starting year or grade, differ among native approaches to educationthey make up the states and territories (defined in Table 2.1 as groups of diverse schooling sector of Australian education. states). Thus, group D students have one less year of sec- Generally, curriculum and senior school assess- ondary schooling than do students from other states. ment are similar across sectors within a state. However, Age levels are approximate. Formal (compulsory) there are significant differences from state to state. schooling begins at the first year of primary school (year Since the mid-1980s, there has been devolution of 1) in each state and ceases at age 15 (usually year 9 or greater responsibility from central system authorities to year 10). Postcompulsory secondary education is pro- the school level, including growing parental involve- vided for 16-18-year-olds and normally includes years ment, greater local school autonomy in school man- 11 and 12 of school. About 76 percent of Australia's agement, and greater responsibility for teachers in young people complete year 12. Postsecondary educa- senior secondary assessment. tion comprises the university and vocational education The federal government provides significant sup- and training sectors. plementary funds to state government and to nongovernment schools. Funds for government schools are Educational Systems and Student Population determined on a state basis, while funds for nongovernment schools are determined on a school system School Systems or individual school basis. The federal government also addresses national The primary responsibility for delivering school educa- priorities for schools and provides leadership in facili- tion lies with state and territory governments. There are tating cooperative efforts between the various school eight state and territory school systems, which are sectors and other key players, such as universities and known as the government sector. Those schools not teacher organizations.

28 17 18 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 2.1 Education Stages in Australia by Year, Length of Time, Age, and Qualification to Teach

Year (Grade) Years Taken Age(Years) Qualification To Teach

Preschool-A* N/A 2 3 to 4 Post-school diploma Preschool-B N/A 3 3 to 5 Primary-C Kindergarten to year 6 7 5 to 1 1 University degree Primary-D Year 1 to year 7 7 6 to 12 Secondary-C Year 7 to year 12 6 12 to 17 Secondary-D Year 8 to year 12 5 13 to 17 TAFE Year 10 (junior secondary) 1 or more 15 N/A University Year 12 (senior secondary) 3 or 4 18 N/A Preservice training University 18 N/A

*Group A States: New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory, Northern Territory. Group B States: Queensland, Western Australia. Group C States: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory. Group D States: Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, Northern Territory. Source: National Report on Schooling in Australia (ANR), 1989.

The forum for this national collaboration and for dents whose primary language is not English and who the development and implementation of school educa- have different cultural assumptions and practices. tion policy is the Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). The Postsecondary Education MCEETYA comprises federal, state and territory ministers for education, employment, training, and youth affairs. Students who leave school at age 15 may seek entry into the vocational education and training sector, a large part Student Populations of which lies within the government-funded Technical and Further Education (TAFE) system. Students under- In 1993, there were 9,865 schools in Australia, with take prevocational and year-12 courses, as well as pre- 3,098,375 full-time students, most of whom (58.6 per- apprenticeship and work traineeships. Students who cent) were drawn from the primary level (see Table 2.2). complete year 12 may seek entry to TAFE to obtain pro- The government sector was responsible for 71.9 pei , -!nt fessional, paraprofessional, or trades qualifications. of full-time students and 75 percent of schools. A sig- Those who also complete matriculation requirements nificant number of students (19.3 percent) were located may seek entry to university. in Catholic systems. There is a wide range of subjects available to students who continue to year 12. They include matricula- Student Retention tion subjects and those offered for general interest and special needs. Some subjects in year 12 can be credited Participation in the noncompulsory years of schooling has for future study at TAFE. The range of subjects and increased dramatically, with an increase in the year-12 methods of assessment vary across states and territories. apparent retention rate from 46 percent in 1985 to 76 per- However, in general, year-12 assessment is based on cent in 1993. combinations of the following methods: Year-12 completion rates have also increased dramatically during this period, although they tend to be high- Statewide syllabus external examinations er for urban areas and lowest for remote areas. The An external, statewide scaling test set by an increase in completion rates has been fairly evenly distrib- independent research body and designed to uted between areas of low and high socioeconomic status. measure general skills It is generally assumed that increased participation Local, school-based assessment, determined by has altered the composition of the school student pop- local teachers using exam results, assignments, ulation over the past decade in terms of abilities and of observation, and so on cultural and linguistic background. In addition, there is Moderated school-based assessment where all a growing trend toward mainstream participation of stu- state school-based assessments for the one subject dents with disabilities. Australia's substantial immigra- are scaled, removing those variations in marks tion program has also resulted in a steady influx of stu- not due to differences in student achievement 2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 19

TABLE 2.2 Number and Percentage of Full-time Students; Category of School (andNongovernment Affiliation) and Level of Education, 1993, by State and Territory

Level of Education NSW Vic Old SA WA Tas NT ACT(a) Total

NUMBER Government Primary 446,911 303,985 260,493 124,802 143,871 37,380 19,400 22,583 1,359,425 Secondary311,064 222,651 143,770 59,818 78,580 27,347 7,437 17,964 868,631 Total 757,975 526,636 404,263 184,620 222,451 64,727 26,837 40,547 2,228,058 Nongovernment-Anglican Primary 7,335 6,781 3,899 3,661 899 879 26,616 Secondary 15,800 17,622 8,416 3,874 6,828 1,904 2,656 57,100 Total 23,135 24,403 12,315 7,535 9,990 2,803 0 3,535 83,716 Nongovernment-Catholic Primary 120,570 99,864 52,661 22,349 28,844 7,565 3,280 8,438 343,571 Secondary 96,028 73,767 14,175 20,313 5,531 1,397 7,333 225,716 Total 216,598 173,631 89,833 36,524 49,157 13,096 4,677 15,771 599,287 Nongovernment-Other Primary 26,728 20,884 15,783 10,471 7,647 2,754 1,165 1,022 86,454 Secondary 27,660 32,043 21,537 8,077 7,494 2,381 1,193 477 100,862 Total 54,388 52,927 37,320 18,548 15,141 5,135 2,358 1,499 187,316 Nongovernment-Total Primary 154,633 127,529 72,343 36,481 39,653 11,218 4,445 10,339 456,641 Secondary 139,488 123,432 67,125 26,126 34,635 9,816 2,590 10,466 413,687 Total 294,121 250,961 139,468 62,607 74,288 21,034 7,035 20,805 870,319 All Schools Primary 601,544 431,514 332,836 161,283 183,524 48,598 23,845 32,922 1,816,066 Secondary450,552 346,083 210,895 85,944 113,215 37,163 10,027 28,430 1,282,309 Total 1,052,096 777,597 543,731 247,227 296,739 85,761 33,872 61,352 3,099,375

PERCENTAGE Government Primary 14.4 9.8 8.4 4.0 4.6 1.2 0.6 0,7 43.9 Secondary 10.0 7.2 4.6 1.9 2.5 0.9 0.2 0.6 28.0 Total 24.5 17.0 13.0 6.0 7.2 2.1 0.9 1.3 71.9 Nongovernment-Anglican Primary 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.9 Secondary 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.8 Total 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 2.7 Nongovernment-Cathollc Primary 3.9 3.2 1.7 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.3 11.1 Secondary 3.1 2.4 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.2 8.3 Total 7.0 5.6 2.9 1.2 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.5 19.3 Nongovernment-Other Primary 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.8 Secondary 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.1 3.3 Total 1.8 1.7 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.1 6.0 Nongovernment-Total Primary 5.0 4.1 2.3 1.2 1.3 0.4 0.1 0.3 14.7 Secondary 4.5 4.0 2.2 0.8 1.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 13.4 Total 9.5 8.1 4.5 2.0 2.4 0.7 0.2 0.7 28.1 All Schools Primary 19.4 13.9 10.7 5.2 5.9 1.6 0.8 1.1 58.6 Secondary 14.5 11.2 6.8 2.8 3.7 1.2 0.3 0.9 41.4 Total 34.0 25.1 17.5 8.0 9.6 2.8 1.1 2.0 100.0 Source: 1993 Schools Australia: Australia Bureau of Statistics.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 20 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE The age profile was somewhat younger for the nongovernment sector. Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession Almost half (46.7 percent) of those surveyed reported four or more years of preservice training. Near- In 1991, there were 199,532 full-time equivalent (FTE) ly one-third (31.6 percent) completed three years of pre- teachers in Australian schools (see Table 2.3), as well as service training, obtaining either a degree or a diploma, 46,827 FTE nonteaching staff (e.g., counselors, teacher while the remainder had completed one to two years of aides, clerical and maintenance staff). Teachers are fair- training. The latter group varied across states. ly evenly divided between primary and secondary lev- Teachers are registered to teach, either by a statu- els. A majority (62 percent) are female, although this pro- tory board in some states, or by employers themselves. portion is much higher for the primary than for the Registered teachers are generally recruited centrally in secondary level, especially in the nongovernment sector. both the government and the Catholic school systems, Nearly three quarters of all teachers (145,895) and then allocated to schools. In the case of some non- work in the government sector. The largest teacher government schools, teachers are recruited individually employers are state governments. For example, 23 per- by school boards. cent of all FIE teachers in Australia in 1991 were Under devolution policies being introduced in employed by the New South Wales State Government. some government school systems, regional managers Australia is a highly urbanized nation and most may be given some responsibility for recruiting new teachers are employed in the major urban areas along teachers. School principals in some states already have the eastern and southeastern seaboard. However, in all significant responsibility for selecting replacement states and territories, teachers in the government sector teachers for their schools. are actively encouraged to undertake a periodof The TAS survey indicated that in 1989, 90 percent employment in rural and remote areas. of teachers were employed on a permanent, full-time In 1989, a national sample survey, Teachers in basis, with the remainder on temporary, or short-term Australian Schools (TAS), was undertaken by a contract basis. The proportion of the latter groups var- research team from the University of Queensland to ied across states. examine the characteristics and qualifications of Aus- The lack of uniformity in registration requirements, tralian teachers. Data were gathered by questionnaire the industrial relations framework, and the political pref- from separate national samples for primary and sec- erence to offer employment to locally trained teachers ondary teachers, each stratified by state and sector. The all have helped create state-based teacher labor markets, total sample size was 9,895, with a response rate of making it difficult for teachers to move easily from one 65.4 percent (6,478). state to another. It is generally easier to move between The average age of teachers surveyed was 37.4 different sectors within the same state, although condi- years, with two-thirds aged between 31 and 50 years. tions of service entitlements may not be transferable.

TABLE 2.3 Australian FTE* Teachers by Sector, Level, and Geneer, 1991 Male Female PersonsI GOVERNMENT Primary 20,474 53,742 74,216 Secondary 36,353 35,327 71,679 Total 56,826 89,068 145,895 NONGOVERNMENT Primary 4,942 17,621 22,564 Secondary 14,598 16,476 31,074 Total 19,540 34,097 53,638 TOTAL Primary 25,416 71,363 96,779 Secondary 50,951 51,803 102,753 Total 76,367 123,166 199,532

*Estimated full-time equivalent staff. Does not include special support, teacher aides, and nonteaching staff. Source: ANR Statistical Annex, 1991.

31 2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 21

Characteristics of 1.'aching Employment Many teachers belong to either a government sector- or nongovernment-sector industrial union at the Under Australia's industrial relations framework, salaries state level, which in turn are affiliated with national gov- and conditions for teachers are determined through a ernment- and nongovernment-sector teacher unions. Of system of conciliation and arbitration. Generally, salaries those surveyed for the TAS, 61 percent belonged to an and conditions for government and nongovernment industrial union (higher for the government than nonteachers are set out in state industrial awards, or con- government sector). tracts, which are adhered to by all but a few smaller Historically, teacher unions have been very active employers in the nongovernment sector. in seeking to improve teacher salaries and conditions, However, an emerging trend in Australia is the and have been heavily involved in more general school- development of enterprise bargaining, in which employ- related issues. Unions are formally recognized in the ees and employers negotiate directly on wages and con- conciliation and arbitration process. ditions. Enterprise agreements already have been negoti- The TAS also indicated that 38 percent of teachers ated and implemented in a small number ofnon- belonged to subject associations. These provide profes- government schools. sional development support for teachers in specific sub- One state government recently abolished the ject areas, but otherwise are not involved with profes- process of conciliation and arbitration in that state, sional issues. ended the state teaching award, and introduced direct In late 1993, the Australian Teaching Council (ATC), contracts for government teachers. In response, teacher a new professional body for teachers, was established. unions are seeking to obtain an award at the federal Some of the responsibilities of the council will be to: level. If successful, this may lead to federal awards for all teachers. Provide a national voice for teachers In general, classroom teacher salary levels are Help develop a system of national teacher reg- incremental and based on qualifications and years ofser- istration vice. The top salary increment level, referred to as the Improve initial teacher education ar. -I develop benchmark level,is now almost uniform across Australia guidelines for best practice in relatior. to induc- at A$38,950 for most states. However, there are differ- tion and probation ences in increment levels between sectors and states. Improve professional development Outstanding classroom teachers may be promot- Establish professional standards, as well as rights ed to the new Advanced Skills Teacher (AST) classifica- and obligations for teachers tion. AST salary levels are fairly consistent across Aus- tralia, ranging from A$38,242 to A$41,205. Teachersmay The ATC will not be involved in negotiating also gain promotion into executive or administrative salaries and employment conditions; it will focus instead positions in schools, or into administrative positions in on professional rather than on industrial issues. state Education Departments or Catholic Education Commissions. Patterns of Supply and Demand for Government-sector teachers have access to state Teaching Positions government superannuation schemes (to which employers make a contribution) for retirement income. Non- The demand for teachers fluctuates according toa num- government teachers may have access to similar funds or ber of factors. These include: else make private arrangements. All teachers are eligible for benefits available through federal governmentpro- Funds available to employers grams. Health coverage is provided under the compul- Separation rate of teachers (resignations, retire- sory national medicare system, supplemented by volun- ments, etc.) tary private health insurance, while all retired persons Trends in student enrollment who satisfy a means test are eligible for a pension. Employer policies regarding class size,promo- Australian teachers in the government sector, and tion structure, introduction of new curriculum most in the nongovernment sector, enjoy a high level of areas, and so on employment stability. Except for individual cases of incompetence,negligence,or other unacceptable Some of these are in turn influenced by factors behavior, major employers rarely dismiss teachers. such as the current labor market for alternativeoccu- When required to reduce teacher numbers, they usual- pations, the age profile of the current teaching force, ly restrict the intake of new teachers, or offer voluntary and availability of alternatives to resignation (e.g., leave redundancy packages to older teachers. provisions). TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN APEC MEMBERS 22

For a number of years, the overall demandfor state education authorities. The numbersof students teachers has been exceeded by the supply of teacher enrolled varied in response to each state's perceived graduates at the national level. However, this pattern staffing requirements. has varied considerably according te school level,sub- After 1972, teacher education was provided by resulting ject area, and geographical area. The existenceof state- autonomous Colleges of Advanced Education, based labor markets has led to significant differences in in a male . change whereby the employerauthority was the demand for teachers across states, such thatteacher separate from the training authority. shortages and surpluses can occur simultaneously in dif- Since then, Colleges of Advanced Education have ferent states. There are also considerable regional dif- amalgamated with universities or with other higher edu- ferences. The demand for teachers is usually higher in cation institutions. This has resulted in a rationalization remote areas than in coastal regions. of the number of teacher education courses available. Generally, demand has been relatively low for pri- Thirty-five of the 37 higher education institutions mary teachers and secondary teachersof humanities and in Australia offer teacher education courses.Enrollment social science. However, there have beenconsistent numbers per institution vary considerably. In 1993, they shortages of qualified secondary teachers in mathemat- ranged from 269 to 2,852 per institution. ics and science across all states, and there is a growing Teacher education funding is derived from recur- demand for teachers qualified in Asian languages. rent grants provided by the Commonwealth government Recruiting strategies for areas of shortage have for the general operation of higher education institu- the included: tions. Institutions are autonomous and determine detailed distribution of these resources among their Retraining current teachers to teach new areas, activities. In 1992, approximately A$420 million was e.g., primary teachers retrained toteach sec- allocated to teacher education, A$310 million to preser- ondary subjects vice education, and A$110 million to professional devel- Recruiting nonteachers with tertiary qualifica- opment. This represents 4.2 percent of the total expen- tions in mathematics and science and providing diture of Commonwealth funds in the higher education short-term education training and school education sectors. Recruiting qualified teachers from overseas Policy Guidance A suggestion within one state system to pay math and science teachers a higher level of salary was discussed The highly devolved nature of the education systems in but not implemented. There is considerable teacher sup- Australia, together with the autonomy of higher educa- port for salaries to be ranked according to existingcrite- tion institutions, means that preservice and inservice ria rather than varied according to specific subject areas. teacher education is not exclusively guided by the poli- Data from the 1991 Graduate Destination Survey, cies of any one particular body. which focuses on the first destination of graduates in the The Commonwealth government has in place a labor market a few months after the completion of their number of strategies that, through its funding initiatives, course of study, is provided in Table2.4. The groups that would be expected to include most of the graduate teachers (e.g., arts, science, and education) had a lower TABLE 2.4 proportion of graduates in full-time employment (from Full-time Employment Rate of 1990 Graduates in 54 to 65 percent) than other groups. Australia by Field of Study, 1991 Data available from other national surveys, which were carried out between 1984 and 1990, suggestthat Employment about 50 percent of university graduate teachers had Rate (%) obtained full-time employment at the time they were 73 surveyed. Agriculture Architecture 61 Arts 54 Business 75 CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF Education 65 TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS Engineering 74 Health 91 Law 91 Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions Science 65 Vet Science 88 Prior to 1972,most teacher education was provided by Teachers' College institutions, which were controlled by Source: 1991 Graduate Destination Survey.

33 2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 23 seek to influence the future direction of these programs. Using and developing professional knowledge They are described in the last section of the chapter. and values Developing relationships and working with others Accreditation/Approval Planning and managing the teaching and learning process Generally, courses are self-accredited by universities Monitoring and assessing the teaching and learn- themselves within an agreed-on framework that requires: ing process Reflecting, evaluating, and planning for contin- Periodic assessment uous improvement Guarantee of appropriateness of staff experience, and of qualifications and facilities available Minimum standards for admission and levels of Academic Preparation Prior to competence achieved, and national standards of Preservice Teacher Education course length and nomenclature Admission to teacher education courses, in the main, Assessment is usually undertaken in consultation depends on an appropriate tertiary entrance score. Each with relevant employers, professional associations, and student is given a score based on their year-11 and year- other bodies. 12 assessments at secondary school. Individual higher The Commonwealth government, while not an education institutions determine the minimum score employer of teachers, does exert some influence over under which students will not be accepted into a teacher education. This is achieved through the funding course. These scores may vary across institutions, even of special projects that further the implementation of for the same subject disciplines. national initiatives. The recently formed Australian Quotas, set by the institutions after consultations Teaching Council (see previous section on characteris- with state higher education advisory bodies, exist for all tics of teacher employment) may accept the accredita- education courses. tion of teacher education courses as one of its respon- Institutions do not generally interview prospective sibilities for the future. teacher education students. There may be exceptions in religious institutionswhere an indication of a person's faith may be considered important to their work as a NATURE AND CONTENT OF teacheror in some institutions with small intakes of TEACHER PREPARATION teacher education students. There is concern that poor employment prospects Goals of the Teacher Preparation System and poor publicity for teaching may result in a drop in demand for places in teacher education. This has so far Although teacher education courses differ across the not been the case. There is, however, some real con- country, there are common threads from which a com- cern that teacher education courses do not attract mon goal can be formulated. entrants with academic achievements comparable to This common goal is to produce graduate begin- those of entrants in most other professions. ning teachers who are professional in their knowledge, competence, and attitudes, that is, teachers who are: Nature and Content of Knowledgeable about their subject discipline, Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula their pupils, the curriculum, and pedagogy The general pattern for secondary teacher preparation Resourceful and adaptable to change and able involves either a university degree (three or four years) to reflect on their teaching practices specializing in the subject disciplines to be taught, fol- Informed in their judgments, rational in their lowed by a one-year Graduate Diploma of Education decisions, ethical in their behavior, and account- program, or a four-year Bachelor of Education degree able for their actions program, which integrates studies in subject disciplines, In an effort to further articulate these outcomes, education, and teaching practices. National Competency Standards for beginning teachers Recently, the trend for secondary-trained teachers is are being prepared. These competencies have been toward the phasing out of integrated courses and the revi- developed in close consultation with teachers, teacher talization of Graduate Diploma courses. Some universities educators, and employers, and will be useful in devel- are looking at two-year, add-on courses (rather than at the oping curriculum for initial and in-service training of traditional one-year course) to enable students to spend teachers. The draft framework identifies five areas of more time in the classroom to integrate their pedagogical, competence for teachers: individual discipline, and practical experiences. 24 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Most primary and early childhood students have, Status of Teacher Education in the past, undertaken a three-year diploma course or Curricular Standards a three-year Bachelor of Teaching. This is gradually changing, so that as of 1994, most primary courses will Under the terms of the Australian constitution, state and become four-year Bachelor of Education degrees, which territory governments are responsible for education in integrate subject disciplines with pedagogical studies, their regions. They are the largest employers of teach- and offer extended practicum experiences in the final ers, set curricular frameworks, provide most of the pro- year. Some universities are also investigating the train- fessional development for their teachers, and work with ing of primary teachers using the secondary Graduate higher education institutions to determine the content Diploma model. of university courses. Practicum arrangements differ enormously. The The federal government, while not an employer number of school experience days required in different of teachers, provides state governments with funds for states or territories ranges from 50 to just over 100. education, and consequently plays an important part in Although there is general agreement that more is better setting policy. than less, the cost of supervising students in schools For some time, efforts have been made at the fed- constrains the extent of the school experience. eral level to bring together all the stakeholders in edu- To overcome this, some teacher education facul- cation in order to standardize education outcomes ties have collaborated with schools, unions, and teacher across the country. National Competency Standards for employers to develop an extended practicum; for exam- beginning teachers are being formulated (see section ple, one day a week all year, four days a week for a above on teacher preparation), national curriculum term or a semester, or every day for a term. In this sit- statements and profiles have been devised, key compe- uation, teachers have agreed to waive the supervision tenciesto be achieved by all studentshave been payment in return for nonfinancial benefits, such as identified, and work has commenced on establishing requiring less classroom time to free teachers for other the Australian Vocational Certificate. See the last section activitiesthat is, attending courses for accreditation in this chapter for further details. toward a higher degree. The best of teacher education courses incorporate During an extended practicumor internship, as state and territory education initiatives and federal gov- it is often calledstudents are expected to undertake ernment priorities. Universities are encouraged to apply all the responsibidties associated with having a full-time for federal grants that further the national agenda. For teaching position. example, during 1993, universities conducted summer Assessment of a student's practicum performance and winter schools for teachers where they were is carried out mainly by the supervising teacher. In some instructed about the national curriculum statements and courses, university lecturers also observe the student in profiles, and about other national initiatives. federal the school and have input into the final assessment. funding has also been used by universities for discipline There is usually no attempt to seek parity of assessment renewal courses for teachers, covering mathematics, outcomes across institutions, or even within the same secondary science, and Australian history. Beginning in institution. 1994, universities have been able to apply for funding to conduct similar professional development courses in Differences in the Nature and Content '.Jf the areas of English, physical education and health, pri- Teacher Preparation Programs mary science, and technology. Overall, there is considerable variation in teacher preservice training across institutions, for example, in: LICENSING

The amount of time required for initial training Initial Requirements courses, especially for primary preparation The number of required days of practice teach- In general, teachers who seek employment in the gov- ing undertaken by trainee teachers ernment sector, and most schools in the nongovernment The proportion of practical and theoretical com- sector, must be registered in that state. Registration is ponents of teacher education courses. determined either by a statutory body (established under state legislation) or by employers, usually during the Teacher education courses within a state are close- recruitment of teachers. In most cases, registration has ly aligned to the state curricula and to educational prac- minimum requirements. An outline of the registration tices in which they operate. process is given in Table 2.5. 2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 25

TABLE 2.5 Outline of the Registration Process by State and Sector

Statutory Employer-regulated with Employer-regulated Without Registration Minimum Requirements Minimum Requirements

GOVERNMENT

Victoria New South Wales Queensland Western Australia South Australia Australian Capital Territory Northern Territory Tasmania

NONGOVERNMENT

Victoria Australian Capital Territory New South Wales Queensland Northern Territory Western Australia** South Australia Western Australia* Tasmania

*The WA Catholic Education Commission. **Independent, nongovernment schools in WA (i.e., excludes Catholic Education Commission). Source: D. McR :t, A National Teaching Council for Australia, NPQTL, 1992.

TABLE 2.6 Registration Criteria by State and Sector

NSW VIC QLD WA SA TAS NT ACT

GOVERNMENT

Unregistered X 3-year training X X (a) X X X X 4-year training X (b) X X X Provisional (training) X X X X X X Provisional (experience/ X X appraisal) Registration categories X X X

NONGOVERNMENT

Unregistered/no X X X qualifications 3-year training X (a) X (c) 4-year training X (b) X (d) Provisional (training) X Provisional (experience/ appraisal) Registration categories X

(a) Primary teaching. (b) Secondary teaching. (c) Catholic primary teaching. (d) Catholic secondary teaching. Source: D. McRae, A National Teaching Council for Australia, NPQTL, 1992.

In general, the statutory Teacher Registration for is determined by nonstatutory bodies that have a Boards include representatives of the state Ministry (or similar structure to the Registration Boards. For the Department) of Education, teachers and nongovernment remaining employers, qualification to teach is deter- employers, where relevant. One state also includes rep- mined as part of the recruitment process. resentatives from universities and parents' associations. The general criteria for registration are set out in In two states, registration for the government sec- Table 2.6. 26 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Full registration is generally dependent on mini- ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT mum qualification requirements, although unregistered teachers can be authorized to teach in certain circum- Postqualification Processes stances in Queensland. Persons without teaching qualifications may be registered as specialist teachers in Vic- Across Australia, defined periods of induction, transi- torian nongovernment schools, while persons without tion, or on-the-job training mainly devolve to regions or qualifications may be registered for nongovernment to individual schools, and the process is not dealt with schools in some other states, although in these cases, in any uniform way. future salary increases and promotion would be depen- The Australian Education Union does, however, dent on obtaining qualifications. have policy guidelines, which it adopted in 1991. These Most authorities allow provisional registration include the following: where teachers have begun Lt not completed teaching qualifications. In addition, final registration is An induction period of one year also subject to a successful completion of a minimum Placement in a supportive school, with senior period of teaching, in some states involving, at times, staff responsible for the induction program appraisal or probation. A reduced teaching load Some states have separate registration categories A period of reflection, review, and informal for teachers with primary, secondary, and specialist appraisal and professional development qualifications. One state allows registration restricted to Formal appraisal for permanency or full regis- certain subject areas. tration There is no nationally consistent process of teacher registration, although some states have bilater- The small amount of research conducted in Aus- al agreements in relation to government-sector teachers. tralia indicates that few teachers experience a formal There are considerable minor differences between induction program, although large numbers receive employersfor example, in the areas of registration some informal help, such as a friendly chat or a tour periods, documentation requirements, and assessment around the school. Many others do not even receive this. of previous teaching experience. One state requires for- The importan :e of this phase of teacher education mal testing of language competency. is now being recognized across Australia. At present, state and territory governments are reviewing their legislative registration requirements 'for Professional Development Opportunities a wide range of occupations. It is expected that or many occupations, those requiring registration in one A wide range of in-service professional development state will automatically receive mutual recognition in all activities are undertaken by teachers. They include: other states. It is anticipated that teaching will be included in this process. Courses delivered at different levelsthat is, In the longer term, it is envisaged that the Aus- school-based, systemwide, professional subject tralian Teaching Council will develop a national teacher associations, and universities registration process. There is no guarantee that employ- Courses designed for differing needs, including ers will accept this classification. those of individual teachers, specific school needs, and emerging system needs Licensing Reauthorization Courses varying from short-term, informal courses to long-term, formal courses where a certifi- The period of authorized registration varies: from one- cate, diploma, or degree is awarded to-three years to permanent status. It is not known whether re-registration is automatic in these circum- Until recently, professional development activi- stances, or whether a specific process is followed. ties were the sole responsibility of the various systems within individual states and territories. Priorities for Status of Qualifying Conditions content, frequency, and funding have therefore varied across Australia. As indicated above, nongovernment authorities in a num- Universities have contributed by upgrading courses ber of states have the flexibility to register or employ perfor two-year trained teachers to three-year trained teach- sons with little or no formal teaching (or other) qualifi- ers, as required by systems across Australia. Most recent- cations. This may occur to fill a serious shortage (e.g., ly, the trend has been toward upgrading three-year Diplo- specialist teachers) or because some schools (e.g., reli- ma courses to four-year Bachelor of Education degrees. gious schools) seek teachers with other qualities. The offering of master's and PhD degrees in education

37 2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 27 also has become more widespread in the last ten years. ment authorities in meeting the additional financial costs In 1993, the federal government announced the from teacher award restructuring. National Professional Development Program (NPDP), In collaboration with government and non- which will provide A$60 million over the next three government teacher employers and teacher unions, the years to enhance professional development activities for federal government helped to establish the National teaching staff in Australian schools. Education systems, Project for the Quality of Teaching and Learning universities, and teacher organizations can apply for (NPQTL). The NPQTL, which concluded its work in funding under this program, which aims to improve December 1993, brought together in one forum the key educational outcomes for young people, includir:g stu- parties involved in the quality of teaching and learning. dents experiencing educational disadvantage. The main areas of activity were:

The National Schools Project, which involves POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR schools in action research projects, investigating TEACHER PREPARATION AND how changes in work organization for teachers PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT can lead to improvements in student learning outcomes. In 1994, this project will continue as Present Concerns for Change and Improvement the National Schools Network, with involvement from all states and territories. Toward the end of 1992, the Commonwealth Depart- The establishment of the Australian Teaching ment of Employment, Education, and Training released Council, a national professional body for teachers, a discussion paper on teacher education. The following which will have a voice in such matters as teacher issues were raised: preservice education, in-service training, registration, and professional conduct (see previous sec- Concern over the lack of recent teaching expe- tion on characteristics of teaching employment). rience on the part of teacher educators The development of National Competency Stan- The relevance of teacher education programs, dards for beginning teachers (see previous sec- particularly the need for practical pedagogical tion on goals of the teacher preparation system). orientation in course content, the amount of training time spent in the classroom, and the Other reforms that will impact on professional need to keep pace with the substantial changes development for teachers and principals, as well as on ocLurring with curriculum changes to teacher preservice training, include: The need for teachers to keep abreast of content knowledge The work of the Finn and Mayer committees, The need for a national framework for profes- which will result in the integration of key employ- sional development that will meet both the wide ment-related competencies into all curricula and growing range of professional needs for The introduction of the Australian Vocation Cer- teachers and the specific training needs of princi- tificate in secondary schools, which is designed pals, with the trend toward self-managing schools to expand opportunities for students to begin vocational training and experiences at school Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement The introduction across Australia of common curriculum statements and profiles for eight key Since 1989, the federal government has focused strong- learning areas ly on improving the quality of teaching through a num- The implementation of the National Policy for ber of policies. The federal government brought togeth- the Education of Girls in Australian Schools erthekeypartiesinvolvedinteacher award restructuring at the national level. The aim was to During late 1993, an accord was struck between improve the quality of teaching, with attention to both the Commonwealth government, the Australian Educa- teachers' skills and their qualifications, and through tion Union, and the Independent Teachers Federation. changes in remuneration and career-path policies. Part of the agreement relates to professional structures As a result, state Ministers of Education agreed to and career development for teachers. It includes sup- a national salary benchmark for four-year trained teach- port for the Australian Teaching Council, the continua- ers, and agreed on establishing the category of tion of the National Schools Project as the National Advanced Skills Teacher (see previous section on char- Schools Network, and support for the work associated acteristics of teaching employment). The federal gov- with the National Competency Standards for beginning ernment agreed to assist government and nongovern- teachers. 3 S 3 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Brunei Darussalam

Submitted by: Ministry of Education

CHARACTERISTICS OF The Faculty of Education TEACHER PREPARATION INSTITUTIONS The education of teachers and their regular supply to The Universiti Brunei Darussalam the rapidly expanding school system in terms of absolute numbers, and the growing multiplicity of spe- The idea of establishing a university in Negara Brunei cialized areas, have become major priorities of the Min- Darussalam first came up during a comprehensive review istry of Education in Negara Brunei Darussalam. The of the country's higher educational needs in 1976. Subse- Bruneization policy and the state's policy to "accelerate quent discussions led to the appointment of a steering human resources development" to meet the demands of committee, which, with the assistance of the British Coun- an increasingly sophisticated economy, together with cil, engaged a group of experts to study and advise on the the bilingual policy of the Ministry of Education (MOE), establishment of an institution of higher learning in the warrant an urgent and aggressive demand for efficient country. Once academic links with several overseas uni- and effective teacher education. versities were set up, English-language and Malay-lan- At present, the Universiti Brunei Darussalam is the guage medium first-degree programs were designed. In sole institution in the country entrusted with the respon- 1985, His Majesty Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mui'zzadin sibility of meeting many of the ministry's needs. Among Waddaulah, Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Negara Brunei these are professional preparation and upgrading of stu- Darussalam, and the Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) dents by offering them courses at the certificate, degree, Chancellor, formally announced the establishment of the postgraduate, and master's levels. In addition, UBD also University with an initial intake of 176 students. sees its responsibility as updating the skills and knowl- Governance of the university rests mainly with the edge of teachers and education personnel in the Min- University Council. The Chief Executive Officer, who istry of Education through continuing education and indirectly controls the activities of the university, is the service education programs. Vice Chancellor, who is ably supported by the Perma- While the Universiti Brunei Darussalam has the nent Academic Adviser and Registrar in managing and overall role of organizing teacher education in response administering the affairs of staff and students. The aca- to the MOE's requirements, the Faculty of Education (FOE) demic programs are offered by five faculties: Arts & is given the principal role of professionally preparing Social Sciences, Education, Management & Administra- teachers for schools in Negara Brunei Darussalam. Teacher tive Studies, Islamic Studies, and Science. These facul- educators in the FOE at present comprise local and expa- ties are administered by a dean, a deputy dean, and triate staff, recruited internationally to provide the neces- heads of departments. sary training for preservice and in-service teachers. 33 29 30 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

The needs of the ministry by and large have NATURE AND CONTENT OF been expressed in quantitative and operational terms. TEACHER PREPARATION That is, requests from the ministry are channeled to UBD in terms of the number of teachers required and The teacher education programs and the number of stu- the types of teachers needed in the areas and levels of dents enrolled in each can be seen in Table 3.1. There specialization. are three degree programs and they cater to both the The subsequent direction in which teachers' edu- English-language medium and Malay-language medium cation programs are developed and the philosophic and students. The B.A. Education (TESL, Geography, Eco- qualitative aspects of such programs are formulated in nomics), B.Sc. Education (Maths, Biology, Chemistry, consonance with the aspirations of the country and of Physics), and B.A. Primary Education are all conducted its overall plan. It is also recognized that teachers work- in the English language. TheB.A.Pendidikan (Sejarah. ing in the primary and secondary schools need subject Bahasa Melayu, Kesusteraan Melayu),B.A.Pendidikan content in varying depth. They also need a clear grasp Pengajian Islam, and B.A. Pendidikan Rendah are all of the skills to be applied to the processes of learning taught in Malay language. The degree programs are of the content. The challenge is to provide them with a four-year (eight semester) duration for preservice edu- balance between process-oriented and a purely content- cation students and from three (six semesters) to 3.5 oriented curriculum. There is an authentic collaboration (seven semesters) years for in-service teachers. among the university's academic scholars in the disci- Certificate and Post-Graduate Certificate in Educa- pline of education and other subjects. tion (PGCE) programs are also offered for serving pri-

TABLE 3.1 Education Student Enrollment, 1990-1993

1993/94 Intake 1992/93 Intake 1991/92 Intake 1990/91 Intake Education Pre- Up- Pre- Up- Pre- Up- Pre- Up- Program service graders service graders service graders service graders Total

ENGLISH MEDIUM BSC Education 13 16 26 21 76 BA Education 3 11 15 11 22 7 24 94 BA Education 3 3 (Islamic Studies) BA Primary Education 33 21 1 34 41 130

MALAY MEDIUM BA Pendidikan 17 18 24 20 23 104 BA Pendidikan 15 17 16 14 11 12 2 10 99 (Pengajian Islam) BA Pendidikan Rendah 25 29 27 86

OTHER PROGRAMS PGCE (secondary English) 24 24 PGCE (secondary Malay) 19 19 PGCE (secondary-Irk)_ 7 7 PGCE (primary) 12 12

CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS Early Childhood Ed. 17 17 Education 52 63 59 174 Teaching Malay Language 29 29 Educational Management 26 26

MASTER'S DEGREE Master of Educational 26 26 Management (M.ED M)

Total 198 175 136 83 147 80 51 57 926

40 31 3 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INBRUNEI DARUSSALAM mary and secondary teachers, as well asfor religious goals and related specific objectives. The goals and education teachers. Preset-vice students pursue a three- related specific objectives of the teacher education pro- year Certificate in Education program,which enables grams are the most important curricular criteria,for they them to become primary teachers after certification. The provide standards, or guidelines, on which are based Postgraduate Certificate in Education programs are for the designs for these programs. secondary serving teachers in the primary or secondary The main purpose of the Faculty of Education is levels. Other PGCE programs cater to religious teachers' the preparation of personnel for teaching, educational training for teaching Islamic Religious Knowledge (IRK) administration, and other related fields in primary and in primary or secondary schools. At these levels, IRK is secondary schools. The FOE sees its responsibility in a compulsory subject for students,from primary 1 to teacher education as crucial to the overall quality of upper-secondary level. Certificate and PGCE students education in Brunei Darussalam. Essential to the suc- follow either a two-semester or a three-semester cessful pursuit of teaching according to today's stan- PGCE/Certificate model in their areas of specialization. dards is a knowledge of the nature of teaching, of Due to the university's limited facilities in the present learning the processes involved in the function of edu- temporary campus, the intake of students in oneacad- cation in a changing Asian-Islamic society, and of the emic year per program is limited to only 15-20 students, management of educational institutions in accordance except for the Certificate in Education preservice stu- with modern educational thinking and practices. The dents, whose intake has always been about 50-60. All courses offered are designed to producegraduates of the students are government-sponsored scholars. who would be well qualified as teachers and officers Universiti Brunei Darussalam is a government in a wide range of positions in the country's education institution and is wholly financed by the government. system. In addition to the preparation of teachers, another goal of the Faculty of Education is theacquisition, Policy Guidance and extension, of the store of fundamental knowledge UBD's response to the ministry's needs has been quanti- about the educational enterprise. Through the continu- tative in kind and largely implemented in operational ous study of educational problems by academicstaff, terms. Such a response has been dictated by pragmatism the Faculty of Education hopes to increase existing and immediacy and has proved adequate up to a certain knowledge about education, particularly in the Brunei point, when the needs are small. With the expanding Darussalam context. needs of the ministry and the increasing complexity of its Given such aims and goals, it is clear that the Fac- requirements logistically and qualitatively, UBD's response ulty of Education is obligated to prepare teachers with in the next planning period of five years may have to be multiple professional competencies. Graduates in the different. There is now a perceived need for a formal pol- teacher education p:ograms are expected to acquire icy for teacher education in Brunei and a more explicitly proficiencies in at least five areas. stated set of expectations, including projections of needs First, they are to be models of competence in for the next two or three cycles of training. communication, using either the Malay or English languages, or both. Second, they are to be exemplary prac- Accreditation/Approval titioners of the tenets of Islam and effective transmitters of the values and cultural norms of Brunei Darussalam The academic performance of the graduates and the society. Third, they are expected to become profes- quality of the degree programs are examined by Exter- sionals who are self-confident, creative, innovative, and nal Examiners. This system ensures that the degrees sensitive to the needs of the fast-changing society. awarded in similar courses by international universities Fourth, they are to be teachers who have acquired the are comparable in standard with those of UBD.The sys- ability to assume multiple roles as educational leaders tem also ensures that the assessment and classification in their community and country. Fifth, they are expect- of degrees awarded are fair. ed to acquire and develop skills needed to put into operation multifarious roles they are expe,:ted to assume, both in and outside the classroom and school. NATURE AND CONTENT OF The aim of the new B.A. Primary Education and TEACHER PREPARATION Certificate in Education Programs introduced for the first time in August 1993, after a comprehensive review of Goals of the Teacher Preparation System the programs, is to "train qualified and competent teachers dedicated to their work and responsive to theneeds Any educational program may be viewed as a deliber- of the country." Specifically, the programs will produce ate intervention, designed to achieve selected broad graduates who are

4 1 32 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

1. Equipped with a strong foundation of knowl- For Certificate programs, the admission require- edge necessary for the overall training/teaching ments are: of their pupils 2. Equipped with the basic pedagogical skills that Four credit passes in 0-level subjects, including would enable them to effectively impart knowl- Bahasa Melayu edge and facilitate the general development of Preference is given to those who have obtained their pupils in terms of attitudes and values credit passes in English-language medium subjects, 3.Equipped with analytical and creative thinking particularly English, mathematics, and science. skills to enable them to solve day-to-day problems related to their profession Applicants to the Masters in Educational Management 4.Confident, flexible, sensitive, and able to enjoy program are required their work and take pride in their profession To have a degree (normally a second-class hon- In summary, the teacher education programs in the ors degree) from a recognized institution FOE aim to produce teachers who are skillful, well To have a minimum of five years working exper- informed, and reflective strategists with specialized skills ience and attributes that make them effective instructional deci- To demonstrate a reasonable level of English sion makers in the classroom. These skills and attributes during an interview, which will enable them to comprise four areas of competence that we consider complete the course successfully. essential for a teacher. These include the following: In addition to the general admissions requirements The display of attitudes that foster learning and of the university, the Faculty of Education maintains a set genuine human relationships of admissions criteria that must be met before students Confidence and adequacy of knowledge of the are accepted in the degree programs. Interviews and subject matter to be taught screening of applicants are conducted at the Faculty Com- In-depth theoretical knowledge about learning mittee level. The selection criteria include the applicant's and human behavior academic and other relevant qualifications; English-lan- Control of skills of teaching that facilitate and guage proficiency, determined through an English Profi- enhance student learning ciency Test; spread of 0 level subjects; additional courses attended; and personality characteristics. Academic Preparation Prior to The student intake is relatively small at present, Preservice Teacher Education due to the limited facilities of the university in its temporary campus. Since the majority of the students are The university admission requirements for degree pro- under a scholarship arrangement with the Ministry of grams are as follows: Education, the number of slots is determined by the MOE in consultation with the UBD. Four credit passes in the BruneVCambridge or Singapore/Cambridge School Certificate Exami- Nature and Content of nation, including Bahasa Melayu Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula Two GCE A-level passes, preferably with good grades in relevant subjects, excluding art and Teachers are required to teach not only differentcon- General Paper (For example, for the B.Sc. Edu- tent areas, but also at different levels of education, rang- cation program, students must have at least two ing from early childhood through early and middle to A-level passes from any of the four following late adolescence. These varied levels of education, subjects: biology, chemistry, mathematics, and because of the differential nature of the learners, have physics. For the B.A. Education program, stu- different specific objectives, different content, and dif- dents must have at least two A-level passes from ferent psychological and social aims. Subject mattercon- any of the following three subjects: geography, tent in the teacher education programs is treated differ- economics, and English. For the B.A. Primary ently in terms of depth, methodology, and assessment Education program, 0-level and A-level passes requirements in order to meet the developmental needs in relevant subjects would include English, of learners. The unique expectations placed on teach- mathematics, science, geography, and history ers in Brunei Darussalam require special programs of subjects.) teacher education. The varied entry qualifications of stu- A school certificate pass (Grade 8) in English dents also call for different treatments to raise them to language at GCE 0 level expected levels of performance. 33 3 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INBRUNEI DARUSSAI.AM

In order to effectively prepare teachers to teach at The B.Sc. Education/B.A. Education/ various levels, different teacher education programs B.A. Pendidikan Programs were designed and developed. They are asfollows: The B.Sc. Education is a four-year degree program A. Group 1 Programs designed to fulfill basic designed to prepare students for teaching science (math, educational needs: B.A. Prim Ed; B.A. Pen- biology, chemistry, physics) in secondary schools. Only didikan Rendah; Certificate in Early Childhood school leavers are admitted into the B.Sc. Education pro- Pendidikan pro- Education; Certificate in Education gramme. The B.A. Education and B.A. B. Group II Programs designed to fulfill general grams are of eight semesters' duration for preservice stu- and semi-specialized secondary educational dents and seven semesters' duration for upgrading students. These programs are designed to produce grad- needs: B.Sc. Education; B.A. Education; B.A. Pen- uates with specialized knowledge of arts and social sci- didikan school. C. Group III Programs designed to fulfill highly ence subjects to be taught in the secondary specialized professional educational needs: Post- The B.Sc. Education course consists of 9.6 percent university-required courses, 58.1 percent subject stud- graduate Certificate in Education; Sijil Penguru- san Pendidikan; Sijil Pengajaran BahasaMelayu; ies, and 33.3 percent education courses. The B.A. Edu- cation program consists of 12.9 percent university- Mast !r. in Educational Management required coumes, 53.2 percent subject studies, and 33.9 percent education courses. Within the Faculty ofEdu- Overview of Education Programs cation, methods courses comprise 28.6 percent of the Each of the degree programs offered by the FOE is of total units; 19.0 percent is field experience of teaching four years' duration. The programs have three major practice and 52.4 percent is theory-oriented courses. components, which are the education courses; content courses taken in other faculties, such as history, geog- The B.A. Primary Education Program raphy, economics, TESL, mathematics, biology, chemistry, and physics, which relate to student's future The B.A. Primary Education program caters to both pre- teaching specialization; and the University Required service and in-service students. Preservice students are Courses, namely Critical Thinking, English language, school leavers gaining entry into the university directly and Malay Islamic Monarchy (MIB). Critical Thinking after Form 6. They follow a four-year or eight-semester (four units) in the degree and certificate programs university primary education program. In-service or focuses on the principles and techniques of argument upgrader students are serving teachers gaining entry analysis, argument structure, and use of arguments. into the university after at least five years of teaching The course aims to develop logical skills and to foster experience. In-service teachers would have a three-year cognitive skills that are necessary for rational thought Certificate in Education qualification on entry. These and research in university work. En-glish Language teachers are given course exemptions in the four-year (eight units) aims to improve student's ability to study B.A. Primary Education program, and receive their effectively through the medium of En-glish and to pre- degrees after three years or six semesters of university pare students to use English accurately andfluently as work. future educators and communicators. Malay Islamic The new program structure of the B.A. Primary Monarchy (MIB) (four units) aims to inculcate among Education preservice program carries a load of 124 units students the national philosophy of Melayu Islam spread out proportionately over four years. The Certfi- Berafa as a national concept that integrates the lan- cate in Education and B.A. Primary Education upgrader guage, culture, and Malay customs; teachingof Islam- programs carry a load of 94 units spread out propor- ic laws and values; and the monarchy system of tionately over three years of university work. The B.A. Primary Education and Certificate in Edu- administration. The educational studies in each of the three sec- cation programs are in line with the bilingual policy ondary teaching degree programs account for approxi- implemented by the Ministry of Education in the school edu- mately one-third of the total program of 124 units. The system. Since the bilingual nature of the primary balance (apart from the university-required courses) cation system required that about half of the subjects in comprises coursework in other faculties, which is upper primary be taught in Malay and the otherhalf in intended to provide students with both a liberal educa- English, students are trained in one of the two lan- lan- tion and a knowledge of specialized subject matter, guages, depending on their competency in the education, which they will be required to teach in the secondary guage. In the implementation of bilingual schools. The education component is similar both in the subjects in the lower primary level are taught entirely in Malay and the English secondary education programs. Malay, with English offered as a subject in the school 43 34 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS curriculum. This is followed by a switch to English for both the state and the system of education when design- major subjects (science, mathematics, geography) in the ing and developing teacher education programs at UBD. upper primary level. Other subjects in the school curriculum (Sejarah, art, physical education, civics) continue to be taught in Malay. ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT In the new B.A. Primary and Certificate in Educa- tion programs, there is an increase in total units of time Induction or Transition Processes allocated to subjects deemed important in the primary school curriculum. Students in the programs undertake After graduating from UBD, students are immediately courses depending on their chosen strand, that is, strand posted to schools. There is no formal induction, transition, A, which focuses on teaching subjects in the lower pri- or "on-the-job" training before graduates are employed. mary level in Malay language, and strand B, which focuses on teaching subjects in the upper primary level Professional Development Opportunities in English. There are three main elements in the programs. Both the Faculty of Education and the Ministry of Edu- These include the university-required courses, teaching cation recognize the need to support and assist in the practice or field experience, and teaching skills. The professional development of teachers and that initial university required courses are the same as other degree training is only the beginning, and should be supple- programs in the university. Teaching practice is a sec- mented with subsequent training to be given from time ond element and is central to the programs, as it allows to time. Within the Faculty of Education, the Depart- students to observe and understand school operations ment of in-service Education & Training (INSET) has for- and demonstrate the application of theories of teaching mulated the following goals: and learning to actual classroom situations. The teaching skills element in the programs is made up of two To help teachers upgrade their professional major components. One is Pedagogical Studies (9 units), knowledge and skills which examines teaching strategies, types of assess- To enable teachers to keep abreast of the lat- ment, classroom organization, and the use of educa- est developments in the field of educational tional technology. The second is methodology courses research (21 units), taken in the different curricular subjects, To provide a forum for teachers to exchange according to the strand chosen by the students. views and share experiences with regard to content and methodology in specific subject areas Differences in the Nature and Content of To assist teachers in developing interpersonal skills Teacher Preparation Programs and effective interaction with students, colleagues, and others involved in the education of children Since UBD is the only teacher training institution in the To enhance teachers' individual and corporate country, there is no comparison to be made in terms of professionalism the nature and content of teacher education programs. Graduates of UBD are immediately employed by the Conducting in-service courses is a major concern Ministry of Education. of staff in the Faculty of Education, but academic staff from other faculties contribute to the activities of INSET. Linkages Between Curricular Standards for The program of activities characteristically varies in Teacher Education and objectives, strategies, duration, and modalities. Practi- Curricular Standards for Students cally all of the in-service short-term courses deal with either content or methodology for particular curriculum The teacher education curricula at the UBD are not subjects for primary and lower secondary teachers. A linked to the state curriculum standards. However, certificate is given to participants who successfully com- teacher educators take into account the objectives of plete the in-service course. 4 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Canada

Prepared by: Louise Bussiere, Ministry of Education, Quebec

Education in Canada is entirely under the jurisdiction of schools. As a general rule, private schools must adhere the provincial governments. As a consequence, there to provincial curriculum and guidelines, and musthire are as many educational systems as there are provinces. certified teachers in order to be accredited and to This is also true of teacher training. Seven Canadian receive a portion of the provincial funding. Home provinces have agreed to contribute to the Comparative schooling is allowed in some provinces but must take Study of Teacher Training and Professional Develop- place under the supervision of a school jurisdiction. ment in. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC) The different edur ation systems also provide for voca- Members: British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, tional training, adult education, special needs students Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The follow- education, and, in some cases, distance education ing report is a summary of the information submitted by through correspondence courses. each of these provinces in answer to the APEC ques- In some provinces, schools have an official reli- tionnaire. It does not provide information on teacher gious affiliation (Protestant or Roman Catholic) but the training in Saskatchewan, Prince Edward Island, and tendency is toward secular jurisdictions. All provinces Newfoundland, nor in the Territories. offer schooling to their Francophone or Anglophone minorities: one-third of the students in New Brunswick receive education in French and 10 percent of Quebec CONTEXT students are enrolled in English schools. In Ontario, the proportion of French students is about 5 percent. Definitions In most provinces, the responsibility for education is shared between a ministry (or department) of educa- Table 4.1 below provides information for definitional tion and school districts (or school boards). School purposes. boards are elected bodies responsible for implementing provincial policies and guidelines in the area of educa- Educational System and Student Population tion. They function at the local level and are empow- ered to levy taxes to supplement provincial funding to School Jurisdictions meet local needs, preferences, and so forth. The functioning and responsibilities of each level of jurisdiction Each province has its own education system, the orga- is usually described in each province's Education Act. nization of which varies somewhat from one province As a general rule, formal advisory groups exist in each to another. All provinces have public and private school district: boards of trustees, home-and-school-type schools, but the vast majority of students attend public associations, student councils, and so forth. 4J 35 36 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 4.1 Grade Levels, Age Ranges, and Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at Each Level

Type and Level of Education Definition Grade Levels Age Range of Students Required to Teach at This Level

Pre-elementary In general, pre-elementary school- Depending on services offered, In most provinces, the require- schooling ing is referred to as kindergarten, ages vary from 0 to 6 years. In ments are the same for kinder- or early childhood services, and no general, kindergarten is offered to garten and elementary school: a grade levels are attached to this children 5 years of age. In Manito- B.Ed. degree or the equivalent. concept. In Manitoba, the period ba, the "early years" range from 5 covering kindergarten to grade 4 to 10. is referred to as the "early years."

Elementary The situation varies from one Depending on grade levels, the All provinces require a B.Ed. or the schooling province to the other. The passage age range varies from 6 to 8,11, equivalent, requiring a minimum of .from elementary to secondary 12 or 13. 4 years of postsecondary studies. school can be in grade 3 (B.C. and Some provinces have a specific N.B.), grade 6 (Alta., Que., N.S.) or teacher certificate for teaching at grade 8 (M., 0.). In Manitoba, the elementary level; others have grades 5 to 8 are referred to as only one certificate for elementary the "middle years." or secondary school teaching.

Secondary In many provinces, secondary The most frequent age range is All provinces require a B.Ed or the schooling school covers grades 7 to 12. In 12-13 to 17-18. Depending on equivalent, requiring a minimum of B.C., it includes grades 4 to 12; in the grade levels included in sec- four years postsecondary studies. Manitoba and Ontario, grades 9 ondary school, the range can vary Some provinces have a specific to 12; in Quebec, grades 7 to 11. somewhat. In B.C., for example, it teacher certificate for teaching at In Manitoba, it is referred to as the extends from age 9 (grade 4) to the secondary level. "senior years." 17 (grade 12).

Postsecondary Any training beyond high school is Depending on the length of sec- Master's and doctoral degrees. No education considered postsecondary. In all ondary schooling, 17 and over. specific training in education or provinces except Quebec, students teaching. can enroll in university programs after high school and bachelor's degree programs are four-year programs. In Quebec, there is an intermediate two years in college (CEGEP) before entering three- year bachelor's programs. Some provinces also have colleges for vocational or technical training. All provinces offer master's and doctorate degrees.

Preservice In most provinces, teacher training Requirements as set by the teacher programs are B.Ed. programs in universities. preparation which students can enroll after high school (three- or five-year B.Ed. programs) or after a first degree.

Fundingis accomplished through grants from the and such differences are the reason for the decentraliza- ministry and, in some cases and to a minor extent, tion of many policy and most staffing decisions. through property taxes raised at the local level. In all provinces, the ministry develops and distrib- Education systems in Canada are more or less utes core curriculum at all levels of the system and sets decentralized, depending on the provinces. In British graduation requirements. In some provinces, graduation Columbia, for example, school-level policy is primarily exams are administered by the Ministry of Education on determined by the school district rather than by the min- a provincial basis. In British Columbia, the Provincial istry. In most provinces, districts are geographically Learning Assessment Program evaluates the success of diverse and face different types of educational challenges, the curriculum and tests students at specific grade lev- 46 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 37

els to ensure that the core subjects are being mastered. adult students are enrolled in vocational training. Accountability of school districts or school boards New Brunswick has a total of 407 public schools is usually achieved through measures such as the sub- organized in 18 school districts along geographic and mission of an annual report to the ministry. linguistic lines. Almost all of New Brunswick's 140,000 students (98 percent) are educated in the public school Number of Schools and Student Enrollment system. In Nova Scotia, the management of the school sys- British Columbia has 75 school districts, and enrollmenttem is the responsibility of 22 district school boards. ranges from a low of 389 to a high of 54,036 in Vancou-There are 493 schools, for a total enrollment of 165,421 ver. The total number of elementary and secondary pub-students. The average class size is 23.8 and the student- lic schools is 1,645. Total enrollment of students is teacher ratio is 15:9. Moreover, Nova Scotia Communi- 554,590: 342,129 at the elementary level and 212,461 at ty College provides a postsecondary, nondegree-grant- the secondary level. Special education counts 53,638 stu- ing system of education throughout the province that dents and schooling for native French-speakers is offered focuses on occupational-oriented technical and voca- to 2,314 students. In addition to the latter, 53,638 students tional programs, courses, and services.It provides are enrolled in French immersic_: programs. Average approximately 130 programs, or courses, to the equiva- class size is 23.1 at the elementary level and 24.6 at the lent of approximately 7,000 full-time students. An secondary level. Independent schools receiving govern- apprenticeship program also trains apprentices in des- ment support have a total enrollment of 43,339: 29,709 at ignated trades to meet the needs of industry. Employers the elementary level and 13,630 at the secondary level. provide practical experience and on-the-job training for Alberta has a total of 1,592 public schools and 175 apprentices. The program involves 31 designated trades, private schools for elementary, junior and senior high in which approximately 4,200 apprentices are enrolled. vchool, and special education. A certain number of other schools can be added to that number, for a total Cultural Diversity of 2,040. Total enrollment is 493,590 students. Manitoba has 703 public schools and 95 private Cultural diversity is a characteristic of the Canadian pop- schools for a total enrollment of 208,913 students, ulation as a whole, due to its history, geography, and 196,619 of whom are enrolled in public schools, 11,640 the growing importance of immigration over the past in private schools, and 654 in home schooling. More two decades. All provinces are characterized by geo- than half (55 percent) of the student population is found graphic diversity of population concentrationsheavi- in urban Winnipeg, 30 percent in rural regions, and 10 ly populated urban areas and sparsely populated distant percent in the north. rural regions. All provinces have a more or less impor- Ontario's publicly funded school system consists tant population of native Indians. The presence of lin- of 5,136 schools: 2,948 public elementary and 200 pub- guistic minorities !Anglophone in Quebec and Fran- lic secondary schools, and 1,396 Roman Catholic ele- cophone in the other provinces) must also be noted. mentary and 192 Roman Catholic secondary schools. Linguistic duality is most important in New Brunswick, Total enrollment adds up to just under 2 million stu- Quebec, and Ontario, but other provinces, such as Nova dents, with over 120,000 full-time teachers. Of this, Scotia, also have an important French minority. about 5 percent are French-language schools. The Immigration also accounts for a great racial and Greater Toronto area accounts for over 40 percent of the ethnic diversity in provinces like British Columbia, Alber- total student population in Ontario. The western and ta, Ontario, and Quebec, especially in the great urban eastern regions of the province account for another 40 areas. Provinces like New Brunswick or Nova Scotia, on percent, and the three northern regions comprise the the other hand, have a relatively small immigrant popu- remaining 20 percent, although they are the largest geo- lation and do not face the same kinds of issues. These graphic part of the province. provinces are instead more preoccupied by the declin- Quebec's publicly funded school system consists ing proportion of young people in their population. of 158 school boards: 137 Roman Catholic, 18 Protes- Immigration over the past two decades has come tant, and 3 providing schooling to native Indians. There mainly from non-English-speaking countries, particular- is a total of 1,663 public schools and 190 private schools ly the Pacific Rim, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle (12 of which are for special-needs students). The total East, and, to a lesser extent, Africa and Central Ameri- enrollment inthe youth sectorisapproximately ca. This has increased the need for qualified teachers 1,150,000 full- and part-time students: 427,260 at the witn expertise in the teaching of English or French as a kindergarten and elementary level and 412,788 at the second language. It also emphasizes the need for inter- secondary level. Moreover, 228,000 adults are enrolled cultural education and for the development of special in courses leading to a diploma, and 210,000 in com- skills for teaching classes with a high concentration of munity education courses. Finally, 49,358 young and students of different races and ethnic origins. In Mon- 4 38 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS treal, for example, one out of every three students in the the other provinces is approximately the following: Commission des ecoles catholiques de Montreal is from 35,000 in British Columbia; 30,000 in Alberta; 12,000 in a different cultural community. Manitoba, and 8,600 in New Brunswick (the number of Another factor that needs to be emphasized is the teachers in Nova Scotia is not available). trend toward integration of handicapped and disabled Between 60 percent and 65 percent of teachers are students in regular classroom settings with their peers. women; their presence is even more notable at the ele- Teachers are responsible for instructing exceptional stu- mentary level. Although women represent almost two- dents in their classes and, as a result, have become thirds of the educators, male educators continue to involved in using a variety of teaching and organiza- dominate positions of responsibility in most provinces. tional strategies to meet this challenge. The average age of teachers varies from 40 to 42, and women emerge statistically as a few years younger Graduation Rate than the average; men a few years older. The average number of years of experience varies Data on graduation or school retention rate are not avail-between 10 and 16, with men showing a somewhat able in all provinces, and, where available, figures are higher average (up to 19 years in Ontario). not necessarily comparable, since the streaming of stu- The majority of teachers in Canada have a univer- dents is not the same in all provinces once they enter sec- sity first- degree education; a B.Ed. (Bachelor of Educa- ondary school. Schooling is mandatory from age 6 until tion), or equivalent, is a minimum requirement for age 16 in all provinces, and, therefore, a vast majority of teacher certification in every province. Beyond the basic students complete their grades but do not necessarily teaching certificate, teachers can raise their level of qual- obtain a secondary school diploma. Some provinces ification by taking specialist courses or through deliver different levels of secondary school diplomas, not advanced academic standing. Many teachers have fur- all of which can lead directly to university. ther qualifications, but data are not available on the Alberta does not keep centralized records of com- number or percentage of teachers having a master's or pletion rates at the pre-elementary, elementary, and sec- doctoral degree. ondary levels. A data base is currently under development. In British Columbia, graduation rate is 69.1 per- Teacher Certification cent for the public schools (the eligible grade 12 graduation rate is 84.4 percent), while the graduation rate is In all provinces, a professional teaching certificate is 93 percent for independent schools. issued to graduates of university preservice education In New Brunswick, a number of policies and pro- programs and, with certain conditions, to both experi- grams have been instituted in recent years to address enced and inexperienced teachers from other provinces. the issue of student retention. It has climbed steadily to The certificate is generally issued by the province's min- a high of 85.6 percent in 1991-1992. istry, or Department of Education, except in British In Quebec, approximately 65.4 percent of young Columbia, where this responsibility has been transferred people and 12 percent of adult students receive their to the British Columbia College of Teachers. Secondary School Diploma; 61 percent of graduates in The professional teaching certificate may be tem- the youth sector go on to the College d'enseignement porary or permanent. In some provinces, a permanent general et professionnel (CEGEP) level. The graduation certificate is issued to graduates of an approved univer- rate for the province and for most school boards has sity education program, while in others (Manitoba and been gradually improving over the years. In 1992, the Quebec), an interim certificate is first issued to gradu- Minister of Education's Plan of Action on Educational ates from universities and the permanent certificate is Success set as its main goal an increase in the gradua- issued after one or two years of successful teaching, on tion rate of those under 20 years of age; the goal is to the recommendation of the school or school board rise from 65 percent to 80 percent within five years. authority, or of another provincial official. In all provinces, an interim certificate or temporary permit is issued to persons coming from outside the BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE province or the country, and one or two years of successful teaching are required before they can obtain a Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession permanent certificate. Bilateral agreements exist between many provinces regarding certification of teachers. The number of teachers employed varies greatly from In some provinces, like Alberta and Manitoba, one province to another. Ontario and Quebec have the there is only one teaching certificate and it allows hold- largest teaching forces, with approximately 120,000 and ers to teach all subject disciplines at all grade levels 60,000 teachers, respectively. The number of teachers in from elementary to the end of secondary school (grade 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 39

12). In other provinces, like Nova Scotia, Quebec, and and zero to 13 years of teaching experience. In Manito- Ontario, a teacher certificate entitles the holder to teach ba, teacher classification for salary purposes is based on only specific levels, grades, or subjects. seven classes of professional and academic qualifications In a certain number of provinces, teachers are (class 1 corresponds to senior matriculation plus one classified according to categories. The following classi- year of professional study, whereas class 7 corresponds fications apply, for example, in Manitoba: administra- to senior matriculation plus seven years of study in a tors, clinicians and counselors, consultants and coordi- degree or postbaccalaureate program, including at least nators, and classroom teachers. The practice differs in one year of professional study). other provinces, like Quebec, where no such categories In some provinces,likeQuebec or New exist and where the administrators are not classified as Brunswick, the grid is applied to all teachers, at all lev- teachers. els and in all districts, while in other provinces, like British Columbia, these descriptions are used only as Teacher Recruitment and Contracts of Employment guidelines by local authorities and the classification may vary from one district to another. The level of pay As a general rule, teachers are hired directly by school is determined by a collective bargaining process; it can boards or by local authorities. They are not considered therefore vary from one district to another in the public servants or provincial government employees, provinces, where collective bargaining is done only at but are part of the public sector that receives much of the local level. Working conditions and salaries are its funding from government. generally consistent and more or less uniform; the Recruitment, hiring, layoff, and type of employ- teachers' unions set the overall working conditions and ment tend to vary more or less, depending on the salary levels for all teachers or give sufficient informa- degree of decentralization of the education system in the tion and support to local unions when collective bar- province. Even though hiring is a local responsibility, gaining occurs. working conditions can be set by collective agreements In most provinces, standardized certification pro- at the provincial level, as is the case in provinces like grams and equity policies have leveled the salary scales Quebec and New Brunswick. In other provinces, like between elementary and secondary school teachers. Alberta and British Columbia, districts are relatively self- Special allowances may existfor additional determining and have their own policies on teacher hir- responsibilities or for working in conditions of isolation. ing and recruitment. In these provinces, collective bar- In provinces where salaries are determined at the local gaining is accomplished at the local level. Generally, the level, like Manitoba, educators in the north or in remote type of employment ranges from one-year contracts to areas tend to have better working conditions and permanent positions. Districts also have lists of teachers salaries to compensate for their additional responsibili- on call to substitute as necessary. ties and for the hardships associated with the geo- There is no centralized recruitment agency in any graphic location. province. Each teacher is free to seek and accept employ- Average salaries (please note: the exchange rate in ment in any school jurisdiction or private school any- August 1994 was approximately US$1.00 = C$1.35) where in the province. Typically, school jurisdictions in range from a low of C$20,000C$25,000 for beginning and around urban areas receive more applications in a teachers with a minimum of teacher education prepa- year than there are vacancies to be filled. Recruitment is ration and experience to a high of C$55,000C$69,999 more difficult in remote and isolated school jurisdictions. for experienced teachers with higher qualifications. Once hired, the successful applicant enters into a The following information was submitted by the temporary contract. Within one or two years, the participating provinces: employing board must decide whether or not to offer the teacher an ongoing contract of employment. In Alberta, salaries range from C$20,284 (no experience and one year of teacher preparation) Salary to C$58,410 (11 years of experience and 6 years of teacher preparation). The average salary of In all provinces, teachers are classified, for purposes of teachers who have completed a B.Ed. degree is remuneration, according to their level of schooling and C$30,836 in their first year of teaching. their number of years of experience in education in the In British Columbia, the average teacher salary province. As a general rule, the same grid is applied to is C$51,855. Included in this figure are princi- all teachers in the province, but the number of categories pals' and vice-principals' salaries. For male differs from one province to another. In Alberta, for teachers, the average salary is C$51,994, and for example, teachers' salaries are located across a 6-by-12 female teachers, C$47,607. grid: one to 6 years of education beyond high school In Manitoba, the average salary is C$46,911.

LID 40 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

In New Brunswick, teachers' salaries range consequence, salaries and benefits tend to be similar from C$27,573 to C$50,849. Teachers holding across the province, but not identical. positions of responsibility (principals, vice-prin- Beyond salaries and benefits, collective bargain- cipals, department heads, subject coordinators) ing processes may also deal with issues such as class are entitled to extra allowances based on the size, preparation time, nonteaching duties, hours of number of persons under their supervision. instruction, clerical assistance, special education support In Ontario, the average salary of male elemen- and integration, professional development, and so forth. tary school teachers is slightly under C$60,000 and just under C$50,000 for female teachers. Patterns of Supply and Demand for Male secondary school teachers earn approxi- Teaching Positions mately the same as their elementary school counterparts, whereas female secondary school In most provinces, teacher mobility and turnover have teachers earn around C$55,000 on average. been decreasing over the last few years and, as a result, In Quebec, salaries range from a low of there has been a steady increase in the average age of C$25,729 (14 years of education and one year of teachers. A significant proportion of the teacher popu- experience) to a high of C$59,979 (20 years of lation will be eligible for retirement over the next five education and 15 years of experience or more). to ten years. Demand is expected to begin rising again in the late 1990s. All provinces indicate a higher turnover rate in Employment Benefits more remote areas, with the result that some schools experience difficulty in hiring and retaining teachers. Employment benefits form part of the collective agree- British Columbia has developed a strategy to deal with ments negotiated at the provincial or local levels. Even shortages of qualified teachers in rural and remote in cases where collective agreements are negotiated at areas by establishing local teacher education programs the local level, teachers have access to similar benefit designed for students resident in those areas who will packages that include pension plan, life insurance, and later take up teaching positions there. Through part- health benefits. nerships involving the regional community college, one of the universities, and several school districts, it Characteristics of Teaching Employment is now possible for students to complete a teacher education program without relocating to a southern urban Collective Bargaining area. Even if no shortages are expected in the near In all provinces, teachers are members of local teachers' future, some schools experience difficulties in hiring unions, whici) are usually grouped under a provincial qualified teachers for specific fields. The situation varies association. In some cases, the provincial teachers' asso- somewhat from one :province to another but the sci- ciation is seen as a union and as a teachers' profession- ences, mathematics, and French or English as a second al organization, as is the case for the Alberta Teachers' language are the fields in which the most critical short- Association (ATA). It is interesting to note that in Alber- ages occur. Many provinces seem to have some diffi- ta, under the School Act, membership in the ATA is culty recruiting qualified teachers for biology, music, art, mandatory; it is also available to students in the provin- physical education, and special education, while cial faculties of education and to persons contributing Quebec experiences surpluses in many of these fields, significantly to education. In Quebec, there are three especially in physical education and art. teachers' associations: one for French-speaking teachers Surpluses are also identified in other provinces: In and two for English-speaking teachers (one Protestant Alberta, there is a significant surplus of elementary and one Catholic). school generalist teachers and secondary school lan- Contracts may by negotiated individually, by guage arts and social studies teachers. In Quebec, the school districts, with local teacher unions (as is the case number of elementary school teachers is also high. in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario), or The following section supplies more specific infor- by the provincial government and employers' associa- mation submitted by different provinces on the issue of tions at the provincial level (as is the case in Quebec supply and demand. where little is left for local bargainingor in New InBritishColumbia, approximately 2,500 new Brunswickwhere there is no local bargaining). When teachers are hired annually, which accounts for 7 per- negotiation is carried out at the local level, the teachers' cent of the total number of educators in the province. provincial association may provide locals with salary Of these, approximately 550 to 650 are new graduates comparisons, guidelines, information, and training. As a of teacher education programs offered in British Colum- 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL. DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 41

bia. Another 500 to 700 are individuals from other school systems and from professional associations. The provinces in Canada. Issues of supply and demand have number of new teacher graduates has varied, from been addressed by the development of a computer- under 3,000 to just above 5,000 over the past decade, based, regionalized, supply-and-demand projection depending on system demands. model. Based on the model framework, future teacher In Quebec, it is expected that, over the next 15 requirements are being investigated through a study years, about half of the teaching force will have to be involving replaced: Between 1992 and 2004, 45,000 full-time teachers will be needed to teach kindergarten and at the 1. a comprehensive analysis of teacher and stu- elementary and secondary levels (excluding vocational dent characteristics and behavior over the peri- education and adult education). But it is also known od 1986-1991; that recruitment will not exceed 3,000 teachers a year, 2. an examination of elementary and secondary even when the most numerous cohorts begin to leave. teacher requirements to the year 2011 for the However, there is an existing pool of part-time province and for four specialized regions; and substitute teachers of over 17,000 persons, which is 3. a review of expected changes in the teacher still growing, since universities are graduating approxi- workforce; mately 4,000 teachers annuallysignificantly more than 4. an examination of two "alternate" scenarios, one the actual need. As a result, no shortages are expected. assuming an increase in class size, the other The need for better planning is felt by all partners: reviewing the effects of a hypothetical early teachers' unions, the ministry, and faculties of educa- retirement program. tion, as well as by school or school board administrators. Questions related to teacher supply and demand In Manitoba, the Teacher Supply and Demand Should measures be taken to encourage students to go Task Force was established in January 1993 to investi- into teaching, and in what fields? In which regions? gate the magnitude of a possible teacher shortage, to What of the thousands of graduates who have not yet examine possible strategies to deal with it, and to rec- found full-time jobs? Should faculties of education limit ommend a plan of action to the minister. The conclu- enrollment in teacher training programs?will be sion of the investigation is that there will be a continu- addressed by the ministry and its partners over the next ing strong demand for teachers within the province over year. Faculties of education have already agreed to limit the next decade. In 1989-1990, 1,063 teacher acquisi- enrollment in order to adjust to system demands. tions were required, and of these 47 percent were beginning teachers newly certified in the previous year. It is expected that yearly teacher acquisitions will be CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF

slightly in excess of 1,000 until 1999-2000. . TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS New Brunswick and Nova Scotia have not experienced any shortage for some time and no shortage is Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions projected for the next 20 years in New Brunswick. Hence, there has been little need to establish special All teacher preparation programs in Canada are univer- strategies to attract teachers to certain fields, nor has sity-based degree programs offered through faculties of there been a need to review certification standards to education or, in specific cases, through other institu- accommodate shortages. The situation in Nova Scotia is tionslike university colleges or community colleges similar: The predicted need for teachers in future years in partnership with universities. is small and can be filled by current teaching training Universities receive block grants from the provin- institutions and by the existing pool of substitute teach- cial governments to offer their academic programs. They ers. Small surpluses in some areas could cushion the also have access to additional funds through sources impact of shortages in others. such as endowments, student tuition, research funding, In Ontario, the demand was on the increase or donations. between 1980 and 1990, when it peaked at approxi- As a general rule, faculties of education are sub- mately 12,000, or 10 percent. Faculties of education ject to the governance of the university, and the financ- graduated about 5,000 teachers that year. Approximate- ing of education programs is similar to that of programs ly 1,500 came from out of the province, about 4,500 offered by other faculties within the university setting. were re-entering the profession, and the remainder In each province, a Universities Act sets out the struc- were part-time and supply teachers accepting full-time ture under which universities operate. jobs, or teachers from other sources. In British Columbia, three universities and three Faculties base their course offerings on general university colleges offer teacher preparation programs. trends and on expressed areas of need coming from the Presently, the university colleges offer programs leading 42 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS to a B.Ed. for elementary teaching only. In addition, rural program leading to qualification for school principal, a teacher education consortia offer programs designed for new program to qualify supervisory officers, established students resident in rural and remote areas who will later in 1990, is being offered by various other organizations take up teaching positions there. These programs were approved by the Ministry. implemented in 1988 and are offered through partner- Twelve universities offer teacher preparation pro- ships involving the regional community college, one of grams in Quebec. Three of these deliver programs in the universities, and several local school districts. English. The number and type of programs offered vary In 1993-1994, 1,746 students were enrolled in ele- between different institutions, but all universities offer mentary or secondary teaching preparation programs programs preparing for teaching at the pre-elementary through one of the universities (either in an on-campus and elementary level, and most of them also offer pro- program or through one of the rural programs offered grams for secondary school teaching. More specialized in partnership with a university college or with a areas, such as physical education, art, special education, regional community college). adult education, or vocational education, are not offered In Alberta, three universities offer teacher prepa- by all universities. Master's degrees and the Ph.D. are ration programs, but they do not all offer the same also offered in most universities, but they are not specializations. Preparation for early childhood edu- required for certification. cation, for example, is offered only at the University of Four institutions provide teacher training in New Calgary, while only the University of Alberta offers Brunswick, but the University of Moncton is the sole programs for teacher preparation in industrial arts or institution providing teacher training for Francophone vocational education. The University of Lethbridge teachers. It has an enrollment of 750 students. The Uni- offers only a five-year teacher preparation program in versity of New Brunswick is the primary training insti- which students earn two degrees concurrently, one of tution for teachers in the Anglophone sector. It has an which is a B.Ed. enrollment of approximately 800 students and offers In Manitoba, there are six teacher preparation programs at all levels and in all subject areas. St. institutions: three universities, a university college, a Thomas University and Mount Allison University offer community college, and the Winnipeg Education Center. limited enrollment B.Ed. programs to students who Different programs are offered at the undergraduate and already hold a Bachelor's degree. graduate levels: the four- or five-year B.Ed., the after- In Nova Scotia, preservice teacher education is degree B.Ed., the certified teachers' B.Ed., the postbac7 offered at eight universities or university colleges. The calaureate certificate in education, the master of educa- programs may be concurrent or sequential, and they tion, and the Ph.D. Faculty of education enrollment is vary in length (one, two, four, and five years). Moreover, approximately 5,000, 4,400 of which is at the under- all institutions do not offer the same options. Six of the graduate level; 800 students afe enrolled in graduate universities offer master's programs, but the only doc- B.Ed. programs, and 100 in master's or Ph.D. programs. toral program is offered at Dalhousie University. Agreements exist among the universities and the colleges In addition, a specific program has been established to allow students to earn a B.Ed. degree on the basis of for preparing and qualifying community college teachers work completed in more than one institution, but all pro- and to service the personnel of trade schools and institutes grams require at least one year at the university. of technology, and intermediate industrial educators. In Ontario, ten universities offer teacher training programs. Of these, the University of Ottawa delivers Policy Guidance and Accreditation programs in both French and English, and Laurentian University delivers programs in French only. All teacher Universities are autonomous institutions that operate training institutions must comply with government reg- under provisions set by legislation giving them respon- ulations regarding minimum entry requirethents and sibility for setting academic and admission policies and must seek ministry approval for new course offerings for keeping the programs they offerincluding teacher that lead to teacher certification. education programsup-to-date. Graduate studies in education are offered in some In all provinces except British Columbia, the Min- of the faculties, for example, at York University, the Uni- ister of Education has retained the responsibility of versity of Western Ontario, and the University of delivering teacher certificates. As a general rule, some Ottawa, as well as the Ontario Institute for Studies in standards are set at the ministry level to guide the uni- Education, whose principal role is to further research in versities in the preparation of their preservice teacher the field of education. Master's degrees are a require- education programs. In some cases, specific procedures ment for entry to programs leading to qualification as for teacher education program accreditation are set. school principal and school board supervisory officer. In some provinces, the ministry or department of While only faculties of education may provide the education plays an important role in the setting of stan- 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 43

dards for teacher education programs leading to certifi- cedures for teacher certification, orientations of teacher cation. This is the case in Ontario and Quebec. training, and professional development. The main goal In Ontario, the Ministry of Education and Train- of this committee is to promote participation and coop- ing has the principal responsibility for policies govern- eration among the partners in defining the key issues in ing teacher education and for programs leading to var- the area of teacher training, to contribute to improving ious levels of accreditation for teachers and educational quality of teacher training, and to ensure cohesion in the administrators. The Teacher Education Policy Unit of the actions of the various partners evolved in teacher train- ministry is responsible for the review, development, and ing. The committee is made up of 15 members repre- coordination of programs and policies on teacher edu- senting teaching professionals, employers, universities, cation. The unit works closely with school board per- the ministry, and those served by the school system sonnel and faculties of education. It interprets policy (parents, adults, and business and industry). and regulation changes pertaining to teacher education. In British Columbia, teacher licensing has been It also maintains close liaison with the Curriculum Pol- delegated to the British Columbia College of Teachers. icy Team to ensure consistency in curriculum matters According to the Teaching Profession Act, the council affecting teacher education. The Registrar Services Unit of the British Columbia College of Teachers may maintains and updates all teacher certification records "approve for certification purposes the program of any and also is responsible for the evaluation of candidates established faculty of teacher education or school of with out-of-province teacher certification. teacher education." It may "cooperate with the teacher The situation in Quebec is slightly different. The training institutions in the design and evaluation of minister awards a teaching permit to individuals who teacher training programs leading to certification by the have successfully completed an approved teacher train- College." It may also make by-laws respecting the training program in recognized institutions. The ministry's ing and qualification of teachers, the issuance of certifi- Regulation respecting teaching permits and teaching cates of qualification, the classification of certificates into diplomas describes the minimum requirements the one or more types, and the standards of fitness for the approved programs must meet. The Minister of Educa- admission of persons as members of the college. tion sets orientations and standards for teacher training. The college has adopted by-laws that authorize Unix ersicy program must comply with these require- policy on criteria that all teacher education programs mentF in order to be accredited for certification pur- existing and proposedmust eventually meet in order poses. In coMboration with its partners, the ministry is to be approved for certification purposes. Programs currently in the process of reviewing the broad orienta- must meet the following criteria: tions and guiding principles of initial teacher training and of determining the competencies future teachers are Context: Aepropriate institutional setting in terms expected to have at the end of their initial training. In of depth and breadth of personnel, research undertaking the review, the ministry is also reaffirming activity, and commitment to teacher education the professional nature of teaching and the urgent need Selection: Selection and admissiOn policies that to raise the requirements for admission into teacher recognize the importance of academic standing, training programs, and for entry into the profession. interest in working with young people, and suit- Until recently, the Ministry of Education had the ability for entrance into the profession of teaching responsibility of approving all programs and major Content: Base of academic knowledge of suffi- changes to programs leading to teacher certification. The cient breadth and depth to prepare students for minister has retained this responsibility but has created an appropriate teaching assignment in the an advisory committee, the Comite d'agrement des pro- school system: grammes de formation a l'enseignement, which is man- 1. A minimum of 36 semester hours of profes- dated to examine university programs and make rec- sional education and pedagogical course- ommendationstotheministerregardingtheir work, including a minimum of 12 weeks in accreditation for certification purposes. This committee supervised student teaching, the major part was created in September 1992, and is composed of rep- of which must normally be undertaken in resentatives of universities, schools and school boards, public schools teachers' unions and professional associations, and the 2.Recognition of the advantages of an extend- ministry. ed practicum in one school An advisory committee, the Comite d'orlentation 3.Base of pedagogical knowledge informed by de la formation du personnel enseignant, also has been current research recently created to propose orientations and make rec- 4.Base of pedagogical skills informed by princi- ommendations with respect to matters such as priorities ples of effective practice and current research in the area of teacher training, the requirements and pro- 5.Content that recognizes the diverse nature of MEMBERS 44 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC

society and addresses philosophical, ethical, bilities common to all schoolteachers in the context of and societal concerns, with specific attention a rapidly evolving society. to English as a second language, "First During the program, the prospective teacher Nations" (Native Indian Peoples of Canada) should acquire a broad, general education, in addition issues, gender equity, multiculturalism, and to specific knowledge and skills in subjectfields appro- students with special needs priate to the public school curriculum and to the artof 6. Base knowledge about the administrative, teaching. Programs should address the systematic devel- legal, and political frai.Lework within which opment of skills and instructional techniques.They teachers work should be based on sound educational pedagogy and 7.Content that provides for inquiry and dia- reflect the interrelationship of subject matter and the logue regarding ethics, standards, and prac- way in which students acquire knowledge.They should tices of teaching as a profession also develop in students the skills and attitudes related Integration of Theory and Practice: to the professional dimensions of teaching: acritical 1.Integrated theory and practice in all major mind, a sense of ethics, and a capacity for renewal. areas of the programsuch as practicum, Some provinces' guidelines respecting teacher educational studies, and pedagogical knowl- education are explicit, as is the case in Quebec, where edge and skillsto encourage the develop- a series of documents is actually beingpublished (after ment of reflective practice a thorough consultation of its partners) bythe ministry 2.Recognition that the integration of theory and to define the orientations and principles teacher train- practice is enhanced by valuing good teaching programs must comply with, as well as the compe- ing and appropriate modeling of teaching tencies expected of new teachers at the end of their methodologies, by ensuring that those who studies. The goals set for teacher preparation programs teach and supervise practica have recent in that province can be explained as follows: experience and significant involvement in school classrooms, and by encouraging the Teacher training should be considered profession- development of education theories and al training, directed toward the mastery of teaching research grounded in professional practice practices appropriate to the subjects taught. Program Review: Established process for contin- A teacher's competence essentially reside,' in his uing review of teacher education programs in or her ability to stimulate and guide eachstudent order to initiate changes or to respond appropri- entrusted to him or her through the learning ately to changes arising from curricular, research, process. Teaching is a complex activity requir- societal, and governmental policy directions ing a set of special competencies that can be acquired only through solid training: knowledge In New Brunswick, responsibility and authority of human development and learning processes for the training, licensing, and certification of teachers and conditions; knowledge and skills related to for the public school system rests with the Minister of the subjects taught; skills related to the act of Education. In 1972, the responsibility for preservice teaching. to the cultural and social dimensions training was delegated to the universities. The Depart- of education, and to professional ethics. ment of Education is responsible for the actual issuing The autonomy and responsibility that character- of licenses and certificates, while the Minister's Adviso- ize teachers' work require that their training allow ry Committee on Teacher Licensing andCertification them to acquire a broad, general education, to reviews policies, programs, and procedures, and peri- develop a critical mind, and to contribute to the odically recommends changes. advancement of research related to the practice of teaching. Teachers also must be prepared to continue their training throughout their careers. NATURE AND CONTENT OF Teacher education cannot truly be considered TEACHER PREPARATION professional if it does not include a practical dimension, that is, systematic, planned, and crit- Goals of the Teacher Preparation System ical training that will foster the development of future teachers' ability to integrate and apply, in Goals of the teacher preparation programs are not real situations, the principles that form the basis always explicitly set on a provincial basis. As a general of their daily practice. In consequence, univer- rule, teacher preparation programs are expected to sities should ensure that sufficient time be develop the students' entry-level knowledge and skills, allowed for practical training; that objectives, and the attitudes they will need to fulfill the responsi- supervision methods, and contentof the 54 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 45

practicum be specified; and that students be rig- Fosters a close collegial and reciprocal relationship orously monitored and systematically evaluated. with other members of the teaching profession To favor the development of teachers as profes- Supports faculty members who exemplify the sionals, it is indispensable that the various aspects above principles and ideals by developing and of teacher training be organically linked and maintaining expertise in their disciplines and complementary. Practical training must be coor- fields of study and in the pedagogy of teaching dinated with training in educational psychology, and teacher education, in their teaching, in their and the latter with subject-matter training. research and scholarly pursuits, and in their interpersonal interactions In each province, faculties of education develop their own statement of principles or ideals to guide their programs and their faculty members. Those principles are Academic Preparation Prior to in close relationship with the main goals of teacher train- Preservice Teacher Education ing defined at the provincial level, but may differ from one university to another. The principles outlined by the There are different entry routes to teacher training Faculty of Education of the University of Lethbridge, depending on the province, the university, and the pro- Alberta, are given here as an example. The faculty: gram. Students can be admitted straight out of secondary school (or CEGEP in Quebec, which is equiva- Is committed to the concept of liberal education lent to grade 13), after completing courses in other and the development of learners who engage in faculties; after a first degree (B.A., B.Sc.), or after com- a lifelong pursuit of knowledge pleting studies in other faculties or universities. In addi- Promotes the concept of a teaching profession tion, special provision is often made for persons who committed to understanding children and may not have taken traditional routes, such as mature, youth, working with them, and relating posi- nonmatriculated students and persons from selected tively with them trades who have journeymen status. Native Indian stu- Is committed to preparing learners and teach- dents also may be given special attention. ers for the present world and for a better Admission requirements are usually set by each world in the future faculty of education. Criteria differ depending on Promotes the development of attributes and whether applicants wish to enroll in a four- or five-year skills necessary for effective communication B.Ed. program after secondary school, or in a one- or Promotes in students an understanding of how two-year after-degree teacher diploma, or B.Ed. Require- knowledge is generated, evaluated, and revised, ments also may differ between elementary school and and an ability to reflect critically on the nature of secondary school teacher preparation programs. knowledge, its transmission, and its interpretation There are no standardized examinations or crite- Facilitates the integration of knowledge from ria for screening applicants to faculties of education but, general education, disciplinary education, pro- in more than one province, faculties of education have fessional education, and field experiences intake quotas for specific areas of concentration and, Promotes in students the development of intel- except in the area of mathematics and sciences, appli- lectual and effective strategies for making peda- cants outnumber available quota slots. gogical decisions As a general rule, eligible applicants are ranked Promotes an understanding of the personal according to their university or college grade points or nature of teaching and recognizes that the devel- high school marks. Demonstrated competence in oral opment of professional knowledge is a person- and written English (or French) is often an additional al and a professional responsibility criterion. Promotes the integration of theory and practice Some universities have other requirements, such in university courses and in schools and through as confidential statements from referees qualified to experience, study, and reflection attest to the applicant's suitability for teaching and/or an Seeks to support and to foster in students a spir- admission interview for the purpose of judging the suit- it of inquiry, intellectual advancement, humane ability of the candidate for the teaching profession. values, environmental conscience, aesthetic sen- Admission committees often will give considera- sitivity, a sense of physical and mental well-being, tion to such factors as maturity, experience, emotional the ability to establish interpersonal relationships and physical characteristics relevant to the demands of and sensitivity to others' interests and feelfrigs, the program, writing and speaking abilities, expressed and encouragement to apply these qualities in motivation, and demonstrated interest in the teaching fulfilling their responsibility in a global society profession. 5 46 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Nature and Content of Columbia, and will serve as an example of the teacher Preservice Teacher Education Curricula preparation curriculum.

Preservice teacher preparation programs are university- Year ITerm I. Prospective teachers are intro- level programs leading to B.Ed. degrees (first-degree duced to the theoretical bases of modern edu- three-, four-, or five- year B.Ed.; after-degree one- or cational practice (see Table 4.2). Studies include two-year B.Ed. or Diploma). Their content varies analysis of the nature and objectives of educa- accordingly. It may also differ when specific programs tion and of the developmental characteristics of are offered to prepare for elementary or secondary learners. Attention is given to candidates' own school teaching. Differences also exist between teacher interpersonal and communication skills and to preparation for general studies and for vocational or strategies and methods of teaching. Structured technical teaching. Moreover, each university develops classroom observations and teaching experi- its own programs within the more or less explicit guide- ences (such as tutoring, peer teaching, and line set by provincial authorities. microteaching) are provided. The following examples provide an overview of Year ITerm II: Table 4.3 below lists courses for the general content of, and main differences between, this term, which also includes an intensive, two- programs in different universities. week school placement in which candidates consolidate their understanding of the first-term British Columbia: Elementary School Teaching principles and approaches. This classroom expe- Preparation rience provides a basis for further studies of ways of organizing knowledge for instruction The elementary school teacher education programs and of methods and strategies for teaching. Can- allow candidates to focus their preparation on either pri- didates will prepare to teach all subjects at spe- mary or intermediate school teaching. The following is cific grade levels. a description of the two-year program in elementary Year IITerm I: Candidates spend this term in school education offered at the University of British selected elementary schools (the course require-

TABLE 4.2 Year I, Term I Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDST 314 3 The Analysis of Education EDUC 310 4 Principles of Teaching: Elementary EDUC 315 0 Pre-Practicum Experience EDUC 316 3 Communication Skills in Teaching EPSE 313 3 Educational Application of Developmental Theories EPSE 317 3 Development and Exceptionality in the Regular Classroom READ 310 3 Introduction to Reading and Language Arts Instruction

TABLE4.3 Year I, Term II Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

ARTE 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Art EDUC 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Physical Education EDUC 321 0 Orientation School Experience: Elementary ENED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Language Arts MAED320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Mathematics MUED320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Music READ 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Reading SCED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Science SSED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Social Studies

56 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 47

ment is listed in Table 4.4). Each candidate relation tothe subject or subjects they are works closely with a team of experienced teach- preparing to teach (see Table 4.6). Studies ers who have been specially prepared for this include analysis of the nature and objectives of supervisory and instructional responsibility. Fac- education and of the developmental character- ulty support, advice, and assessment are pro- istics of adolescent learners. Structured class- vided on a regular basis. room observations and teaching experiences Year II---Term II: Following completion of the (such as tutoring, peer teaching, and microteach- extended practicum, candidates undertake pro- ing) are provided. fessional studies (see Table 4.5) to put their Term II (January April): This term begins with teaching competence in a more comprehensive an intensive, two-week communications course framework of knowledge and understanding. (see Table 4.7) in which attention is given to This term includes electives or prescribed stud- the candidate's own interpersonal and commu- ies appropriate to each candidate's academic nication skills in relation to the demands of the and professional interests. secondary classroom. The remainder of the term is spent in a selected British Columbia sec- British Columbia: Secondary School Teacher ondary school where the candidate works with Preparation a team of experienced teachers who have been specially prepared for this supervisory and The secondary school teacher education program pre- instructional responsibility. Faculty support, pares candidates to teach one or two subjects, advice, and assessment are provided on a reg- depending on their prior background. The following ular basis. program, offered at University of British Columbia, is Term III (May-August): Following completion of 12 months long (three semesters) and will serve as an the extended practicum, candidates return to the example. campus for studies designed to put their teaching competence in a more comprehensive Term I (September-December):Prospective framework of knowledge and understanding teachers are introduced to the theoretical bases (see Table 4.8). An opportunity is provided for of modern educational practice and to strategies them to enhance their subject-matter and/or and methods of teaching, both in general and in pedagogical competence.

TABLE 4.4 Year II, Term I Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDUC 418 18 Extended Practicum : Elementary

TABLE 43 Year II, Term H Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDUC 420 2 School Organization in Its Social Context EPSE 423 3 Learning, Measurement, and Teaching

One of: EDST 425 3 Educational Anthropology EDST 426 3 History of Education EDST 427 3 Philosophy of Education EDST 428 3 The Social Foundations of Education EDST 429 3 Educational Sociology

Plus 9-12 Credits of academic, curriculum, and professional electives 48 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 4.6 Term I Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDST 314 3 The Analysis of Education EDUC 311 4 Principles of Teaching: Secondary EDUC 315 0 Pre-Practicum Experience EDUC 319 0 Orientation School Experience: Secondary EPSE 306 2 Education During the Adolescent Years EPSE 317 3 Development & Exceptionality in the Regular Classroom

Plus: 4 Credits related to first teaching subject 2-4 Credits related to second teaching subject

TABLE 4.7 Term II Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDUC 316 3 Communication Skills in Teaching EDUC 329 18 Extended Practicum: Secondary

TABLE 4.8 Term Ill Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDUC 420 2 School Organization in Its Social Context EPSE 423 3 Learning, Measurement, and Teaching ENED 426 4 Language Across the Curriculum: Secondary

One of: EDST 425 3 Educational Anthropology EDST 426 3 History of Education EDST 427 3 Philosophy of Education EDST 428 3 The Social Foundations of Education EDST 429 3 Educational Sociology

Plus: 9 Credits of prescribed courses related to teaching subject(s)

Alberta practicum of a minimum 12 weeks' duration. Most current programs offer significantly longer practicum expe- Teacher preparation programs are structured to permit riences. Cooperating teachers receive a small stipend specialization in major and minor areas of subject dis- but generally view their p..rticipation in teacher prepa- cipline concentration. There is a close relationship ration as a professional responsibility and as a form of among the faculties of education in terms of the objec- professional/personal development. In addition, facul- tives they seek to meet. Each faculty develops its own ty members and graduate students are assigned to pro- programs; areas of concentration and terms used to vide each student teacher with further assistance and describe content vary. The following outline (Table 4.9, supervision through classroom visits, consultations, con- Table 4.10, and Table 4.11) suggests the content of all ferencing with cooperating teachers, and engaging stu- teacher preparation programs offered in the province. dent-teachers in reflective practice. Evaluation instru- All teacher preparation programs must include a ments vary but tend to contain standard criteria, such as 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 49

TABLE 4.9 Elementary B.Ed. Program

Year One Year Two

1. Introduction to Teaching I: Theory and 1. Education and Individual Development and Introduction to Teaching II: Application Interpersonal Communication in the School 2. Major (Art, Drama, Language Arts, etc.) 2. Two courses selected from Art, Drama 3. Non-Education Option 3. Music and Physical Education 4. Non-Education Option 4. Major 5. Open Option 5. Major 6. Introduction to Computers in Education & Open Option

Year Three Year Four

1. Theory and Practice In Teaching Language Arts 1. Special Education for Teachers in Regular Classrooms in the Elementary School and Non-Education Option 2. Theory and Practice in Teaching Science 2. Education Major (Methods) in the Elementary School and Theory and Practice in Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary School 3. Theory and Practice in Teachin- Mathematics 3. Any two senior-level Educational Policy in the Elementary School and Practicum in Elementary School I and Administrative Studies Courses 4. Practicum in Elementary School II 4. Senior Education Option 5. Measurement of Classroom Learning and Administration 5. Open Option of Education and the Role of the Teacher

TABLE 4.10 Seconder/ B.Ed. Program

Year One Year TWo

1. Introduction to Teaching I: Theory, and 1. Education and Individual Development and Introduction to Teaching II: Application Interpersonal Communication in the School 2. Major 2. Major 3. Major 3. Major 4. Major 4. Major 5. Non-Education Option 5.Introduction to Computers in Education and Open Option

Year Three Year Four

1. Educational Major (Methods) 1. Any two senior-level Educational Policy and Administrative Studies courses 2. Measurement of Classroom Learning 2. Senior Education Option 3. Practicum in Secondary School I, and 3. Open Option Practicum in Secondary School II 4. Learning from Text in the Secondary School and 4. Open Option Special Education for Teachers in Regular Classrooms 5. Practicum in Secondary Schools III, and 5. Major Practicum in Secondary Schools IV

Note: Content specializations differ between elementary and secondary B.Ed. programs.

classroom management, pacing, planning, communica- teacher preparation programs. One faculty requires stu- tions, questioning techniques, and so forth. dents to undertake such an experience as a prerequi- There is also growing interest in having faculty of site. One faculty seeks to assist in bridging the difficult education students undertake clinical observation or transition from the theoretical aspect of teacher prepa- practicum experiences in the schools early in their ration to the realities of the classroom by offering its stu- TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INAPEC MEMBERS 50

TABLE 4.11 Content Specializations

Elementary Secondary

MAJOR FIELDS MAJOR FIELDS Art Education Art Education Drama Education Drama Education French (Basic and Immersion) English Education Language Arts Education French (BasicandImmersion) Mathematics Education Mathematics Education Music Education Music Education Physical Education Physical Education Science Education Science Education (Biological) Social Studies Education Science Education (General) Special Education (General and Severe) Science Education (Physical) Social Studies Education

MINOR FIELDS MINOR FIELDS Art Education Computer Applications in Education Computer Applications in Education English Education Health Education Health Education Language Arts Education Language Arts Education Mathematics Education Mathematics Education Native Language Education Music Education Religious Studies and Moral Education Native Language Education Science Education Religious Studies and Moral Education Social Studies Education Science Education Teaching English as a Second Language Social Studies Education Teaching English as a Second Language

dents the opportunity, during the final year of the five- ing on both junior high and secondary schools. The year program, to spend a full semester in aregular class- program consists of 120 credit hoursof coursework. room under the supervision of a certifiedteacher or a Seventy-two hours, or 12 full courses of the work, are school staff member. done in faculties or in schools other than the Faculty of Education, and are designed to provide students with general academic background plus specialization Manitoba in at least two teachable subjects. Candidates usually The University of Manitoba's elementary schoolteacher elect five courses (30 credit hours for a teaching major) education program allows candidates to focus their in one subject and three courses (18 credit hours for a preparation for teaching from kindergarten through teaching minor) in a second subject. Teachable sub- grade 6. The program usually consists of 120 credit jects include art, biology, chemistry, computer science, hours of course work. Sixty hours, or ten full courses of English, French, general science, geography, a her- this work, is done in faculties or in schools other than itage, aboriginal or world language, history, human the Faculty of Education, and is designed to provide stu- ecology (after-degree B.Ed. only), mathematics, phys- dents with general academic backgrounds and with ical education (after-degree B.Ed. only), physics, and some limited specialization in teachablesubjects. Teach- theater. able subjects include art, biology, chemistry, geological sciences, English, French, general science, geography, Ontario a "heritage" language (spoken bymembers of a cultural community established in Manitoba, other than Eng- Currently, a preservice program is offered by ten facul- lish or French), aboriginal language or another world ties of education. In most cases, the program is given in language, nistory, mathematics, physical education, one academic year and follows abachelor's program. physics, and theater. Teacher candidates choose the grade levels in which to The secondary school teacher education program concentrate, and may also choose specific teaching sub- allows candidates to focus their preparation for teach- jects if they choose Grades 7 to 12 Ontario Academic 60 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 51

Courses as an area of concentration. According to reg- New Brunswick ulation, the program includes: All courses proposed in the education component of 1. A concentrated study of the primary and junior all degree programs are considered pedagogical cours- divisions, the junior division, the intermediate es in which the content and methodology are inter- and senior divisions, or technological studies twined. In addition, required and elective courses 2. Studies in education, including learning and allow students to choose a constellation of courses that development throughout the primary, junior, provide them with opportunities to broaden their and senior divisions understanding of education as a process. Students 3. Teaching methods designated to meet individual select foundation courses and subject areas or cur- needs of students riculum studies on an equal basis. Subject concentra- 4. The acts and regulations in respect to education tions are available and encouraged. Students in con- 5. A review of the curriculum guidelines issued by current programs will mix honors programs in subject the Minister, related to all of the divisions, and a areas with foundations in education curriculum and study of curriculum development pedagogy. 6. A minimum of 40 aays of practical experience in Student internships of 12 weeks' duration will be schools or in other situations approved by the supplemented through participation in seminars con- minister for observation and practice teaching ducted by faculty and cooperating teachers in host schools. Technological developments will allow stu- Quebec dents, faculty, and cooperating teachers to communicate using Internet, E-mail, and audiographics to supplement The whole area of teacher training in Quebec is mov- the process of supervision. The model becomes collab- ing in new directions that will lead to far-reaching orative and less supervisory in nature as all parties to changes in the years to come. The changes cover pre- the experience develop together. service training, induction, and professional develop- Courses at all learner levelsfrom preprimary to ment, as well as the profession as a whole. The reform adultprovide a broad perspective of the educational is being led by the Ministry of Education, in close rela- continuum. The requirement for all students to study at tionship with its partners: the universities, school and two learner levels and the opportunity to experience school board authorities, and teachers' unions and pro- education on at least two levels through practica con- fessional associations. tribute to providing students with a solid background in The first step in this reform has been the definition teaching. of competencies expected of different categories of school. teacherspreschool and elementary, secondary, special Nova Scotia education, vocational education, and adult education, as well as specialists in the teaching of arts and music, Approved bachelor's degree programs must include a French or English as a second language, and physical edu- minimum of 30 semester hours of teacher education, cation. The competencies expected of secondary teachers with coursework in the following areas: educational have already been set out and the universities must devel- foundations, educational psychology, teaching method- op new programs accordingly for September 1994. ology, and special education, and a practicum of at least The main orientation is that of professional train- 200 hours. Half the course work must be in subjects ing: Faculties of education are asked to reinforce admis- taught in the public schools. sion requirements, to ensure the integration of and balance between the three components of teacher Differences in the Nature and Content of preparation (subject matter training, training in method- Teacher Preparation Programs ology, and practical training). They must also provide a minimum of 700 hours of practice teaching in schools Differences may exist between teacher preparation pro- under the supervision of both the university and an grams offered in different provinces, but within each experienced teacher. province, there are no significant differences between As a result of the new requirements, the B.Ed. pro- programs offered for the same teaching certificate. Dif- grams will be extended from three to four years after ferences exist between programs specifically designed CEGEP. The one-year, or 30-credits certificate, which is to prepare for different levels, or types of teaching (ele- presently offered by universities to candidates who mentary school, secondary school, vocational educa- already have a bachelor's degree, should be abolished in tion, special education, arts, physical education). Pro- the near future. Future candidates will then be integrated grams for elementary and secondary school teachers are in the four-year B.Ed., with appropriate equivalencies. significantly different.

61 BEST COPY AVAILABLE TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 52.

Linkages Between Curricular Standards for ifications Program to certify eligible candidates for Teacher Education and supervisory officer and business supervisory officer cer- Curricular Standards for Students tification. The objective is to provide candidates with the knowledge, skills, and orientation to function effective- As a general rule, there is no formal, specificlink ly as leaders in school boards that have grown in com- between teacher education programs and the provincial plexity and diversity. school curricula, but the faculties of education usually In all provinces, interim or temporary certificates keep in mind changes in the public school curricula and are issued to experienced or inexperiencedteachers in public education policy when they prepare or review who have completed their training outside the province. their programs. Holders of an interim certificate qualify for permanent certificates once they have completed one or two years of successful teaching. Permanent certificationis LICENSING issued on the recommendation of the applicant's superintendent of schools or of another provincial officer. Initial Requirements In each province, processes are in place to ensure that allegations of unprofessional conduct and incom- Depending on the regulation in each province, gradu- petent teaching are investigated and addressed fairly, ates of teacher preparation programs are issued interim and to provide teachers with avenues of appeal. or permanent professional teachingcertificates on the recommendation of deans of education. No exams are Licensing Reauthorization required to obtain the teaching permit, but in Quebec, candidates from outside the province may be asked to There is no requirement for recertification in any of the pass an exam in oral and written French orEnglish. provinces. In some provinces, additional qualifications As a general rule, certification is provided for are required for positions such as principaland super- teachers, but in some provinces, other educators are visory officer. equally certified. This is the case for principals and vice- In Alberta, three separate legislative acts serve to principals in Ontario, and for school administrators, ensure that teachers have high levels ofknowledge, teachers of trades/occupations, and a variety of non- skills, and attributes: the Teaching Profession Act, the teaching professionals who provide services within the provincial Teacher Evaluation Policy, and the Practice public school system in Nova Scotia. Review of Teachers Regulation. Candidates may be certified to teach at all grade levelsfrom kindergarten to grade 12in certain Under the Teaching Profession Act, the Alberta provinces, while in others certification is restricted to Teacher Association is required to maintain and certain levels or subject areas. enforce a code of professional conduct that In most provinces, there are no differences deals primarily with acceptable behaviors for between certification for elementary and secondary teachers in their non-teaching roles. school teachers, and there is generally only one level of Under the provincial Teacher Evaluation Policy, certification for all teachers. This is not the case, how- all school jurisdictions and accredited private ever, in Nova Scotia, where there are nine levelsof cer- schools are required to have and to implement tification, some of which are no longer issued as initial teacher evaluation policies that meet guidelines or first-time certificates. Each level of certification cor- established by Alberta Education. responds to different requirements in terms of training. The Practice Review of Teachers Regulation pro- In Ontario, additional qualifications may be listed vides an orderly means for the Minister of Edu- on the Teacher's Qualification Card. They areacquired cation to hear and address complaints of alleged through courses offered by faculties of education dur- incompetent or unskilled teaching practices. ing fall/winter evening sessions and during intersession evening courses for teachers. Additional qualification Status of Qualifying Conditions courses may lead to specialist, honor specialist, orprin- cipal's qualifications. Teachers who wish to be eligible In all provinces except British Columbia (where certifi- for appointment to the position of vice-principal or prin- cation and licensure have been transferred to the British cipal must hold Ontario principal's certification. This Columbia College of Teachers), the Minister of Educa- certification is achieved through successful completion tion has the authority to alter certification requirements of the Principal Qualification Program, which consists at his discretion. of two one-session courses and a practicum. Ontario In practice, requirements are altered only in cases has recently introduced the Supervisory Officer's Qual- where no qualified certified teacher is available to fill a 62 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 53 vacant teaching position. A temporary letter of approval tion of this new policy will require some kind of finan- (or equivalent), usually valid for one year, may begrant- cial support. Pilot projects are currently being carried ed to the local school authority for the appointment of out in a certain number of school boards with the coop- a person without teacher's qualifications to fill the spec- eration of faculties of education to prepare for the gen- ified teaching position. eral implementation of this new policy. In New Brunswick, an induction program for beginning teachers is in its first year as a pilot program. ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Currently, it is experimental and no definitiveanswers are available to the questions raised. Induction or Transition Processes

As a general rule, there are no formal, provincewide Professional Development Opportunities programs to provide support to beginning teachers. In most provinces, teachers have access to different Individual school districts are free to implementany or types of professional development opportunities: They a variety of support programs, and some jurisdictions can upgrade their classification and salary levels by have done so in many provinces. The type of orienta- enrolling in courses/programs offered by universities. tion programs offered range from a single meeting to a They also have access to informal professional devel- long-term induction and mentorship program. The need opmentprograms or to courses offered by teachers' fed- for more systematic practices to support beginning erations and subject associations, by local school author- teachers is felt in many provinces. ities, or by the ministry or department of education (for In British Columbia, the ministry has been program and policy implementation purposes). Such involved with five districts in pilot programs to develop programs include conferences, seminars, workshops, formal, detailed induction and mentorshipprograms. and so forth, offered at the provincial, regional,or local The evaluation of these programs is in the early stages levels. Universities can be asked to collaborate in such and no real information is currently available. programs but, as a rule, only formal academic courses In Alberta, two pieces of legislation promote count for classification and salary purposes. Some increased supervision and evaluation for beginning provinces are considering changes in this policy to per- teachers and indicate to teachers that significant profes- mit formal recognition of in-service training. sional growth is required early in their careers: Participation in professional development isusu- ally not linked to years of experience, level ofrespon- 1. The School Act requires that the first year of sibility, salary, or career opportunities. However, itmay employment in a school jurisdiction must be lead to additional qualifications, as in Ontario, where under temporary contract. At the end of the first university courses may be listed on Ontario's Qualifica- year, the jurisdiction must decide whether to tion Record Card, and may lead to specialist, honorspe- offer the teacher an ongoing contract. cialist, or principal qualifications. 2. Under the Certification of Teachers Regulation, In most provinces, professional development is teachers can move from interim to permanent recognized in the provincial school calendar. The offi- certification only on the recommendation of cial number of days in a school year includeup to 15 their superintendent after two years ofsuccess- days for activities other than teachingmany of which ful teaching. are used by schools and school boards to plan in-service work. As a result of those requirements, most locally The following gives more specific informationon developed evaluation policies reflect the need for in-service training in certain provinces: increased supervision and evaluation of teachers during In British Columbia, the British Columbia Col- the first two years of their careers. lege of Teachers is entitled, under the Teaching Profes- In Ontario, the Teacher Education Review Com- sion Act, to carry out and facilitate professional devel- mittee and the Teacher Education Council bothrecom- opment programs designed to ensure currency and mended that there be a mandatory, two-year period of general competence. induction for all teachers who have completeda pre- Alberta believes that professional development is service program. the responsibility of individual teachers and of their In Quebec, initial preservice training is followed employing school jurisdiction. A recent study indicates by a two-year probation period, but there isno formal that teachers and school jurisdictioncan cooperate in induction program. Probation will be replaced, starting enhancing teachers' professional development through in 1998, by an induction program for beginning teach- tighter links with teacher evaluation. Stepsare being ers. It can be expected that the systematic implementa- taken to provide provincial guidelineson how this can 63 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 54

be achieved. Alberta Education has provided supportfor POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR the development of a consortium of schooljurisdictions TEACHER PREPARATION AND to determine the need for, and todevelop and provide, PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT professional development. While the consortiumhas a and activities full-time coordinator, the board of directors ispredomi- In British Columbia, the main issues nantly comprised of teachers. In the future,this model concerning teacher education are thefollowing: may be emulated in other regionsof the province. In Quebec, the collective agreementprovides for 1. Development of a computer-based, regionalized the annual allocation of a specific amountof money teacher supply-and-demand model Development and implementation of a decen- (C$160) for each full-time teacher for professionaldevel- 2. opment purposes. A joint committee inwhich the local tralized system of teacher education programs, union and the local authorities arerepresented decides including programs offered in three university on the way the money is spenteach year. colleges and in rural teacher education pro- The ministry is actually preparing guidelinesfor grams the continuing education of teachers. Theseguidelines 3. Evaluation of pilot induction programsseven are based on the followingprinciples: Responsibility for school districts have received funds to run pilot determining professional development needs rests pri- induction programs. Such programs have been marily with the teachers; professionaldevelopment identified as having great potential for positive should be accessible to all teachers andtake into effects on teacher retention, on the status of the account the personal, professional,and organizational teaching profession, and on the nature and rate dimensions of teaching; professional development of change in the system should be based on the involvement and cooperation 4. Production of a teacher recruitment video to of all educators concerned and draw on theexpertise attract highly qualified candidateswho reflect and the competency of teachers. the pluralistic nature of British Columbia society. Moreover, professional development shouldtake The video focuses on recruiting members of vis- into account the particular characteristics of school pop- ible minority groups, First Nation people, men ulations and educational sectors; recognize thediversi- (to teach at the elementary level), and women ty of possible sites, procedures, and sourcesof training; (to teach mathematics and science). and rely on the involvement of teachers andschool with organizations. In Alberta, the main policy issues are linked In recent years, professional development inNova the provincial government's debt-reduction program. Scotia has centered around curriculum in-servicetrain- Expenditure reduction measures target pre-elementary, ing led by the Department of Education toimplement elementary, oecondary, and postsecondary education. new programs and new teachingmethodologies. In To meet its goal, the government is carrying out awide- recent years, the department hasalso sponsored sum- ranging public consultation, which began withdiscus- by pub- mer institutes in differentsubject areas. sion on what the "basic education" supported Part of the mandate of the Nova ScotiaTeachers' lic funds should comprise, and on which part of services Union is to provide professional development opportu- currently being provided in schools should be support- nities for its membership. It provides assistance to pro- ed by private funds and/or through local taxation.The fessional associations, supports educational research implications of this anticipated reduction in government projects, and gives individual grants for travel andstudy funding will significantly affect all aspects of schooling, purposes. Since 1987, the union haspromoted the con- teaching, teacher preparation, and teacher professional cept of school-based staff development.To encourage development. schools across the province to adopt this collaborative Given the consultation currently under way, one approach to decision making, it has been providing can only speculate on the rangeof implications. How- consulting services and has set up a program for school ever, two trends emerged prior tothe government's leadership teams. debt-reduction scheme, and are ongoing: Under a negotiated provincial collective agreement, the Nova Scotia Teachers' Union receives an annual sum 1. Alberta is now working to specify the standards of C$150,000 (Program Development Assistance Fund), of performance students are expected to meet at which is distributed to teachers who apply for innovative all grade levels and in all subject disciplines. classroom projects. In addition, under many local agree- 2. The trend toward government deregulation may ments, a sum of money is allocated for theprofessional result in the evolution of a range of educational development of teachers and is generally distributed by nolicies that emphasize desired outcomes rather a committee made up of teachersand central office staff. than input and process variables. 64 4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 55

In Manitoba, all partners in education are con- Entry into the profession: What criteria should cerned with improving the school environment for both be used for the admission of students to teacher teachers and students. Manitoba Education and Train- education programs? ing is addressing the problem of violence in schools Preservice programs: What should be the through actions such as providing in-service training to nature and content of preservice teacher teachers and parents on how to deal with violent behav- preparation programs? ior, appointing a full-time consultant to deal with the The practicum: How can this potentially valuable problem of violence in the classroom, and providing experience for student teachers be improved? consulting services to address violence. An induction program: How could a meaningful More closely linked with teacher training is the induction program that New Brunswick can trend toward recognition of teaching as a profession. afford be designed? The Manitoba Teachers' Society has proposed that its Teacher recertification: Should teachers be organization be given statutory recognition as a pro- required to recertify periodically? This question fession. Central to this proposition is the desire to leads to discussions on continuing education have control over teacher certification and discipline units and how to record and reward them. issues. Manitoba Education and Training is still dis- Mid-career: Should there be concern about the cussing this issue with the Manitoba Teachers' Society. fact that the only clear career path in education at Related issues of teacher autonomy, discipline, and the moment is in administration? Recently a good certification continue to be the subject of meaningful deal of discussion has taken place regarding the discussion. need for a career path that would concentrate on Teacher training is another area c'.ncern among the knowledge base of teaching and its practice. all partners. Manitoba's teachers muss lble to keep pace with the changing knowledge and skill demands New Brunswick Education is working on these of their jobs. All actions in this regard will be support- questions with its partners. It is currently working with ed and undertaken through partnership. Partners universities to change the criteria for admission to the include the Department of Education and Training, edu- profession and to change the preservice program in cational institutions in Manitoba, the faculties of educa- order to give greater attention to the study of teaching tion, the Manitoba Teachers' Association, and teachers and learning. It is also working with the universities, themselves. Manitoba Education and Training, in con- school districts, and teacher organizations to revise the junction with its partners, is considering: practicum and emphasize a team approach to professional growth. Other actions envisaged a. z. increasing Reviewing existing teacher preservice training support for peer coaching and mentorship training and programs to ensure that teachers develop the beginning a review of teacher certification requirements ability to change. that will lead to discussions on recertification. Finally, Establishing an internship program for teachers. New Brunswick Education has instituted an extensive A proposal will be drafted in cooperation with voluntary summer institute program for teachers, the all partners. This would allow teachers to com- response to which is very encouraging. plete a period of training under the supervision In Nova Scotia, there is an increasing demand for of a skilled and experienced teacher. efficient and effective universities. The rationalization Developing, with its partners, a plan for coor- process will involve four main components: vision and dinated in-service training delivery and profes- long-range planning, institutional renovation, program sional development. review, and shared systems and services. Education is counted among the identified priority areas. Other areas Ontario has undertaken a number of cost-cutting are business, management, commerce; earth/environ- measures that are having an impact on current teacher mental sciences; and engineering computing sci- demand. In efforts to reduce spending, school boards ences/computer engineering. have lowered their staffing levels and, as a result, In teacher education, the concerns are the following: teacher intake has dropped across the province. The Royal Commission on Learning has been There are only general requirements for initial established to examine the broad issues around teacher certification. As a consequence, institu- Ontario's education system. Among these will be cur- tions interpret these guidelines, and there are no riculum and teacher education. The commission's report standards for programming. was released in January 1995. The perception of the public is that teachers The main issues identified in New Brunswick are have not received the preparation they need to the following: do the job. 63 56 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

The province would be better served by estab- How to make it easier for teachers to take lishing fewer, more specialized teacher educa- responsibility for their own professional devel- tion institutions. opment throughout their teaching careers? The effectiveness of a one-year B.Ed. program has How to ensure better planning with respect to been challenged by both teacher educators and the employment situation in teaching? professionals in all facets of public education. There has not been a vigorous examination of Considerable work has already been done, or is teacher education in Nova Scotia for many years. being done, in the above areas, in particular with respect to the definition of the competencies expected In Quebec, a major reform of teacher training, of teachers at the end of their initial training; experi- which is based on the recognition of teaching as a pro- mentation with different models of partnership between fessional activity, is currently being implemented by the universities and schools in the practical training of stu- ministry in close partnership with the universities, the dent teachers, and the publication of guidelines for both school administrators, and the teachers' unions and pro- partners in the process; the modification of the proba- fessional associations. tion system in favor of an induction system designed to In 1992, the Minister of Education published a support new teachers in their first years of teaching; and document entitled "The Challenge of Teaching Today the development of a policy regarding teachers' profes- and Tomorrow: Renewal and Recognition of the Teach- sional development. ing Profession." It outlines the main courses of action to be undertaken in the near future for the renewal of the teaching profession. The actions focus on three themes: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS teacher autonomy and accountability, teacher training, entry into the profession and career prospects. They This comparative study is based on reports submitted seek to provide answers to the following questions: by the participating provinces. These reports were prepared by: How to ensure quality teacher training that includes knowledge of the disciplines to be Eulala Mills-Diment, British Columbia Ministry of Edu- taught and knowledge of methodology and cation practical training, and that prepares future teach- Barbara Forsyth, British Columbia Ministry of Skills, ers to meet the new challenges of teaching in Training and Labour today's changing society? Alberta Education, with the cooperation and assistance How to ensure quality, practical training based of Alberta Advanced Education on true' partnership between university facul- Valerie-Drawn Girhiny, Maurice Lamontagne, and ties of education and the schools receiving Evelyn Shapka, Ministry of Education and Train- student teachers? ing of Ontario How to receive new teachers into the profes- Katherine Wong, Manitoba Education and Training sion and support them during their first years Thomas F. Hanley, New Brunswick Department of Edu- of teaching? cation How to improve prospects for career advance- David G. Richardson, Nova Scotia Department of Edu- ment and diversification and avoid the disillu- cation sionment and discouragement to which many teachers fall victim? 5 Teacher Training and Professional Development in China

Submitted by: Department of Teacher Education, State Education Commission

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION of reforms and opening up to the outside world began (especially the realization of nine-year compulsory China is a developing country with a vast territory and schooling, begun in 1986), China has rapidly developed a huge population. It has a total land area of. 9.6 million its basic education system. In 1992, there were 729,158 square kilometers. According to the census for the year primaryschoolsthroughoutthecountry,with 1990, its total population was 1,130,510,638; the birth 121,641,538 students enrolled. Of these, 88,440 were rate was 20.98 percent; and the net growth rate was 1.47 located in cities and towns, encompassing 29,130,575 percent. The agricultural population constitutes a large students; 640,718 were located in rural areas, with proportion of the nation-73.59 percent of the total. 92,510,963 students. There were 70,680 junior secondary There are 56 nationalities in China. The minority nation- schools, with 39,606,496 students enrolled. Among alities constitute 7 percent of the total population. The these, 16,009 were located in cities or towns, encom- distribution of population is unbalanced, ranging from passing 14,218,547 students, and 54,599 were in rural over 2,200 people per square kilometer in Shanghai City areas, with 25,387,949 students. The entrance rate for to 1.8 people per square kilometer in the Tibet school-age children was 97.187 percent, and the pro- Autonomous Region. motion rate was 76.42 percent. In 1991, China's gross national product was The Chinese government has attached great RMB1.9855 trillion yuan (for the purposes of this report, importance to teachers. In 1992, there were 5.53 mil- RMB100 yuan equals US $447.66, as reported in the lion full-time primary school teachers. The ratio of People's Daily, Overseas Edition, September 7, 1990); the teachers to students was 1:22. The percentage of pri- total national income was RMB1.6117 trillion yuan; the mary school teachers with qualifications was 82.7 per- average per-capita income was RMB1,401 yuan; and the cent of the total. The number of teachers who gradu- total government expenditure was RMB1.6601 trillion ated from secondary normal schocls (normal schools, yuan, of which RMB41.04 billion yuan was spent on like normal colleges and normal universities, are insti- education, which made up 2.6 percent of government tutes for training teachers; most of them focus mainly spending. on preservice training programs) was 2.97 million, or Since 1978, when the more than ten-year period 53.8 percent of the total of qualified teachers. There

67 57 58 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS were 2.52 million full-time junior secondary school THE PRESENT STATUS OF teachers, with a qualification rate of 55.6 percent. The TEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA teacherstudent ratio was 1:16 (junior secondary school teachers are those who have attained the State's pre- The System scribed level of education: completion of, or above, teachers' college or other colleges). In 1992, there were In order to meet the different needs of teachers of var- 1.12 million teachers who had received professional ious subjects and at different levels in basic education, training from teachers' colleges, representing 44.5 per- there has been a rapid development in teacher educa- cent of the total qualified junior secondary school tion in China. Stable bases for new teachers have been teachers. In addition, there were also 474,078 primary set up. At the same time, a network of in-service train- school Minban teachers (teachers financially supporting has been formulated in provinces, municipalities, ed by the community, or Minban), which accounted and counties. A preliminary system of teacher educa- for 8.6 percent of the total, and 127,740 Minban teach- tion, combining preservice with in-service training, has ers from junior secondary schools, accounting for 5 per- thus far been established. cent of the total. Minban teachers were mainly situated in rural primary schools, many of which (especially Preservice Training those located in mountainous areas) conduct schooling through multigrade teaching in one classroom; a con- Standard methods and other channels of preservice siderable number of these schools, furthermore, are run teacher training are displayed, respectively, in Table 5.1 by one teacher. and Table 5.2, by institution, length of time enrolled, Since 1978, Chinese teachers' salaries have been objective of training, and degree obtained. significantly increased and their living conditions have been greatly improved. In addition to salaries, teach- In-service Training ers can receive subsidies based on the length of time teaching, as well as bonuses that are calculated at 10 Standard methods and other channels of in-service percent of salary. Furthermore, they receive the same teacher training are displayed, respectively, in Table 5.3 income after retirement. However, teachers' incomes and Table 5.4, below, by institution and objective of are still lower than those of other professionals. training. According to data for 1991 provided by the Statistics Bureau, the annual income for teachers was an aver- The General Aims of Teacher Education age yuan 2,186 per teacher, which was 9.8 percent lower than salaries for workers involved in the indus- To address the needs of building socialist mod- trial sector; 17.6 percent lower than salaries for work- ernization ers in the architectural trade; and 15.04 percent lower To address the needs of reform and develop- than salaries for workerin the scientific and techno- ment of basic education and vocationaVtechni- logical sectors. In addition, Minban teachers do not cal education receive the same payment as regular, full-time teach- To gradually formulate a system of teacher trainers, which has had negative effects on this teaching ing with unique characteristics sector. This factor can be seen as one of the obstacles To establish primary schools, middle schools, to the implementation of cc inpulsory education in and vocationaVtechnical teaching contingents of rural areas. sufficient quantitiy, reasonable structure, good In order to meet the requirement of popularizing quality, and expertise in education and teaching nine-year compulsory schooling, a nationwide network of teacher training has been established, aiming At present, China has established requirements at upgrading and improving the quality of school- and standards for primary and high school teachers: teachers. Within 14 yearsfrom 1978 to 1992the (1) Primary school teachers should have normal school qualification rate for primary school teachers increased certificates; (2) junior high school teachers should be from 43 percent to 82.7 percent, and for junior high graduates of normal college; and (3) senior high school teachers, from 9.8 percent to 55.6 percent. On school teachers should have educational backgrounds the other hand, for a variety of historical and economic including normal universities. Furthermore, the Chi- reasons, there has been a great shortage of education- nese government stipulates that teachers must receive al expenditure, resulting in low teacher salaries and in in-service training that is closely related with their a low quality of teachers, many of whom find them- career development while they are teaching at schools. selves unable to keep up with the needs of social and Generally speaking, the nounal university, normal col- educational development. lege, and normal school are the foundations of pre- 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 59

TABLE 5.1 Standard Methods of Preservice Teacher Training

Institution Length Enrolled From Objective Degree

Normal university 4 yrs Senior high graduates Senior high teacher B.A. or B.S. Vocational normal 3-4 yrs Senior high graduates Junior & senior high teacher B.A. or B.S certificate Normal college 2-3 yrs Senior high graduates Junior high teacher Certificate Normal school 3-4 yrs Junior high graduates Primary school teachers Certificate Normal school 3-4 yrs Junior high graduates Teachers of primary school Certificate for special education for children with special needs Preschool normal school 3-4yrs Junior high graduates Kindergarten teacher Certificate

TABLE 5.2 Other Channels for Preservice Teacher Training

Institution Length Enrolled From Objective Degree

Teacher training classes 4 yrs Senior high graduates Senior high teacher B,A. or B.S. in universities Department of education 4 yrs Senior high graduates Senior high teacher B.A. or B.S in universities Teacher training classes 3 yrs Senior high graduates Junior high teacher Certificate in TV universities

TABLE 5.3 Star;:'ard Methods of In-service Teacher Training

Institution Providing Training For

Provincial teacher training college Senior and junior high school teachers Regional or municipal teacher training colleges Junior high school teachers Teacher training school at county level Primary school teachers

TABLE 5.4 Other Channels for In-service Teacher Training

Institution Providing Training For

Department of Adult Education in universities Senior and junior high school teachers China T.V. Normal College Senior and junior high school teachers Self-study for teacher qualification School teachers

service teacher training, while teacher training colleges The Objectives and schools mainly bear the responsibility for in-service training. In recent years, more and more institu- Preservice Training tions dealing with preserve training have been involved in conducting in-service teacher training pro- Normal University: These institutions provide four-year grams. There is, therefore, some overlap between training to senior high school graduates and to those these two kinds of institutions. with equivalent schooling records. After study, students 69 60 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS are awarded bachelor's degrees and state-approved 1,922,000 (including 89,000 graduates from preschool qualification for teaching in senior high schools. normal schools). Normal College: These colleges mainly conduct Table 5.6 provides statistics on in-service teacher three- or two-year training programs for senior high training institutions in 1992. From 1981 to 1990, accord- school graduates and for those with equivalent schooling ing to statistics,teacher training colleges trained records. The graduates are awarded certificates and state- 1,160,000 high school teachers and teacher training approved qualification for teaching in junior high schools. schools trained 1,500,000 primary school teachers. Table Normal School, Preschool Normal School, and Nor- 5.7 provides statistics on staff distribution in teacher mal School for Special Education: Preservice training training institutions in 1992. takes place in these schools for junior high school graduates and for those with equivalent schooling records. TheContent1 Through three- or four-year study programs, the students are awarded certificates and state-approved qualification Normal universities, normal colleges, and teacher training for teaching in primary schools and in kindergartens, as colleges train teachers in specialized subject matter areas well as in primary schools for children with special needs. generally based on the curriculum of secondary schools. In normal schools and teacher training schools, on the In-service Training other hand, there are no specialized divisions of study.

Provincial Teacher Training College: This kind of insti- Division of Subject-Matter Areas of the Higher tution provides diploma courses to (1) senior high Teacher Institutions school teachers who have not attained the state's prescribed level of education and (2) qualified junior high In recent years, there have been great changes in the school teachers who are seeking further study in order provision of programs at many teacher universities and to reach normal university level. Teachers are trained colleges. In addition to the subject-matter areas corre- through full-time or correspondence study, and receive sponding to the curriculum of secondary schools, these qualification after their training is completed. universities and colleges have also established many Regional/Prefectural Teacher Training College: new specialized courses,in accordance with the These colleges conduct remedial training for junior high requirements of social development and construction, school teachers who have not received normal college and the growth of science, technology, and education. education. In addition, they are also engaged in extend- These new courses are not exclusively designed for ed training of "key" primary school teachers, who serve training teachers; they also include such offerings as the same function as "backbone" teachersteachers computer science, radio electronics, biochemistry, edu- who hold a leading place in their profession. Full-time cational media, and library science. and correspondence study are the main types of train- As specified in the General Programs for Institutions ing, and these institutions also award teaching certifi- of Higher Education (rev. ed., 1963), there previously were cates to graduates. 17 subject-matter areas for higher teacher education pro- Teacher Training School at County Level: Those grams: language and literature (Han), Chinese minority teachers working in primary schools without state- languages and literature, Russian, English, history, politi- issued qualification are expected to seek additional in- cal education, school education, preschool education, psy- service training in teacher training schools through part- chology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geog- time or correspondence study. raphy, physical education, music, and fine arts. By 1981, In addition to remedial courses, in-service teacher however, the number of areas of study for teacher educa- training institutions are also responsible for conducting tion programs had already grown to 37. The additional continuous education and induction training for new fields include Japanese, German, French, philosophy, arts, teachers. Some of the training programs are of three- computer science, astronomy, economics, library science, month duration, while others take place over only sev- biochemistry, radio electronics, geomorphology, educa- eral days. tional media, mechanical manufacturing, and industrial automation (State Education Commission, 1985). Data on Teacher Training The addition of specialized fields of study continued, resulting in a total of 67 study areas by 1985. The Table 5.5 provides statistics on preservice teacher train- total number of all specialized program offerings in all ing institutions in 1992. From 1981 to 1990, according to statistics, normal 'This section is taken from Z.-L. Young, Lin, B., & Su, universities trained 430,000 student teachers, normal W.C., 1989. Teacher Education in the People's Republic of colleges trained 905,000, and normal schools trained China. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.

7 0 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 61

TABLE 5.5 Data on Preservice Teacher Training Institutions, 1992

No. of No. of No. of Institution Institutions Graduates Enrollment students

Normal university 253 167,713 166,364 470,186 and college Normal school 880 230,691 216,117 623,360 Preschool normal school 68 13,184 13,158 37,995

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

TABLE 5.6 Data on In-service Teacher Training Institutions, 1992 (for Diploma and Certificate Courses Only)

No. of No. of No. of Institution Institutions Graduates Enrollment students

Provincial and regionaV 254 104,816 60,334 185,591 municipal teacher training college Teacher training school 2,061 200,620 141,072 463,204 at county level

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

TABLE 5.7 Data on Teacher Educators of Training Institutions, 1992

No. of Teachers

Total No. Senior Assit. Institution of Staff Subtotal Prof. Lec. Lec. Lec. Teacher

Normal univ. and college 152,487 75,484 1,616 14,293 28,171 26,138 5,266 Normal school 94,422 53,188 5,271 14,047 20,745 13,125 Preschool normal school 7,064 4,033 424 1,132 1,544 903 Teacher training college 44,354 23,294 92 4,711 8,400 7,701 2,390 Teacher training school 71,769 40,290

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

institutions increased from 641 in 1981 to 747 in 1985. computer science, offered in 14 institutions in 1985 and Programs were offered in classical literature, Chinese as in only one in 1981. a foreign language, economic management, law, jour- Programsof normaluniversity-preservice nalism, systemic physics, environmental science, inter- teacher education: Curriculum generally consists of five nationalfinance,mechanicaldrafting,electronic components-political theory (philosophy, economics, accounting, economics, mathematics, computer usage, etc.);foreign languages; education courses (education- industrial business management, Chinese secretaryship, al theories, psychology, and methodology of teaching); and arts and crafts. The specialized programs with the physical education; and specialized courses in major greatest increase in participation are school education, fields (basic specialized courses and elective courses). which was offered in 24 institutions in 1985 as con- Student teaching consists of classroom teaching and work trasted with only 5 in 1981; preschool education, offered as a home-room teacher. No diploma is awarded to those in 10 institutions in 1985 and in only 5 in 1981; and who are disqualified through poor performance in stu-

t" 1 62 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS dent teaching. Term examinations are administered and were awarded a "Certificate of Teaching." The training and regular assessments are conducted; on the whole, two to examinations broadened teachers' range of knowledge. three subjects are examined during a term. Skills in lab- In-service training for college qualification: In oratory work and its supervision are required for those 1979, the number of full-time primary school teachers who are majoring in the sciences. Research training is throughout the country who had completed the state- conducted for the graduation thesis during senior year. prescribed level of education in normal schools was 47 Programs of normal collegepreservice teacher percent of the total. Only 10.6 percent of full-time education: Curriculum consists of political theory, for- junior middle-school teachers met these state require- eign languages, education courses, physical education, ments. According to the requirements of the State Edu- and specialized courses in the major field. The program cation Commission, teacher training schools and edu- of study is the same as that of undergraduate programs. cation colleges had offered supplementary education Programs of normal schoolpreservice teacher educa- to teachers in primary schools and junior middle- tion: Curriculum consists of political science, Chinese schools, respectively, in order to help them attain state language (ethnic minority language for ethnic minority standards for normal school education levels. Teachers teacher training schools), mathematics, physics, chem- had been allowed to leave their posts to study, or to istry, biology, hygiene, history, geography, foreign lan- obtain systematic training through correspondence. guage,psychology,educationaltheory,teaching Since 1986 however, the state has introduced a new methodology of primary mathematics, teaching method- examining system in which primary and middle-school ology of primary science, physical education and its teachers who have not attained the qualifying level of teaching methodology, music and its teaching method- schooling can choose to sit professional teaching and ology, fine arts and its teaching methodology. teaching skills examinations and, if they pass, be Student teaching is conducted for final practice awarded a "Certificate of Professional Qualification." teachinga total of eight weeks is required in the three- Through this system, primary school teachers can year program and ten weeks in the four-year program obtain schooling-record equivalency up to the level of (including regular observation and participation and the secondary normal school graduates, and junior middle- final practice teaching). This can be scheduled in one time school teachers can obtain schooling-record equiva- block or in several sections. However, in the final term, lency up to the level of tertiary professional normal the time allotted should not be less than four weeks. school graduates. By the end of 1992, 475,862 primary school teachers and 105,723 iunior middle-school In-service Training teachers had participated in examinations and obtained Certificates of Professional Qualification. The general goal of in-service training for primary and high school teachers is to improve teachers' professional Continuing Education quality; to train a number of "backbone" teachers, for example, to have some of the teachers become leaders Due to a number of factorsa shortage of backbone in academic subjects and experts in education and primary and middle-school teachers; the fact that many teaching; and to build a qualified teacher contingent to teachers' abilities in education and teaching were not satisfy the need of nine-year compulsory education, a up to the professional standards of the posts they held; teacher contingent that adheres to socialist direction and because many young teachers badly needed train- with noble moral character, reasonable structure, and ing in teaching ethicsthe State Education Commission good quality. Based on this general goal, schools for pri- decided that primary and middle-school teachers with mary and middle-school teachers take pride in follow- qualifying schooling records should receive continuing ing in-service training programs. education. The decision was made that this kind of con- Teaching materials and methodologies: During the tinuing education would be primarily carried out in ten years from 1966 to 1976, the primary school and mid- places where the rate of teachers with qualifying school- dle-school teacher contingent was badly damaged. Many ing records was relatively higher. Because of the low who had never received any professional training were rate of teachers with qualifying schooling records in involved in teaching. Since 1k 82, the state has begun to junior middle-schools all over the country, the stress on train primary school and middle- school teachers and to continuing education would be put on primary schools, examine teaching materials and teaching methods, to where the rate is over 80 percent. This continuing edu- ensure that teachers have a good command of subject cation is guided by the following principles, according teaching materials and are able to transmit the correct to attendant circumstances and conditions: knowledge to their students. By 1985, 90 percent of primary school and middle-school teachers throughout the 1. Induction training of new teachers: New gradu- country took part in training, passed examinations, and ates who are assigned to primary schools and

t~s)lw 63 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA

TABLE 5.8 The Administration of Teacher Training

Administration Institutions

Education Commission (national level) 6 key normal universities Education Commission (provincial level) 72 normal universities Education Commission (prefecture level) 175 normal colleges Education Commission (county level) 948 normal schools

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

who have qualifying schooling records for nor- colleges, are dominated by the Provincial Education Com- mal school education or above are trained so missions or by the Prefecture Education Commissions; the that they can meet the needs of teaching in a County-level Education Commissions are responsible for short period of time 948 normal schools. Table 5.8 below shows the distribu- 2. Professional qualifications: On the basis of tion of administration for teacher training. demand for primary school teachers' professional The role of the State Education Commission is qualifications at present, and of demands for high- intended to be one of guidance. It plans teacher trainer levels, primary school teachers are trained so ing programs as a whole, holds conferences to discuss that they can be competent at their present jobs. problems, and allocates funds to local authorities. More- mod- 3. All-around training: Apart from the main cur- over, the six key normal universities also serve as riculum, teachers are also trained in subjects such els for other institutions that the State Education Com- as moral education. society, nature, art, music, mission hopes to put into place. Local authorities, physical training, physical education, and so forth. however, are responsible for the actual provision of 4 Training for backbone teachers: Young teachers teacher training, as well as for carrying out the instruc- are trained in accordance with the demandsof tions of the State Education Commission. becoming backbone teachers and leading per- The establishment, alteration, or termination of sons in different subjects. normal schools is decided by provincial-level govern- 5. Knowledge renewal and application of new tech- ments, although the State Education Commission must nology training: New knowledge should be be notified of all decisions. There is a designated passed on to teachers and they should learn to department (the Department of Teacher Education) use new education skills so that they can meet within the State Education Commission that oversees the new demands of social development for pri- generalpolicies and macroplanning for normal mary school education. schools. Similar divisions exist within provinces, 6. Trainim qlscientific research abilities: Through autonomous regions, and municipalities for establish- the study of teaching materials, teaching meth- ing specific policies and planning regarding the devel- ods, and scientific research methods in primary opment of secondary teacher education and supervis- school education, teachers can acquire a correct ingandevaluatingimplementationofpolicies understanding of the national education guiding concerning local normal schools. principle, teaching plan, and syllabus. They can master teaching materials, teaching methods, Education Expenditure2 and general research methods. All institutions for initial teacher educationincluding normal universities, normal colleges, vocational normal Administrative System of colleges, and normal schoolsare state-run, and thus Teacher Education in China financial support is provided by the government. Like expenditures for other schools, those for teacher edu- In general, educational administration takes place at lour cation can be divided in ,) two categories: instructional levels: the State Education Commission, the Provincial and capital expenditure. Instructional expenditure refers Education Commission, the Prefecture Education Com- mission, and the t :ounty-level Education Commission. At present. of the 78 normal universities, six key uni- 2This section is taken from Z.-L. Young, Lin, B., R Su, versities arc directly under the controlorthe State Educa- NIC.C., 1989.Teacher Education in the People's Republic of tion Commission, while the remainder, and 175 normal China. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press. 64 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS to such things as staff salaries and benefits, financial solve exceptional difficulties encountered in enroll- assistance for students, equipment installation, books ment, teaching, research, or living. These expenditures and periodicals, operating expenses, instructional sup- generally depend on the overall financial capacity of port services, research, administrative services, and part- the central and local governments, and on the status time education. Capital expenditure refers to capital of the schools. construction of school buildings. Specific financial As regards in- service teacher education, funding sources for teacher training institutions in China depend at different levels is allocated by the local governments mainly on the level and type of institution. Funds for on the basis of actual conditions, and is reflected in the higher teacher education are provided for in the State local budget as education and capital construction budget of higher education, while secondary teacher expenditure. In practice, the allocation of these funds training schools are funded as part of general education. is generally designed to meet the actual requirements Financial support for normal colleges and normal uni- of teacher education and its specializations. In princi- versities under the direct control of the Department ple, it should be formulated in accordance with state Committees of the State Council is sponsored by the regulations. committees themselves. The six normal universities mentioned above, for example, are funded by the State Education Commission. However, most of the normal CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES colleges, normal universities, and vocational normal colleges are controlled by provinces, autonomous regions, The Situation and Challenges Faced by and municipalities, and thus are funded locally as part Teacher Education in China of the local budget for higher education. Similarly, for normal schools, the expenditure is part of the local bud- China's energetic drive for reform and for opening to get for general education. the outside world, as well as its modernization, has Normal universities, normal colleges, and normal arrived at a new stage. In this new stage, China is schools are generally funded according to the number engaged in active efforts to establish a socialist market of students enrolled and designated by the state plan. economy system, and is speeding up the pace of reform This is to encourage the full use of the potential of and modernization. As a result, economic construction each school and college, in order to promote the and social progress are making big strides. The new sit- expansion of enrollment and to expedite growth. The uation has not only provided China with a rare chance standards for funding varyfrom those of the central to accelerate reform and all-around development of to the local governments, from provinces to munici- educational enterprise, but has also posed significant palities, arid from year to year. Funding for normal uni- challenges. One of the challenges is to find out if versities directly under the State Education Commis- teacher education can adapt itself to measures for the sion is generally an average of RMB4,925 yuan per systematic reforms of a socialist market economy, and student annually (1994 statistics). Policy dictates that to the rapid rate of social economic change. Another is the funding standard for local normal colleges and nor- to find out if teacher education can keep abreast of mal universities be the same as that for institutions reform and development of basic education in China. directly under the State Education Commission. Fund- Education must serve socialist economic con- ing for normal schools, while not equivalent, is admin- struction. In fact, challenges to teacher education stem istered in a similar way. from China's economic development. The acceleration However, because of the differences in econom- of reform, of opening up to the outside world, and of ic strength among provinces and regions, the actual modernization rely on scientific technology and educa- average annual funding per student varies from place tion. The key link lies in the improvement of laborers' to place. Some of the richer regions contribute more competence, which mainly depends on the quality of for educational expenditure, while the poorer provide their basic education. Therefore, urgent demand is pri- less. For instance, in Shanghai, the average expendi- marily posed for speeding up development and for the ture for each student in teacher training schools is improvement of basic education. Consequently, the about RMB3,465 yuan annually, whereas in some poor demand is put forward for the development of teacher districts, the average expenditure for each student is education and the improvement of teacher competence. only RMB1,107 yuan per annum. The average is In order to meet the need for various talented per- around RMB1,586 yuan per year per student in an sonnel to participate in economic construction and average district (statistics reported by the Department social developmentespecially on the junior and inter- of Educational Planning, 1991). Under special circum- mediate levelsthe educational structure will be, to a stances, the state may also subsidize equipment instal- large extent, readjusted. In an effort to accomplish this lation and maintenance, or provide additional funds to goal, the number of senior secondary vocational and 74 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 65

technical schools will be significantly increased, while urgent solutions. Teacher education in China is facing junior middle-school graduates with nonqualifying cer- very significant challengeschallenges that also provide tificates for higher learning will receive proper voca- significant opportunities for progress. tional and technical training. How tertiary teacher education can cultivate new types of professional teachers The Aim and Strategy for the Development of to grasp the knowledge and skills of vocational and Teacher Education in China technical education is an important question. The gradual establishment of a socialist market The Essentials for China's Educational Reform and economy will have a profound influence on the sys- Development, a document jointly promulgated by the tems and models of basic education, and on vocation- Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and al and technical education. What has become an the State Council on February 13,1993, offers a blueprint urgent issue in teacher education is the question of for the reform and development of teacher education in how it can accelerate its development, deepen its the 1990s. The general aims for normal education devel- reforms, and set up a corresponding new system in the opment by the end of this century are: (1) to establish process of changing from a highly planned economic a basic framework of socialist teacher education,with system to a socialist market economy. Additional chal- Chinese characteristics, that meets the needs of the lenges are those posed by the reform and develop- socialist modernization drive and is compatible with the ment of basic education. reform and development of basic education and voca- By the year 2000, in the light of China's plan for tional and technical education; (2) to lay a solid base for education, nine-year compulsory education (including the development of teacher education in the 21st cen- vocational and technical education at the junior high tury; and (3) to train a well-structured and compara- school level) will be popularized in the country, and tively stable contingent of teachers with professional senior secondary education will have been universalized morality and competence. The concrete objectives for in developed areas. The demand for preschool educa- the reform and development of teacher education are tion will be satisfied in most large and medium-sized as follows: cities, while in rural areas, preschool education will have made big strides. To realize these objectives, new and 1. The model of teacher education should be strict requirements should be placed on the size and the reformed and a new system developed in which quality of various kinds of teacher education institutions. various independently established institutes for Primary and secondary education in China is now training teachers at all levels would serve as the undergoing reform and changing from "the education main foundation; other types of colleges and of preparing for examinations" to the orbit of "the edu- schools would also play a role in training teach- cation of competence cultivation." The former places ers, and preservice training and in-service train- particular stress on imparting knowledge while the lat- ing of teachers would be well integrated. ter aims at improving students' morality, knowledge of 2. As regards the management system of teacher science and technology, working skills, and psycholog- education, the relation between government and ical competence. Such a change will pbse a challenge school would be rationalized in order to enable to current teacher education in the areas of guiding schools to have decision-making powers of their principles, ideas, building teacher contingents, special- own, and to establish a mechanism of self- izations, and curriculum. development, self-restriction, and self-adjust- Social progress and development of science and ment for serving the needs of the society and of technology require teachers to keep abreast of the lat- basic education. est developments and achievements in their specialized 4. Various kinds of normal schools at all levels fields; to have a grasp of modern educational thought, would adhere to the standardized conditions for educational theories, and methods, and the modern running schools and enhance their administration technology of teaching; and to acquire specific abilities and management with their own styles. Efforts in conducting educational research. Questions regard- would also be concentrated on running a num- ing this process are; How to further overcome, to a cer- ber of good quality normal schools and colleges tain extent, improper aspects of teacher education to serve as models. In the early 21st century, a affecting social progress and basic educational devel- number of normal schools, colleges, specializa- opment? How to further emancipate people's minds and tions, and disciplines will be well developed in change their educational ideas in the light of the prac- respect to their educational quality, research, and tical needs of the socialist modernization drive? How to management. readjust the structure of curriculum and renew teaching 5. A system of continuous education for primary contents and methods? These are problems in need of and middle-school teachers, and a complete and 66 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

integrated network for training teachers at the teacher education: Under the state's macrolevel guid- provincial, regional and county levels, as well ance, the provinces, autonomous regions, and munici- as in other kinds of schools, will be established, palities should play the major role in making a scientif- with teacher training schools and colleges as the ic calculation of the future demand for teachers below main channels. The institutions of broadcasting, the secondary education level, and guaranteeing the TV, and audiovisual education would be used as coordinated development of various kinds of teacher supplementary channels, with linkups to stan- education in terms of speed of development, size, struc- dard teacher educational outlets. ture, and distribution. In developing teacher education, 6. Along with the goal of completion of extra edu- measures suitable to local conditions should be taken, cation for the schooling record by the end of this and the overall plan should be conceived in order to century, the proportion of primary school teach- achieve the greatest possible benefits. Developed areas ers and middle-school teachers with state-issued should be encouraged to proceed in developing teacher certificates of schooling records and specializa- education and in increasing the proportion of primary tion qualifications would surpass 95 percent and school teachers with formal schooling records from sec- 90 percent, respectively. Consequently, the over- ondary normal schools, as well as the number of junior all quality of teachers with education below col- high school teachers with normal college degrees. Some lege level would be improved. The proportion undeveloped areas will receive help to reach this goal. of primary school teachers with college educa- As far as the country as a whole is concerned, the key tion would increase year by year. The propor- point in developing education is to satisfy the demand tion of the same kind of teachers in the counties for teachers in order to popularize nine-year compul- and small towns across the country would sory education. At the same time, the problem of short- increase by a large margin. age of teachers for specialized courses in vocational and technical education, and for special education, should To realize the above objectives, the theory of be solved through rationalization of the structure of establishing socialist characteristics in China must be teacher education. Appropriate attention should also be employed as a guideline for emancipating people's paid to the demand for qualified teachers in senior sec- minds and for encouraging them to do an earnest and ondary education. solid job. In carrying out The Essentials for China's Edu- Increasing the educational budget and further cational Reform and Development efforts should be improvement of the conditions of teacher training: The made to speed up educational reform in light of China's state will focus financial aid on some selected areas. practical conditions, and to broaden channels of Local financial allocation will play a major role in run- exchange with other countries. The new methods of ning schools. Local governments at all levels should developing teacher education under the system of a increase budgets for teacher education every year to socialist market economy should be explored, accord- guarantee the superior strategic position of teacher edu- ing to the objective laws of education, so as to meet the cation. In order to change the former centralized system requirements of accelerating reform and development of state financial allocation to teacher education, more of secondary education. Finally, the educational guid- channels and more means should be utilized to raise ing principles must be comprehensively implemented funds. Organizations, enterprises, and individuals are for improving educational quality, so that we can bring encouraged to donate money to teacher education. teacher education in China up to a new level in respect International projects of bilateral and multilateral coop- to its quality, structure, and effectiveness. eration should receive special attention. Foreign loans and funds must be utilized properly. Through joint Concrete and Effective Measures efforts, normal schools and colleges will be able to attain the national unified standards. Enhancing the professional position of teachers and Broadening the channels of teacher training: The establishing the strategic standing of teacher education: old system of training teachers through normal schools Corresponding policies and appropriate measures and colleges should be reformed and replaced by a new should be adopted to make teacher education more sci- model. In the near future, a new system of pre-fixed entific and specialized. We should improve the social service orientation will be adopted in some independent position and well-being of primary and middle-school secondary normal schools, and in specialized normal teachers and make teaching into an admirable profes- schools, to meet the demands of compulsory education. sion. This is a prerequisite for establishing the strategic The normal colleges will be supported in efforts to position of teacher education. make pilot experiments and to implement major Formulating the development program for teacher reforms aimed at improving social benefits and the qual- education and reforming the management system of ity of education. The advantages of ordinary colleges 76 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 67 and universitiesespecially colleges of science, engi- Reforming systems of admission and distribution neering, agriculture, and medicineshould be brought of teacher education: The former centralized model of into full play for training teachers in specific subjects. A enrolling new students according to the state plan must network of teacher training at four levelsschool, coun- be replaced by integrating the state-assigned plan as a ty, region, and provinceshould be set up for voca- main task. The state assigned the fixed-training task for tional education teacher training. By rationalizing the meeting the needs of underprivileged areas, and for system and by linking up different training channels, the nine-year compulsory education.Special policies institutions of adult educationsuch as teacher training should be formulated for encouraging middle-school schools, correspondence schools, broadcast and TV graduates who excel at their studies to choose normal schools, and certificate examinations for independent colleges for advanced studies. To enable students from studycan make a comprehensive effort to help train underprivileged areas to return to their places of origin primary and middle-school teachers. after graduation, the effective method of preoriented Deepening the reforms of teaching with the admission and distribution must be continuously imple- improvement of teaching quality as a core goal: Active mented, and the proportion of admissions of in-service measures should be taken to satisfy the needs of the training personnel with rich practical experience should reform and modernization program, and to adapt to the be increased. Some local teachers can be enrolled by reform and development of secondary education. normal colleges for further training, thus improving the These include establishing new ideas of education, status of new sources of students at normal colleges. A changing the concepts, and renewing teaching contents compulsory period of service, as teachers in general, and methodologies. The classified standards of teacher for graduates from normal colleges should also be training quality must be worked out, and the rational established. structures of knowledge and ability requirements for Reinforcing educational research and strengthen- teachers must be developed. Students in normal ing international cooperation and exchange in teacher schools and colleges should be provided with rein- training: Theories of teacher education can be drawn forced preservice trainingwhich should include val- from study and analysis of historical development, and ues such as professional consciousness, ethics, knowl- from the present situation and future tendency of edge, ability, and self-developmentso as to cultivate teacher education. All normal schools and colleges them for functioning as the qualified teachers required should study requirements and guidelines of school by society. management and teacher training, accumulate the The normal schools and colleges should make teaching experiences of excellent teachers, and cultivate energetic efforts in curriculum reform. The system and new theories of teaching. content of teaching materials should be renewed to The research and study of teacher education in reflect both the excellent traditions of Chinese and other countries should be strengthened. The wealth of world civilization and the latest developments of mod- experience from high standards of achievement in all ern science and technology. Academic and profes- civilizations, and of successful experience in manag- sional characteristics should be unified. The uneven ing teacher education in other countries, should be development of different areas in China should be utilized as a learning tool for improving the level of taken into full consideration when contemplating teacher training in China. Further effort should be reform of curriculum. Since over 80 percent of the made to broaden the extent of opening to the outside population of China live in rural areas, the focal point world, and to create conditions for expanding inter- of basic education and the main object of teacher edu- national exchange and cooperation in the field of cation reside in rural areas. Therefore, teacher training teacher education. Normal schools and colleges should serve the needs of rural development, which is should establish relations with their counterparts in one of the difficulties for teacher training in China. other countries so that we can utilize information from Accordingly, the structure of specializations, curricu- various channels to promote international exchange lum, and teaching content must be reformed. Programs and reform and development of teacher education in of teacher training suitable to the demand of rural edu- China. cation for teachers at different levels should be In order to present a complete picture of China's explored. As to potential teachers for rural areas, they system of teacher education, the following sections should be taught with the teaching materials appro- will address the structure of curricula in normal priate to the local conditions. They can be cultivated schools and the implementation of continuing educa- as all-around teachers with a command of both knowl- tion and other efforts to improve the quality of prima- edge and practical skills. In the minority nationality ry and secondary school teachers. An overview of edu- areas, special attention should be given to the training cational reform as conducted in Fujian Province can be of bilingual teachers. found in Appendix 5-A. 68 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

THE STRUCTURE OF CURRICULA OF NORMAL The underlying idea of this plan is to make the SCHOOLS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA structure of normal school curriculum a dynam- ic one, subject to modifications in the course of At present, preservice training of primary school teachers its implementation in response to changing cir- is largely carried out by normal schools. These schools cumstances and local conditions. recruit their students from graduates of junior secondary schools who have completed Nine-Year Compulsory Thus, local authorities enjoy a large measure of Schooling (NYCS). They mainly offer three-year courses. autonomy in making necessary modifications in an effort New entrants have little preparation in knowledge and to optimize the plan's implementation and effects, and skills relevant to the initial education of teachers. In order in the spirit of combining unity with flexibility. It there- to prepare qualified primary teachers in a course with a fore seems to us that it contributes to creating more ratio- duration of three years, the State has adopted a number nal relationships between academic subjects and proof measures related to the recruitment of new entrants, fessional subjects, between the acquisition of knowledge school management, improvement of physical facilities, and the acquisition of skills, and between theory and and teaching staff development. Curriculum develop- practice, and that it also embodies the characteristics of ment, especially in terms of the structure of normal preservice education. For a more detailed presentation school curricula, is a crucial issue with a bearing on the of the plan and its implementation on local levels, see quality of education and training provided by normal Appendix 5-B (Three-Year Normal School Teaching schools. Over the years, we have endeavored to find a Scheme), Appendix 5-C (Typical Teaching Plan of Nor- curriculum structure for normal schools that can: mal Schools in Jiangsu Province), and Appendix 5-D (Plan of Teaching and Learning Activities Formulated by 1. Better realize the goal of primary teacher train- Nantong Normal School in Jiangsu Province). ing within a course of three-years duration, The structure of curriculum refers to the modes of based on NYCS instruction of various categories of subjects, and to their 2. Adapt, at the same time, to the vast disparity in internalrelationships. The curriculum of normal economic and educational development among schools in China comprises the following four cate- various loc?''''-s (with concomitant varying gories of subjects: (1) obligatory, or required, subjects; demands made on the qualifications of primary (2) elective subjects; (3) activity-oriented subjects (a teachers) number of the activity-oriented subjects cater mainly to 3. Meet the needs of overcoming the danger of extracurricular activities; others cater mainly to activi- excessively examination-oriented primary edu- ties centered around teaching practicum); and (4) prac- cation tice-oriented subjects. Internal relationships include a 4. Create conditions conducive to the all-around proper combination of obligatory and elective subjects development of the new generation and a proper combination of academic subjects including both obligatory and elective subjects on the The curricula of all normal schools in China are one hand and activity-oriented subjects on the other. based on the Three-Year Normal School Teaching Within this framework, the obligatory subjects repre- Scheme (TYNSTS), formulated and promulgated by the sent the core, because they provide student teachers State Education Commission in 1989, which was the out- with the major means of receiving a well-balanced ini- come of extensive experiments and reforms conducted tial teacher training, and because they are the basic in the previous year with a view to creating a more ratio- guarantee of the quality of primary teacher training. At nal curriculum structure. This document provides the ref- the same time, obligatory subjects should be taught in erence for subsequent discussions concerning educa- such a way that they play an exemplary role in the tional reform carried out in Chinese normal schools. teaching of other subjects, serving as a guide to their The TYNSTS serves as a guide to curriculum orientation. The other three categories of subjects func- design adapted to local conditions, with the following tion in relation to the obligatory subjects in a way anal- characteristics in its structure: ogous to the relation that exists between a wheel's spokes and its axlethat is, extending or radiating out- The aims and objectives of the normal schools ward as a natural outgrowth of the core. The activity- constitute the foundation of the teaching plan, oriented subjects and the practice-oriented subjects which consists of a core of obligatory subjects both have their own irreplaceable functions and, to be complemented or supplemented by elec- together with the obligatory subjects, provide preser- tives conceived to facilitate the integration of vice training to student teachers (see Table 5.9, con- academic subjects with activity subjects and structed with a view to giving a clearer description of practical subjects. the structure of our normal school curriculum). (8 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 69

TABLE 5.9 Three-Year Normal School Teaching Scheme (TYNSTS) Courses, by Content and Function

Courses and Content Function Remarks

OBLIGATORY SUBJECTS They constitute the main body of the teaching The list of required courses, essential require- Basic academic subjects and learning activities in normal schools, pro- ments in teaching, sequential order, and sug- Professional subjects viding all-around general education and preser- gested range of teaching hours are all regulated Physical ed. and arts subjects vice training of primary teachers. The main by the state. Local educational authorities Labor and technology instruments used in realizing the state's basic design the curriclum used in local normal requirements for primary teacher training. schools in accordance with the above-mentioned regulations, and in the light of local conditions.

ELECTIVE SUBJECTS They constitute a supplement to and an exten- The scope of electives, essential requirements in Knowledge-based electives sion of the obligatory subjects, conceived with teaching, and suggested range of teaching Skills-based electives a view to reinforcing the interpenetration and hours are all regulated by the state. Local Electives on teaching materials integration of different subjects and widening Authorities decide on the list of electives to be and methods the student's scope of knowledge, and develop-offered, their sequential order, and teaching Other electives ing their interests and aptitudes, as well as fos- hours, in the light of local conditions. tering their competencies in teaching.

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES They constitute an integral part of teaching in Essential requirements and guidelines are laid Lectures on specific topics normal schools, being instrumental in promot- down by the state, and local authorities decide Academic activities ing the development of students' personality, on the list of activities to be conducted, their Athletic and recreational activities and fostering a variety of useful skills and com- content, time scheduled, and possible modes of Social activities petencies, especially the ability of self-education execution. Other activities and self-management.

EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE They constitute an important part of the preser- Content of activities, modes of execution, Visits to schools vice education of primary teachers, conceived essential requirements, and guidelines are laid Educational surveys or with a view to promoting the integration of down by the state. The total duration of educa- investigations theory and practice, creating opportunities for tional practice and their distribution in the three Observation of classroom teaching student-teachers to apply their knowledge, years are also given for reference. Local authori- of experienced teachers skills, and competencies in various settings, ties decide on the specific programs to be con- Educational practice being indispensable in fostering the practical ducted. Consultancy services ability of students in coping with education and teaching in primary schools.

The implementation of the TYNSTS in the past few educational preparation of new entrants is restricted to years has provided ample proof of the ability of this cur- the completion of junior secondary school, academic riculum structure to raise the quality of normal school subjects taught in normal schools must have enough education, and of the positive role it has played in the breadth and depth to meet the needs of primary school preparation of well-rounded primary teachers. These teaching. Accordingly, the TYNSTS stipulates that teach- characteristics are evident in the correct handling of ing time allocated to academic subjects should account some fundamental relationships. for at least 60 percent of all obligatory subjects, thus guaranteeing that academic subjects occupy a legitimate Relationship Between Academic or place in the curriculum, and enabling these subjects to General Educational Subjects and fulfill their functions. Preservice training of primary Professional Subjects teachers, on the other hand, necessitates that professional subjects must also be allocated an amount of Beginning with the aims and objectives of primary teaching time commensurate with their role. As regards teacher training, and in the light of the basis of such the arrangement of these subjects, we deem it advisable training, the curriculum structure must fulfill a dual role, to spread them throughout the three years rather than that is, meeting the needs both for an adequate basis of concentrate them at the end of the course. Furthermore, general education and for preservice teacher training. in some institutions, efforts have been made to break Therefore, undoubtedly, the subjects provided must down the barrier between academic and professional include both academic or general educational subjects subjects by reforming the teaching of the former and and professional subjects.Inview of the fact that the requiring a reinforcement of training in basic skills, 70 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS which are indispensable for a primary teacher. Thus, the These extracurricular activities have particular signifi- proper handling of the relationships between academ- cance in the context of normal school operation. First, ic and professional subjects enables both categories to primary schools should be staffed not only with basi- fulfill their preservice training functions. cally qualified teachers, but also with teachers equipped with special skills at which they are proficient. Although Relationship Between Disciplinary Subjects and formal courses should be instrumental in uncovering Integrated Subjects and developing potential ability or aptitude in individual students, only rich extracurricular activities can help In our curriculum design, due consideration must be to adequately develop their potential. Looking at this given to the following factors. Fulfillment of the duty of issue from the perspective of the full development of a primary teacher necessitates a solid foundation of gen- personality, all kinds of school education, including that eral education based on a systematic and coherent provided by normal schools, should strive to realize the sequence of subjects. In view of the current qualifica- full development of students' personality. The TYNSTS tions of most normal school teachers, a disciplinary not only affirms the significance of extracurricular activ- approach is more appropriate for most subjects taug:it, ities in promoting students' learning in academic sub- and the TYNSTS has decided to adopt the disciplinary jects, and in developing their competence and individ- approach for most subjects. However, within the short uality(confirmingtheirroleinactivity-oriented span of three years, it is neither advisable nor desirable subjects), but also stipulates their content, organizational to offer all subjects along disciplinary lines, and a clear forms, and schedules, and allocates a definite propor- demarcation between academic and professional sub- tion of time to these activities, so that they may become jects would require more time than is available; it also an integral part of the "whole" curriculum, and com- tends to overburden students. To adopt a strictly disci- plement the functions of the more formal courses, plinary approach in curriculum design not only contra- which also confi rms their irreplaceable function. dicts the worldwide trend of adopting an integrated approach, but also ignores the realities of primary edu- Relationship Between Knowledge-transmitting, cation, in which a number of subjects are integrated. or Imparting, Subjects and The TYNSTS provides room for the development of Practice-Oriented Subjects integrated courses among the electives and extracurricular activities (e.g., a topical series of lectures), particu- To be a qualified primary teacher, one must be larly by extending a relatively large degree of freedom equipped with a certain amount of general cultural in offering integrated courses in light of local econom- knowledge and specialized knowledge, and, in addi- ic and cultural development, and in response to specif- tion, with certain basic skills and competencies in edu- ic needs arising from the requisites of primary educa- cation and teaching. Therefore, the course offerings of tion, and through a proper reduction in the number of normal schools should include basic academic subjects, obligatory subjects. Thus, in China, although the devel- professional subjects with a theoretical bias, and prac- opment of integrated courses is still in an early stage, a tice-oriented subjects aimed at fostering the competen- new path has been opened for curriculum reform in cies needed in education and teaching through appli- normal schools in the context of a framework in which cation of theoretical knowledge in real-life situations, the disciplinary approach is dominant, although sup- and in other practical activities. Thus, the TYNSTS has plemented by a few integrated courses. adopted a two-pronged strategy. On the one hand, it seeks to ensure that academic subjects and profession- Relationship Between Subjects (Courses) al subjects constitute the core of the curriculum and Explicitly Provided by the Curriculum and occupy a rational proportion of teaching time; on the Curriculum-Related Extracurricular Activities other hand, it emphasizes the required strengthening by these courses of training in basic skills and fostering of Classroom teaching is still the main form of teaching. competencies, especially the mastery of Putonghua (or Teaching obligatory subjects and electives is mainly "commonspeech")skillsoforalcommunication. based on classroom teaching, and these courses remain Putonghua is prescribed by law as the standard in lan- the main educational provision for preservice training guage for modern Han Chinese, both m terms of proof primary teachers for graduation requirements. But nunciation and in grammar. It is compulsory for teach- curriculum in a broader sense should not be limited to ers to use Putonghua in their classroom teaching, while those courses explicitly provided by the curriculum. It bilingual teaching is encouraged in minority schools should be noted that a number of extracurricular activ- (Han Chinese and Putonghua are essentially the same ities in normal schools have, or may be required to language). Training is also geared to competency in establish, close relations to formal courses offered. writing with brushes, pens, and chalk; to developing 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 71

social skills, habits of and skill in independent study, without any conscientious effort to give full scope to their and so forth, while stressing the practicality and manip- roles. There are also instances in which the effort being ulability of knowledge and skills learned. At the same made to break the yoke of traditional patterns of teach- time, the TYNSTS confirms the special place and role ing has meant that too much attention is being given to played by educational and social practice, allocating the development of electives, extracurricular activities, altogether 13 weeks for these purposes (including 10 and practice-oriented activities, with the result that the weeks of teaching practicum and 3 weeks kept in teaching, and reform, of obligatory courses is neglected. reserve for various kinds of social or collective activi- These deviations are partly due to ideological reasons ties), accounting for 11 percent of the effective teaching and partly to the lack of experience. At the same time, it and learning time available in the three-year course. It must be pointed out that effective mechanisms have not is also stipulated that, in scheduling these activities, yet been developed to ensure that the curriculum struc- effort should be made to arrange time allocated to edu- ture is really operative. Although the TYNSTS contains cational practice so that it keeps pace with the progress provisions concerning the functions, roles, basic require- of academic and professional subjects, and is also ments, and allocation of teaching time for each of the spread out over the three years of the course in order four categories of subjects, a mechanism of checks and to integrate knowledge-imparting with practice- orient - balances is lacking. This is an outstanding issue that must ed courses and create a curriculum structure in which be explored so that feasible solutions may be found that these two categories interpenetrate and complement contribute to effective functioning of all categories of sub- one another. jects and to an optimal realization, in a balanced manner, of the aims and objectives of normal schools. Outstanding Issues for the Improvement of the Ensuring that all subject categories blend harmo- Three-year Normal School Teaching Scheme niously and function as an organic whole: The new curriculum structure has broken the old pattern of provid- Primary teacher training provided by normal schools ing obligatory courses only and clarified the relationship has had a history of more than 90 years in China. Yet, between various categories of subjects, providing a the- only a few years have elapsed since the TYNSTS was oretical framework for making them function as an promulgated and implemented in 1989. Although the organic whole as well as guidelines for the implemen- experience of the past few years does indicate that this tation of the curriculum in operational terms. However, scheme is better than previous ones, and that it has since there are no basic regulations concerning the played a positive role in raising the quality of normal sequence of closely related parts of different subjects school education, there are a number of outstanding and the number of teaching hours devoted to their issues to be tackled so that this curriculum structure may instruction, administrators of normal schools are given be further improved in the course of practice. ample freedom to make their own arrangements, as Giving full scope to the role of subject categories with they see fit, concerning the curriculum. This autonomy obligatory subjects as the mainstay: One of the underly- may also be misused, giving rise to arbitrary decisions ing ideas of the new curriculum structure is that all sub- concerning the provision of electives and activity- and ject categories will fulfill their functions in the light of the practice-oriented courses. It is desirable, therefore, in aims and objectives of normal schools, and show syner- the interests of ensuring that all subject categories func- gistic and holistic effects. In the new curriculum structure, tion as an organic whole, to correctly assess both posi- obligatory subjects are expected to play a leading role in tive and negative experiences in order to draw the cor- raising the quality of training. The basic requirements of rect conclusions and to formulate useful guidelines for normal school education can be ensured only if obliga- the optimization of the curriculum. tory courses are effectively t ansmitted and compre- Ensuring a scientific and sound system of curricu- hended, with concomitant reforms in content and meth- lum evaluation through the imperative of reform of teach- ods of teaching. At the same time, the other three ing management: Because the traditional curriculum pat- categories of subjects have their own proper and irre- tern of exclusively obligatory subjects has been replaced placeable functions. The quality of training will be by a new structure, there should be corresponding mod- adversely affected if they are neglected or weakened. ifications in the management of teaching. As far as the However, in China's formerly dominant pattern of cur- management of curriculum design is concerned, changes riculum structure, all course offerings were obligatory, in the structure of curriculum necessitate changes in its with no place for the electives, and this legacy has had practice. The scope of routine management of course undesirable effects on the leadership and on the teach- offerings must be extended from covering obligatory ers in some normal schools where electives and activity- courses only to covering four categories of courses. As and practice-oriented subjects are not being given due regards the evaluation of the quality of teaching in nor- attention, or where they may be formally offered but mal schools, modifications must be made to cope with

Si 72 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS the new situation by developing a new evaluation sys- opening up to the outside world and modern construc- tem covering the assessment of students' progress in the tion, and to further liberate and develop productive acquisition of knowledge and skills, and of their perfor- forces so as to improve our national economy and our mance in teaching, so that the process of teaching all sub- overall national strength to a higher degree. The suc- ject categories, as well as the final outcome of normal cessful fulfillment of this task depends not only on the school education as a whole, can undergo scientific eval- production of a large number of senior special techni- uation. A well-conceived and effective system of evalua- cal and administrative talents, but also on the high level tion is conducive to the comprehe sive and effective of training of a new type of productive force that is implementation of the new curriculum. knowledgeable, capable, and proficient at thinking cre- Furthermore, the implementation of the new cur- atively. These are the reasons why, after the implemen- riculum structure poses new requirements for the tation of nine-year compulsory basic education, we improvement of the physical facilities of normal schools have put forward new, overall goals for education. and for the development of qualified staff. It should be These goals are to significantly improve the education- noted that during the past decade, normal schools have al level of the entire nation; to further develop pre- and been given high priority in the allocation of resources postvocational education of both urban and rural labor- financial, human, and materialby government at various ers in order to foster a quantity of special talents of var- levels. Consequently, there have been significant improve- ious types, to establish a mature and ideal socialist edu- ments in physical facilities and staffing during recent years. c::tional system; and to realize socialist modernizations In spite of the progress made, however, we must admit after several decades of efforts. that so far, the input of new resources has been used To implement these strategic tasks, we are con- mainly to meet the requirements of obligatory subjects, ducting an overall reform of the educational structure leaving the needs of the newly offered electives largely and system. As far as the reform of teaching materials ignoredespecially the courses offered in response to for primary and secondary school is concerned, the local needs. There are few qualified teachers to undertake State Education Commission has initiated a plan for pro- the new tasks. Therefore, it is imperative to increase finan- ducing talents of different types and at different levels, cial input for the development of normal schools. Much based on the need for the construction of both a mate- work remains to be done to create conditions for the pro- rial and a spiritual civilization. We are also breaking vision of four categories of courses, and this includes pro- through the conventions of traditional teaching materi- vision of better facilities and of more qualified teachers. als by introducing reforms based on successful experi- The shortage of qualified teachers is even more difficult ences both inside and outside China, and attempting to to overcome than is the lack of facilities. make the transition from traditional to modern educa- The adoption of a new curriculum structure for our tion a smooth one by giving priority to the reform of normal schools has opened a new path for deepening educational ideas, concepts, and contents and shifting curriculum reform, and has provided a strong impetus the emphasis on examination-oriented learning to learn- for raising the quality of instruction in normal schools. ing based on the improvement of the quality of the The implementation of the new curriculum structure is nation as a whole. a systems engineering project, and we will spare no In order to satisfy the needs of modern education effort in furthering curriculum reformin the areas of and of society in the coming decades, we need to pro- content, structure, correct interrelationships among sub- duce new types of qualified teaching contingents. That ject categories, management of course offerings, and is the reason we have decided henceforth to conduct quality evaluationso that a curricular pattern befitting continuing education for teachers in possession of state- Chinese normal schools may gradually take shape. issued qualifications. The continuing education program consists of the following types of training: IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTINUING EDUCATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE QUALITY OF In-service training: for teachers in the present PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS service and for those who will be promoted to a higher level The rapid development of the worldwide technological Training for "key" teachers: targeted at promising revolution will bring with it a more internationalized middle-aged teachers and those pioneering teach- and informed society in the 21st century. It has become ers who excel in their own subject, and at teach- the strategic task of our country at the end of this cen- ers who wish to pursue more advanced degrees tury, and the beginning of the next, to establish a social- O Training for new teachers in field practice: to ist market economy system, to speed up reform, the enable new teachers to adapt to the teaching 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 73

work; includes training for theory of teaching Contents of the Continuing Education Program and methodology Rules for Designing Curriculum The task of continuing education for secondary and primary school teachers is: to improve teachers' Based on scientific principles, the curriculum guide level of theory and their teaching abilities and to pro- should be based on educational philosophy and theo- duce a quantity of "key" and pioneering teachers, some ries, psychology, pedagogy, and sociology. The cur- of whom will be trained as specialists in teaching and riculum should also meet the needs of in-service teach- education, in order to foster secondary and primary ers at different levels, as well as those who are at the school teaching contingents with correct needs and high same level but who have different needs. In Shanghai, standards of quality and morality for example, the curriculum guide has been designed Under the guidance of the State Education Com- with the following considerations in mind: mission, the municipalities and provinces of Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Liaoning, Jilin, Sichuan, Zhejiang, 1. Teachers who, because of specific needs, are Hunan, Jiangsu, Heilongjiang, Hubei, and Shandong shifted from their own subjects to the teaching of have conducted research into and initiated the practice others, or of several other subjects, are required of a continuing education program, particularly in terms to have the capacity to teach multiple subjects. of policy, contents, approaches, and institutional sys- 2. To satisfy the need of producing teaching con- tems. These efforts have initially paid off. tingents in echelon formation, backbone teach- In Shanghai, for instance, achievements in terms ers must receive further training. Some teachers of policy, content, and approaches to teacher training should be promoted to higher posts, and trained can be characterized by measures stipulated by the to the requirements of higher levels. municipal government under the Regulations on Train- 3. The need for secondary and primary school ing for Secondary and Primary School Teachers, issued teaching material reform requires updating edu- in December 1989. These include: cational theory, approaches and skills, and teachers' professional knowledge. 1. Teachers with elementary and intermediate lev- 4. Due to a number of historical and social reasons, els of academic qualifications should participate some teachers are in possession of academic tides in at least 540 hours of training every five years but without the practi6l abilities to match them. (in any case, they must participate in no less 5. Based on the characteristics of teaching work than 240 hours of training every five years), 300 and the need for educational development, con- hours of which are earmarked for research on tinuing education programs should include new special topics. contents and an emphasis on the development 2. Outcomes of training and resulting certificates of of practical teaching and research ability, while qualification will be the basis on which to judge at the same time recognizing the need for performance in teaching, evaluation of teaching research on knowledge structure through con- titles, salary increases, and selection for award sideration of past experiences, future possibili- presentation. ties, and present needs. These are the reasons 3. Continuing education v ill consist of five suit- why, on the basis of the present situation in edu- able, appropriate, practical, and scientific sub- cation, teaching contingents, and individual jects: (1) training for accomplishment; (2) edu- teachers, the develo?ment of teaching materials cationaltheory;(3)research on teaching is geared to the needs of secondary and prima- practices; (4) training for teaching approaches ry school teachers, absorbing fresh ideas from and skills; and (5) scientific research. educational development and reform. 4. Responsibilities, requirements, and standards for 6. Training curricula should be implemented on a teachers'colleges,trainingcenters,and regular basis that is systematic, scientific, practi- advanced schools for teachers will be defined. cal, and able to stand the test of time. 5. Responsibilities and requirements for secondary and primary school administrators at differeAt levels will be defined. The Characteristics of the Curriculum 6. Rules and regulations for the quality a:--d scientific administration of training will be defined. The curriculum for the continuing education program 7.Special funds for secondary ,..nd primary schools has the following characteristics. will be provided. Synthetic qualities: Continuing education is life-long

83 74 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS education for teachers, integrating moral education into Flexibility: In accordance with the characteristics the capabilities of teaching and research. Training for of continuing education, and the increasing future accomplishments, educational theory, teaching for pro- requirements for teachers, the curriculum of continuing fessional knowledge and skills, and educational research education in Shanghai consists of two categories: regu- are the four different subjects that represent different but, L. 'zed training courses that encompass all the above- on the whole, interrelated aspects of education. mentioned characteristics and irregularized training Diversification.' The development of the curriculum courses that are very flexible. These last include the fol- is aimed not only at the improvement of society and the lowing special attributes: achievements of educational and scientific research, but also at different interests, attitudes, capabilities, and per- 1. Individual achievements in educational reform sonalities inherent in different teachers. Therefore, diver- and research in local areas will be used as spe- sified subjects are made available for teachers' choice. cial subjects in continuing education and will be, Problem-solving: In-service training is practice-ori- on the one hand, subjected to scholarly and the- ented. On the basis of the problems existing in society oretical evaluation to improve the quality of and in education, we carefully identify the experiences, educational research and, on the other hand, relevant problems, theories, and results of teaching that disseminated into educational practice in order are integrated into the curriculum, and present them to to deepen educational reform. The conception teachers as a way of problem-solving. Courses in the of the process is that as individual, local efforts curriculum include, for instance, Psychological Research begin to result in an ideal standard of achieve- on Secondary and Primary School Students, Formation ment, they will be accordingly documented and and Development of Children's Morality, Difficult Prob- the documentation will be integrated into the lems in Teaching Materials, and Research on Illegal and regular curriculum of continuing education for Criminal Offenses of Secondary School Students. These teachers everywhere in the municipality. Course courses are closely related with teaching and there is no names for documented success stories like these mistaking what the curriculum is aimed at. By using a might be, for example, Education for Happiness scientific approach, they also enable teachers to sum- in No. 1 Primary School Affiliated to No. 1 Nor- marize experiences, discuss questions, and develop cre- mal School; Education for Success in Zhabei No. ative and cognitive abilities. 8 Secondary School; or Gu Lengyuan's Experi- Microteaching: This was introduced to teacher ences in Educational Reform in Qingpu Sec- training colleges and normal schools in China in the ondary School. mid-1980s, as a scaled-down practice teaching situation 2. The availability of Emergency Training for the in which the teacher can concentrate on one specific dissemination of new teaching materials. Emer- training skill and receive a.great deal of feedback on his gency Training usually focuses on some new or her performance. Microteaching is now used widely teaching skills or knowledge that teachers may as a component of teacher education and training pro- feelisdifficult to deal with. Teachers are grams. Continuing education in Shanghai includes required to go to special classes to receive short- 30-60 hours of microteaching exercises as a practice set- term training, which normally takes three to ten ting for teachers to improve their teaching. days. This includes training for how to use New curricula: New courses originate in the con- teaching materials, how to teach selective cours- text of successful and informed international experience es, and how to organize activities in classes. that matches the objectives and characteristics of the 3. Training of "key" teachers, based on specific continuing education program. Courses in the curricu- characteristics of different regions and on their lum include Information Technology, Problems in Pres- specific requirements for training. This type of ent International Relationships, Comparative Research training includes a master-degree course with a on Education Inside and Outside China, Population major in educational theory and approaches; Research, and Environmental Education. These subjects workshops on specific topics, with an emphasis are both systematically theoretical and practically oper- on subjects relevant to those topics; a tutoring ative in social investigations and in educational practice. system utilizing highly qualified and proficient, Developing curricula: The contents of the cur- experienced teachers as supervisors; and long- riculum are developed in an upward spiral, in accor- term follow-up training. dance with the needs of teachers at different levels. The 4. Availability of material supplementary to stan- contents of individual subjects will also be developed dard teaching materials in the regularized train- in accordance with changes in teaching and improve- ing courses, adapted to the different character- ment of teacherswith a view to higher levels of under- istics of trainees and to different regions in order standing and greater scientific and social values. to better accommodate individual needs. 84 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 75

Training Approaches tive specializations. The integration of new and relevant knowledge with their own specializa- Theprinciplesinvolvedindevelopingtraining tion will promote higher quality training and approaches are: also stimulate trainees to use their initiative, to gain enthusiasm for learning, to enrich their 1. Educative: It is an obligation for training agen- knowledge, and to strengthen their skills at cies to initiate trainees' interest in learning and adapting to diverse situations. to enable them to see the need for improvement 5. Practical: Trainers should encourage trainees, by creating a satisfactory and stimulating envi- through the use of pedagogical theories and of ronment for training. It is also an obligation to psychology, to practice curriculum guidance and help trainees develop correct attitudes toward educational reform on a trial basis. They should training, such as always reaching for the ideal, also be encouraged to create new teaching actively participating in training, and working approaches that can be used flexibly in practice. diligently. The combination of theory and practice is the 2. Democratic: Training agencies must create free ideal result of training. Operational skills that and democratic environments for trainers and help trainees to improve their teaching, and traineesalike;initiatetraineesintofree enable them to develop their own teaching aids, exchanges; and create new ideas among them- should also be encouraged. Trainees should, in selves. In communications between trainers and addition, receive instructions on how to conduct trainees, problems should be openly aired and outside class activities for their students. It is dif- then analyzed, synthesized, and, finally, solved. ficult for many trainees to break teaching habits 3. Voluntary. Training agencies must emphasize and to change conventional ideas that have voluntary learning. In the course of training, become embedded during the past. New prac- trainees'abilitiestoteachthemselves,to tice and training will enable them to construct observe, to think, and to operate, can be beneficial comparisons and to make synthetic strengthened by allowing them to experience analyses. Trainees should also be provided with the whole process of knowledge-seeking, so opportunities for scientific research on education that they will become more creativeforming in combination with their training, which can educational ideas and concepts of their own further the objectives and the quality of training. and also more confident. Trainees must also be Finally, educational practice should be conduct- allowed to fully express and reveal themselves, ed under realistic circumstances. in a variety of ways and under different circumstances, in order for them to satisfy their need Advanced Classes for Research for self-respect and achievement, and to be fully initiated into their learning. These classes are aimed at key teachers. In Shanghai, 4. Comprehensive: Trainers should be proficient at for example, training approaches are divided as follows: combining all the relevant factors in the training 240 hours for training on systematic theories, and 300 program that are beneficial to the development hours for research on specific topics, some of which are of trainees' abilities and awareness, with the aim put forward by the trainers themselves, with the remain- of helping trainees reach their full potential. der either identified by researchers or constituting top- Training should also be combined with research ics for scientific research. Trainees carry out research work, to more actively involve both the intelli- either in groups or individually, combining theories they gence and the creative abilities of trainees. have learned in the course of their teaching practice. Rather than providing training in teaching skills Each group or individual has a supervisor for theoreti- only, they will thus be equipped with a depth of cal guidance. In the case of master-degree courses on knowledge on scientifk: theory, applicable to the pedagogical theory and teaching approaches, for exam- various situations in education and teaching to ple, students will be guided for topic research or ess, which they will be exposed. In addition, train- writing by senior-level teachers or by tutors identified ing agencies should make full use of all facilities from higher institutions, colleges for advanced study, for integrated education, such as libraries and secondary schools, or the departments of educational other sources of literature, audiovisual centers, administration. These persons are highly experienced and different kinds of labs. Finally, trainers and highly qualified in both the theory and practice of should attempt to integrate research results with education. One popular method of key teacher training, training in various ways, in order to encourage known as "Three Periods of Training," encompasses the trainees to go beyond the limits of their respec- following: theoretical learning, teaching practice, and 85 76 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS topic research. Of these three "periods," the last two are trainees' analytical ability (creating puzzlc and conducted under the guidance of tutorsone-on-one, problems for the trainees to solve), trainers with one tutor for several students, or with several tutors guide them to become involved in active for several students. After a period in which students thinking. attend classes and write essays that are evaluated by 4. The trainers have an overall understanding of the their senior-level teacher or tutor, there follows a peri- trainees and divide them into different groups for od of practice and research. After several cycles like this discussions, based on their different personalities. of classroom work, practice, and research, the trainees 5. The trainers make a careful curriculum guide will have made a leap forward both in theory and in and stimulate trainees to take the initiative on practice, also making rapid progress in their develop- research questions by using various teaching ment. Advanced Research Classes have the following aids and teaching media. characteristics: 6.The trainers make significant efforts to stimulate and encourage trainees' creativity. Clear standards for training, systematic guidelines, topic research with particular values, ease of com- Cooperative Teaching munication between trainers and trainees, and mutual benefits for teaching and learning. With In addition to full-time trainers, the continuing educa- the tutors' assistance, the students, primarily tion program also involves audiovisual personnel, librar- through teaching themselves, can sort out, ana- ians, highly qualified secondary and primary school lyze, and digest what they have learned, which teachers, and specialists from higher institutions in its then helps them to foresee the need for and to courses. These part-time trainers participate in cooper- create new ideas on education in the future, using ative teaching with their full-time trainer colleagues, correct concepts of science and correct values. based on course and training requirements. Another The training is combined with research on facet of cooperative teaching involves trainees them- teaching and education. Learning and research selves in teaching classes on special topics. This expe- are conducted simultaneously and are guided by rience enables them, on the one hand, to give full play theory. The research deepens the theory, pro- to their special knowledge and talents and, on the other duces key teachers, and greatly promotes reform hand, to stimulate communication, cooperation, and and the quality of teaching and education in sec- mutual understanding with their trainers. ondary and primary schools. Practical Classroom Teaching Experience The above are examples of the approaches used in continuing teacher education that emphasize discus- Following their research and training activities, trainees sion, use of questionnaires, and investigation supervised are invited to observe, evaluate, and participate in teach- by trainers acting as organizers for communications. ing activities in classrooms where the teaching is con- This type of training helps trainers and trainees gain ducted either by the trainers or by the trainees. Empha- valuable experiences in the following ways: sis is placed on the most common problems faced by trainees, so that the objectives and aims of teaching 1. It reveals the rules by systematizing and regu- become clearer and more operative. In Shanghai, for larizing the knowledge of trainees, and raises example, teacher training in continuing education has their experiences to the level of theory. involved many classroom hours of this type. Practical 2. It emphasizes exemplary roles, which include classroom experience has become one of the most the trainer's exemplary role in maintaining a important training approaches there, and its effects have meticulous attitude toward scholarship, pro- been significant. For example, one trainer who teaches found knowledge, and creative ability. Also the course, Aesthetics Education in Chinese Language included is the exemplary role of links and Teaching and Initial Research on Psychology in Compo- approaches to teaching and learning. sition Writing asked his trainees to give demonstration 3. It strengthens training for thinking. In building classes in a secondary school and then to make a theo- strong capabilities, rich imaginations, and the retical analysis and evaluation of them, according to ability to think abstractly, trainees are guided what they have learned. In another example, three train- to discover the rules themselves, and are ers who teach, respectively, Logic in Maths, Mathemat- trained to draw inferences from various cases. ics Methodology, and Psychology in Maths jointly Training in proficiency at making comparisons designed a class and made an analysis of it from differ- encourages them to deepen their thinking and ent points of view. It is the common understanding of their understanding of the world. By fostering trainers like these that practices of this type represent a

86 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 77 high level of teaching and learning activities, and a level These programs refer not only to schools but to school never experienced before, which not only consolidates personnel as well. Administrative files for continuing trainees' knowledge but also promotes the work of education have been established. In accordance with teaching and research in secondary and primary schools. the characteristics of teachers, and of their work in different areas, continuing education will be conducted in Audiovisual Lessons a variety of ways, including group training, one-on-one instruction, correspondence education, and self-teach- Long-distanceor correspondence education has ing. To combine this training with secondary and pri- become one of the forms of continuing education, and mary school teacher training, we have taken the fol- audiovisual aids play a part in transmitting training. In lowing definitive measures: addition, microteaching is often employed in training new and younger teachers. In this case, a seg.nent of 1. To establish networks at four different levels: a trainer's teaching is shot with a video camera, and provincial, municipal, county, and the level of comparisons and analysis are conducted with them. secondary and primary schools themselves. Sec- These types of activities also help trainers to quickly ondary and primary schools act as training sites improve their teaching skills. Continuing education for teachers. programs also utilize audiovisual aids in classroom 2. The trainers in teachers' colleges for advanced teaching. These aids break through the limit of time studies are composed of full-time and part-time and space in classroom teaching, enabling trainees to teachers. Most of the part-time teachers are receive more information and to gain a greater effect those who are highly qualified and highly rec- from training. ommended from their secondary and primary schools. Conclusions 3.To establish a system whereby trainees from colleges conduct investigation, research, and teach- Under the leadership of the State Education Commis- ing in secondary and primary schools, with the sion, and based on local conditions, all provinces and aim of enriching the training in their colleges of municipalities concerned have respectively worked out origin through these experiences. near-, medium-, and long-term programs of their own 4. To closely combine training with teaching and for continuing education, and integrated them into the research in secondary and primary schools. long-term and annual education plans of local regions. These two can be mutually beneficial. 78 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 5-A

AN OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM ies conducted during the past few years. Our findings CONDUCTED IN SHORT-CYCLE TEACHERS indicate that the preparation of teachers should not be COLLEGES IN FUJIAN PROVINCE focused on academic qualifications only, and it is highly desirable to train multipurpose teachers who are will- In accordance with the Ten-Year Plan for Implementing ing to stay in the countryside, and who are able to teach Compulsory Education at the junior secondary level academic subjects and to assume the duty of head- (grades 7-9), total enrollment in junior secondary schools teacher of a class, as well as to teach some courses on will reach its peak in the years 1996-1997. To meet the manual labor and technologythat is, a composite-type demand for junior secondary teachers, total enrollment teacher should be trained instead of the tradition-type in Fujian's short-cycle teachers colleges will reach 11,000 teacher who can only teach academic subjects. In order by 1995. A large proportion of the province's population to realize these goals, we have started a pilot project in is concentrated in the coastal areas, giving rise to a large Nanping Short-Cycle Teacher College, located in the gap between the supply and demand of junior secondary northern part of Fujian Province. Our studies will be teachers, owing to the smaller capacity of the Short-Cycle conducted over a period of three years, extending from Teachers Colleges (SCTCs) located in these areas. In view August 1993 to September 1996, and we have the fol- of this fact, during the Eighth Five-year Plan period lowing goals in mind. (1991-1995), the provincial government intends to solve Theoretically, we would like to explore proper this problem by keeping the distribution of tertiary ways to adjust the orientation of SCTCs in northern teacher training institutions (including SCTCs and four- Fujian in the context of developing a socialist market year teachers colleges) basically unchanged, properly economy by focusing on the preparation of qualified expanding the capacity (total enrollment) of existing junior secondary teachers, so that we may provide a SCTCs and their service areas, and channeling part of the sound basis for policy making in the field of staff devel- graduates from SCTCs located in mountainous areas to opment in rural junior secondary schools, as well as in coastal areas, so as to make teacher training more cost- the SCTCs themselves. effective. At the same time, reforms will be carried out in As regards the educational practices prevailing in the areas examined in the following sections. SCTCs, we would like to see that our studies on the proper qualifications of SCTC graduates could yield useful Qualifications of Graduates results that would help deepen educational reform and teaching in SCTCs by formulating a new set of criteria on Examined and Readjusted qualifications and a new knowledge structure adapted to Teacher training conducted by SCTCs is characterized by the needs of future junior secondary teachers. Our stud- the following features: (1) It pertains to short-cycle high- ies also deal with ways to speed up the preparation of er education and (2) it serves local junior secondary junior secondary teachers. It is expected that our findings schools. The main task of SCTCs is the preparation of may help produce a valid pattern for running all SCTCs junior secondary teachers and it directly serves the needs in Fujian Province, and a set of qualification standards for of the implementation of nine-year compulsory school- all programs (specializations) provided in SCTCs. ing. The aims and objectives of SCTCs are embodied in According to our research plan, the following the clearly defined qualifications of its graduates. In research reports on specific themes will be produced: order to do a good job of teacher training in the SCTCs, (1) a report on the demand for junior secondary teach- it is imperative first of all to properly define the training ers in northern Fujian and an analysis of the quality of objectives and qualifications of SCTC graduates in the SCTC graduates; (2) a proposal on the training qualifi- light of the needs of developing junior secondary edu- cations of SCTCs in the northern mountainous areas of cation and of the actual needs of teachers' jobs. It must Fujian and guidelines on curriculum design; (3) sug- be pointed out that the moral integrity of teachers and gestions on course offerings in Nanping Short-Cycle their exemplary role can never be overemphasized. Teachers College, and ways of implementing educa- As a preliminary step to overhauling and readjust- tional programs combining obligatory and elective ing the current qualifications of the graduates of SCTCs, courses and combining a major and a minor; and (4) a we have made inquiries into the work and performance general report on studies of training qualifications in of a large number of SCTC graduates by follow-up stud- SCTCs in northern Fujian.

88 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 79

Improvements of the Structure of Educational to merge them into an integrated program of Programs Provided in SCTCs biology and chemistry, and prolong the duration of study to three years. Thus, the number of pro- Currently, there are 12 subject areas, with 81 programs, grams will be reduced by four, and the annual provided at short-cycle level in all tertiary teacher train- intake of new entrants will be kept at about 400. ing institutions (mainly SCTCs), of which 11 are three- 4. The program of physical education in Longyan year programs and 70 are two-year programs. There are Short-Cycle Teachers College and the program some inconsistencies in the distribution of these proof chemistry in Fujian Short-Cycle Teachers Col- grams, giving rise to imbalances in the supply and lege will be canceled. The annual intake of new demand of graduates, with oversupply in some pro- entrants for each of these subjects will be kept grams and shortages in the others. The current situation at about 200 for the whole province. is this: English teachers are in extreme shortage, fol- 5. In all SCTCs offering separate two-year pro- lowed by teachers of Chinese and music and fine arts grams of physics and chemistry, new integrated (especially in rural schools); the supply and demand of programs combining one major and one minor teachers of mathematics, biology, and geography are will take their place, with concomitant length- basically balanced; teachers of political education and ening of the duration of study to three years. history are a little in oversupply; and teachers of chem- 6. In view of the fact that there is a large demand istry are seriously oversupplied, followed by teachers of for arts teachers by junior secondary schools, physics and physical education. These problems have and that the training of music and fine arts arisen partly out of our inadequate awareness of the teachers is time-consuming and painstaking, we importance of supplying rural junior secondary schools have already prolonged the duration of study of with teachers capable of teaching in a major subject area the music and fine arts programs provided by as well as in several minor areas, in response to the Jimei Short-Cycle Teachers College to three years needs of local economic development, and partly out of and increased the annual intake of new entrants our insufficient efforts in this direction. of these two programs to over 120. At the same During the current period of the Eighth Five-Year time, teacher training classes for training teach- Plan, we will endeavor to close the gap between sup- ers of music and fine arts have been instituted ply and demand of graduates by readjusting our recruit- in other specialized colleges of arts. ment plan in accordance with future demand, by further improving the distribution of educational programs, and Thus, through a process of readjustment of the by improving the structure of subject areas and the structural pattern of educational programs provided by duration of study, so that we may be able to prepare a SCTCs, the total number of SCTC-level programs will quantitatively adequate and qualitatively improved sup- be 70 (18 three-year programs and 52 two-year pro- ply of SCTC graduates to meet the needs of new teach- grams), which is a reduction of 11 compared with the ers in the peak years (1996-1997) of development of old pattern, resulting in a more rational distribution of junior secondary education. Specifically, the following programs. By 1995, the total intake of SCTC new measures are to be taken: entrants will reach 5,500. We expect that the new arrangement will be better adapted to the needs of 1. Chinese, Mathematics, and English are the three junior secondary teachers arising from the rapid expan- main subjectstaughtinjunior secondary sion of junior secondary education, both quantitatively schools, and there are now 29 programs for and qualitatively. them in the whole province, with an annual intake of new entrants of over Their dura- Reform of Curricular Content and tion of study will be kept unchanged at two Teaching Methods years for the time being. 2. There are eight SCTCs, all providing two-year After the readjustment of the structural pattern of the programs of political education and history. We educational programs, a new round of curriculum plan to merge them into an integrated program development is now in progress, involving revisions of of political education and history and to prolong teaching plans and syllabuses, and rewriting of text- the duration of study from two to three years, books. As a preliminary step, teachers of the relevant and to cancel five single-subject programs. The programs (specializations) are asked to make in-depth annual intake of new entrants will be kept at study of the demands on the quantity and quality of about 800. junior secondary teachers set forth by the service areas 3. There are eight SCTCs, all providing separate concerned. In the case that a new program involves a programs for biology and chemistry. We intend major and a minor, effort has to be made to gradually S'a BO TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS develop scientifically sound new curriculum. In the case 4.A portion of young teachers do not have a solid that a new program involves two subject areas of equal foundation in their training, yet do not pay due weight (so-called dual-subject program or specializa- attention to the study of pedagogical theory tion), it is imperative to enable students enrolled in and methods of teaching and the improvement these programs to be able to teach two subjects on of other essential skills. Furthermore, they graduation, with knowledge and skills commensurate know very little about the reform and devel- with SCTC qualifications. opment of basic education and vocational-tech- A priority area of reform of curricular content is to nical education. increase the relevance of subject matter taught, with proper attention paid to local features. Another area of During the period of the Eighth Five-Year Plan, the reform is the provision of electives in the curriculum, main goals and tasks of staff development in the Short- helping SCTC students to be better adapted to the needs Cycle Teachers Colleges are as follows: of economic development in the rural areas. Continued efforts to improve educational practice will be made, 1. Great effort should be exerted to enhance the with concomitant reform. Mastery of basic skills will be ideological and political consciousness and stressed, and, accordingly, new criteria on the standards moral integrity of teachers, to significantly of handwriting involving the use of brushes, pens, and improve their competencies in education and chalk, and new criteria on the standards of the mastery teaching, to develop their ability in conducting of Putonghua (commonspeech) will be formulated and research work, and to improve their profes- enforced. Effort will also be made to enhance abilities sional ethics. Teachers 35 years of age and in organization and management. younger are required to undergo job-related Another area of reform consists of the organiza- training and to take part in social practice. tion of various kinds of social practice involving exten- 2. A variety of in-service training activities are to be sive participation of students, such as the organization organized and a network of in-service training of investigative surveys of basic education, especially of the teaching staff of tertiary teacher training the situation of junior secondary education in the coun- institutions is to be gradually built up and per- tryside, and participating in the educational reform con- fected. It has been decided that teachers under ducted in junior secondary schools. 40 years of age should systematically take part in the study of the main graduate-level courses, Teaching Staff Development to Be Strengthened so that they may reach the level of the completion of master-degree programs. Even the core At present, looking at the teaching staff working in all members of the staff and leaders of scholarly SCTCs in the province in its entirety, it must be admit- pursuits are required to take part in more ted that their qualifications are far from being adequate advanced forms of training congruent and com- to satisfy the requirements of the reform and develop- mensurate with their qualifications. ment of tertiary teacher training, and to meet the needs 3. Steps should be taken to gradually raise the of basic education for supplying junior secondary proportion of full-time staff with senior stand- schools with teachers both socialist-minded and pro- ing, up to the level of 20 percent. It is highly fessionally competent. The main issues are as follows: desirable to have more full professors under the age of 50, and more associate professors 1. Low percentage of teachers with higher acade- under the age of 40. mic standingsamong the full-time teachers, 4. Consistent effort should be made to raise the only 11 percent are of professorial standingdis- proportion of teachers with graduate training tributed highly unevenly among different subject and advanced degrees. It is especially important areas. to insist that, among full-time teachers newly 2. Abnormal age structure of the teaching staff; recruited, the proportion with advanced degrees consequently, in some institutions, when the should increase year by year. senior staff in certain fields reach retirement age, 5. Management of teaching staff is to be gradual- there may be no younger qualified staff to suc- ly institutionalized in accordance with carefully ceed them. Even now, there are some subject formulated norms and standards. A self-con- areas that suffer from the lack of qualified core tained system for the management of SCTC members and leaders of scholarly pursuits. teaching staff should be instituted concerning 3. A portion of teachers lack experience in social their recruitment, appointment, promotion, practice and are not highly motivated in their evaluation, in-service training, and reward and work. sanction. 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 81

To Reform the Recruitment of New Entrants by utations in terms of teaching quality), recruit- Raising the Quality of Potential New Recruits ing their students from the graduates of junior secondary schools in minority areas and outly- We deem it feasible and desirable to take the following ing, insular, and secluded mountainous areas measures: recruits who are willing to dedicate themselves to the cause of education; graduates of these 1. Prospective students will be recruited chiefly preparatory classes will be admitted by tertiary from target service areas in the light of fore- teacher training institutions, so that in future, casted future needs for junior secondary teach- rural secondary schools will be able to employ ers, and the graduates will accordingly be a certain number of higher quality new teach- returned to these areas for job placement. To ers. realize this goal, the plan for student sources 3. In recruiting students for SCTCs, proper atten- will be drawn up accordingly, with planned tion will be paid to the appraisal of their apti- recruitment figures allocated to counties (dis- tude for education and teaching. tricts) pertaining to the service areas of the SCTC in question. (The report in this appendix was prepared by the Divi- 2. Preparatory classes for entry to tertiary teacher sion of Teacher Education, Fujian Provincial Commis- training institutions will be set up in part of the sion for Education.) "key" secondary schools (those with good rep-

C 82 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 5-B

THREE-YEAR NORMAL SCHOOL TEACHING and to draw up corresponding teaching plans in SCHEME (FOR TRIAL IMPLEMENTATION) accordance with the basic requirements set forth PROMULGATED BY THE STATE EDUCATION by the state and in the light of the needs of local COMMISSION ON JUNE 21,1989 economic and cultural development, especially the needs arising from the implementation of Normal schools (secondary teacher training institutions) nine-year compulsory education. are specialized secondary schools devoted to the train- 3. In accordance with the characteristics and regu- ing of primary school teachers. larities of normal school education, teaching The three-year normal schools should adhere to the should follow the following guidelines: Class- Four Cardinal Principles ("We must keep to the socialist room teaching should assume a central place; road; we must uphold the dictatorship of the proletariat; proper integration of obligatory courses with we must uphold the leadership of the Communist Party; electives, of classroom teaching with extracurric- we must. uphold Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong ular activities, and of school education with social thought.") and make positive efforts to cater to the needs practice should be present; consequently, oblig- of socialist modernization, and they should be able to atory courses, electives, extracurricular activities, prepare qualified primary school teachers with the fol- and social practice, together, should constitute an lowing traits and qualifications: to ardently love the social- organic whole of the educational and teaching ist motherland; to ardently love the Communist Party of activities in a normal school. China; to ardently love the undertaking of primary edu- 4. In the light of the requirements for preparing cation, equipped with the rudiments of Marxist tenets and primary school teachers and of the specific fea- basic viewpoints; to possess good public virtues and tures of normal school students, it is imperative teachers' professional ethics, and be willing to work under to strengthen the work of ideological education arduous conditions and to work realistically and innova- in normal schools, and effort should be made tively, equipped with the knowledge, skills, and compe- to conduct ideological and political education tencies needed in primary school education and teaching; in all kinds of teaching activities, and to foster to understand the basic laws governing school education moral integrity (especially teachers' virtues) and and teaching; to be equipped with some ability of aes- good psychological traitsin the students. thetic appreciation; to possess rudimentary knowledge Teachers are required to play an exemplary and skills related to productive labor; to have good habits role in both moral education and teaching, to of personal hygiene; and to be physically fit. educate students to adhere to the Four Cardi- nal Principles, and to wage struggle against General Principles for Formulating the bourgeois liberalization, so that the students Three-year Normal School Teaching Scheme may become well-prepared primary teachers, having lofty ideals, moral integrity, a good gen- 1. The courses (subjects) provided in normal eral education, and a sense of discipline, and schools, and their content, and other education- be capable of fulfilling a citizen's duties and of al and teaching activities conducted by normal having good professional ethics and psycho- schools are regulated in the light of the needs of logical traits. socialist modernization and the implementation 5. The arrangement of the academic courses, proof nine-year compulsory schooling. fessional courses, arts and physical education 2. The principle of combining unity with flexibility courses, and educational practice should be is to be adhered to in view of the fact that China made in the light of the needs of the preservice is a vast country with large regional disparities in education of primary teachers, and be placed on economic and cultural development. The state a sound scientific basis. It is imperative to imple- sets forth unified basic requirements on teaching ment the principle of integrating theory with in normal schools, and the educational depart- practice, to reinforce all links of practical train- ments of provincial (autonomous regional, and ing, and to pay attention to the formation of municipal) governments are authorized to decide skills and competencies, so that the students on the curricular content of local normal schools may acquire solid knowledge of academic sub- 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 83

jects and the skills and competencies indispens- and on the fostering of practical ability. Courses on arts able for a primary school teacher, especially for and physical education should strengthen training in the teachers working in rural schools. basic knowledge and skills indispensable for teaching 6.Education and teaching conducted in normal in primary schools, help cultivate aesthetic appreciation, schools should be carried out with due consid- and build a strong physique. Courses on manual labor eration of the traits of the physical and mental and technology should be instrumental in fostering development of students, as well as of the indi- respect for manual labor and in providing students with vidual differences among students. Efforts should the knowledge and skills needed in teaching subjects be made to foster extensive interests among stu- on productive labor in primary schools, and efforts dents and to develop their gifts and aptitudes, so should be made to enable the students to acquire cer- that the students may develop in a way that is tain skills and to foster good habits of labor. lively, vigorous, active, and comprehensive. All categories of courses should endeavor to impart knowledge with a local color and flavor. Normal Content of the Three-year schools mainly preparing teachers working in rural pri- Normal School Teaching Scheme mary schools should pay much attention to awareness of issues related to the realization of modernization in The entire course lasts 156 weeks, and the time is dis- the countryside, and related to material, cultural, and tributed as follows: teaching activities, approximately ethical progress in the countryside. Table B-1 provides 107 weeks; teaching practicum, approximately 10 a list of obligatory courses and the approximate teach- weeks; summer and winter vacations, approximately 36 ing hours required for them. weeks; reserve time used for social activities and other collective activities, with an educational implication, Course OfferingsElective Courses approximately 3 weeks. Both obligatory and elective courses are offered in normal schools. The electives constitute an integral part of the teaching activities conducted in normal schools, and one of great Course OfferingsObligatory Courses significance. Some electives are offered in response to local needs related to economic and cultural develop- Obligatory courses constitute the main body of the ment, and some are conceived with a view to widening teaching activities of normal schools, being the main the scope of students' knowledge and to developing channels for providing the moral, intellectual, and phys- their interests and aptitudes. These courses play a use- ical education of students, and for conducting the pre- ful role in enhancing the competence of students in service training of primary teachers. teaching, especially the ability to teach a variety of sub- The obligatory courses include courses on ideo- jects in primary schools. logical and political education, general education, edu- Electives usually include courses on general knowl- cational theory, arts and physical education, and man- edge and culture, teaching materials and methods related ual labor and technology. The courses on ideological to primary school subjects, arts, physical education and and political education carry the responsibility of edu- sports, vocational-technical education with a bearing on cating the students in the rudiments of Marxism, in the local economic development, and so forth. The content importance of adhering to the Four Cardinal Principles; of electives embodies the actual needs of education and in the policy of reform and opening up to the outside teaching in primary schools and reflects specific features world; in patriotism, socialism, moral integrity (espe- of local history, geography, and culture, as well as of eco- cially teachers' professional ethics, or virtues), civics, nomic development. Total hours allocated to electives democracy and legality, independence, initiative, hard should account for 7-15 percent of the total teaching work, and arduous struggle; and in waging struggle hours of three-year normal school teaching plans (about against bourgeois liberalization. The academic or gen- 250 to 540 hours). eral education courses are conducted on the basis of The electives provided by individual normal schools junior secondary schools, and they are required to pro- in various localities should be determined in the light of vide the students with the knowledge and skills, and available teachers and facilities and based on the condi- other competencies, needed for teaching in primary tion that teaching of obligatory courses must be guaran- schools, including training in Putonghua and in hand- teed. Teachers should assist their students in making prop- writing. Courses cn educational or pedagogical theories, er choices of electives in light of the anticipated needs of and on teaching materials and methods, should be teaching a variety of subjects on graduation, and in light taught in the light of the actual needs of primary school of their personal interests and aptitudes. Electives of indi- teaching, focusing on fundamentals of educational the- vidual students should be distributed over all categories ory, on scientific methods of education and teaching, of courses, with at least one elective for each category.

C43 84 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE B-1 List of Obligatory Courses and Approximate Teaching Hours

Courses Hours (approximate)

Ideology and Politics 190 Chinese (including teaching materials and methods in primary schools) 570 Mathematics (including teaching materials and methods in primary schools) 420 Physics 170 Chemistry 130 Biology (including child physiology and hygiene) 130 History 130 Geography 130 Primary School Psychology 100 Primary School Pedagogy 130 Physical Education 190 Music 190 Fine Arts 190 Manual Labor and Technology 150

Educational Praxis Extracurricular activities commonly seen in normal schools include lectures on specific topics and organi- Educational praxis coverspraxis (practices) related to zation of various interest groups with activities ranging ideological education, teaching and learning of acade- from academic subjects, to science and technology mic subjects, and pedagogical theories offered in nor- themes, to athletics, sports, and recreational activities, mal schools. It is an indispensable link in the preservice and even to social surveys. education of primary teachers, and is instrumental in It is incumbent on the school management to for- helping students to familiarize themselves with primary mulate a plan or program of extracurricular activities so education and primary school pupils and in developing that they may be carried out in a systematic manner, a love for their career and fostering their competence; well organized and purposeful, and with the proper aid it also plays a special role in helping them to master the provided by teachers assigned to help with such act;v- rudiments of scientific methods of education and teach- ides. In promoting extracurricular activities, it is para- ing as applied in primary schools. mount to give full scope to the initiative and enthusiasm Educational praxis covers visits to primary schools, of students themselves, so that they may develop their educational surveys and investigations, observation of abilities of self-service, self-education, and self-man- the work (mainly classroom teaching) of experienced agement. Table B-2 provides an outline of the weekly teachers, and educational practice (teaching practicum). contact hours stipulated for each obligatory course, and The arrangement of educational praxis should be their suggested distribution among subject materials. coordinated with the progress of professional courses and academic courses, as well as with scheduled social Supplementary Explanations on the practices of various description, and be distributed over Implementation of This Teaching Scheme three years. The total time allotted to educational praxis is about This teaching scheme serves as a reference for the edu- ten weeks, to be distributed as follows: first year, two cational departments at the provincial (autonomous weeks; second year, two weeks; third year, six weeks. regional, and municipal) levels to use in developing and designing their own normal school teaching plans, with Extracurricular Activities proper modifications as they see fit. Where conditions permit, pilot projects for developing integrated courses Extracurricular activities constitute an integral part of the in the natural sciences or in the social sciences may be teaching and learning activities of normal schools, being initiated. In the case of some regions where conditions of great significance in helping students to learn knowl- are not yet ripe for implementation of this teaching edge and develop their personality and competencies scheme, the educational departments of these regions especially the competencies related to education and may continue to implement the older document (enti- teaching in primary schools. tled "A Circular on Readjusting the Teaching Plans in 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAr )EVELOPMENT IN CHINA 85

TABLE B-2 Weekly Contact Hours of Obligatory Courses and Their Distribution

First Second Third Subjects year year year

Ideology and Politics 2 2 2 Chinese 6 6 4 Teaching Materials and Methods 2 for Primary School Chinese Mathmatics 5 5 Teaching Materials and Methods 3 for Primary School Mathematics Physics 3 2 Chemistry 2 2 Biology (including Child Physiology and Hygiene) 4 History 2 2 Geography 2 2 Primary School Psychology 3 Primary School Pedagogy 2 2 Physical Education 2 2 2 Music 2 2 2 Fine Arts 2 2 2 Manual Labor and Technology 2 2

NormalSchools," promulgated by the State Education minority nationalities, and with regional geography and Commission in 1986), but they are required to actively conditions of regional economic development. create the necessary conditions for conducting educa- The teaching plans used in specialized normal tional reform, and when conditions are ripe, they should schools focusing on music or fine arts, on physical edu- also implement this teaching scheme. cation and sports, and on foreign languages should be Teaching plans used in minority normal schools formulated, in accordance with the aims and objectives (or classes) are to be formulated by educational depart- of these schools, by the educational departments at the ments at provincial (autonomous regional, and munici- provincial (autonomc us regional, and municipal) levels, pal) levels, in accordance with the guidelines laid down with the regulations stated in this teaching scheme to be in this teaching scheme, and in light of conditions exist- used as general guidelines. In these normal schools, of ing in these minority areas. course, the specialized subject in question should be The obligatory courses offered in minority normal reinforced, with concomitant reinforcement of the schools, or classes, should meet the basic requirements courses on the teaching materials and methods con- set by the state, and efforts should be made to strength- cerning the specialized subject as applied in primary en bilingual instruction. The minority language of the school teaching. Furthermore, in these schools, courses areas concerned should be taught and also should be on ideology and politics, Chinese, mathematics, physi- used as a teaching medium, and at the same time, stu- cal education, and primary school psychology and ped- dents in these schools must be required to learn agogy should not be neglected; students enrolled in Putonghua, in accordance with the constitutional provi- these schools should receive reinforced training in spe- sion that "the state promotes the nation-wide use of cialized subjects and, at the same time, basically ade- Putonghua (commonspeech, based on Beijing pronun- quate training in courses on ideology and politics, on ciation)." Accordingly, the Han Chinese language (in its academic subjects, and in the competencies required for Putonghua form) should be taught as an obligatory teaching in primary schools at a level similar to that course in minority normal schools. The provision of elec- attained in regular normal schools. tives in minority normal schools should be considered This scheme is intended for implementation in in light of the specific features of the minority national- three-year normal schools. The four-year normal schools ity concerned, and some of them should deal with may design their own teaching plans, with the provisions nationality policies, with the history and culture of of this scheme to be used as general guidelines. TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 86 Appendix 5-C

TABLE C-1 Typical Teaching Plan of Normal Schools in Jiangsu Province

Contact Hours per Week

School Year Total Subject 1st 2nd 3rd Lecture Hours

Ideology and Politics 2 2 2 194 Chinese 6 6 4 520 Teaching Materials and Methods 2 62 for Prima.y Schools Mathematics 5 5 330 Teaching Materials and Methods 3 93 for Primary Schools Physics 3 2 165 Chemistry 2 2 132 Biology (including Child 4 132 Physiology and Hygiene) History 2 2 128 Geography 2 2 128 Primary School Psychology 3 99 Primary School Pedagogy 2 2 126 Physical Education 2 2 2 194 Music 2 2 2 194 Fine Arts 2 2 2 194 Total weekly teaching 31 29 23 2,693 hours for obligatory courses Electives 0-2 2-4 4-6 190-384 Extracurricular Activities 3-5 3-5 3-5 291-485 Total amount of weekly activities 34-38 34-38 30-34 Manual Labor and Technology 2 2 4 (in weeks) Educational Praxis (in weeks) 2 2 6 10

1 3 Reserved time (in weeks) 1 1 Review and examination sessions 2 2 2 6 (in weeks) Number of weeks in session 33 33 31 97 per school year Total number of weeks 40 40 40 120 per school year 5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 87 Appendix 5-D

TABLE D-1 Plan of Teaching and Learning Activities Formulated by Nantong Normal School in Jiangsu Province

Contact Hours Per Week

School Year Total Subject 1st 2nd 3rd Lecture Hours

Ideology and Politics 2 2 2 188 Chinese 6 5 4 476 Teaching Materials and Methods 2 54 for Primary School Chinese Mathematics 4 2 3 281 Teaching Materials and Methods 2 2 122 for Primary School Mathematics Physics 3 2 167 Chemistry 2 2 134 Biology (including Child Physiology) 4 132 and Hygiene History 3 99 Geography 99 Primary School Psychology 3 99

Primary School Pedagogy 3 1 135 Physical Education 2 2 2 188 Music 2 3 2 222 Fine Arts 2 2 2 188 Skill Training 2 2 161 Total weekly teaching hours 30 27 26 2747 for obligatory courses Electives 3 5 237 Manual Labor and Technology 2 weeks 2 weeks 144

Learning from experienced teachers 1 2 2 134

Educational Praxis Teaching 3 weeks 288* Practicum 5 weeks Extracurricular Activities 4 4 4 376 Number of weeks in session 33 34 27 per school year

*Teaching and practicum combined.

97 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 6 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Hong Kong

Submitted by: Education and Manpower Branch, Government Secretariat

CONTEXT of primar; and three years of junior secondary schooling. Provisions beyond junior secondary are designed Definitions to meet social and economic needs and are subsidized up to about 85 percent of cost. The pre-primary sector Table 6.1 provides information for definitional purposes. is not formally subsidized by the government but assistance is given to parents and kindergarten operators in Education Systems and Student Population various forms. Education constitutes the largest single item of Of the 6 million people in Hong Kong, about 1.2 mil- recurrent government expenditure-20 percent. The lion are young people undergoing fulltime education. education budget in the 1993-1994 financial year The breakdown by level is as follows: amounts to HK$22.2 billion (US$2.8 billion). Table 6.2 shows the provision of subsidized places Pre-primary: 190,000 for different levels of education expressed as a per- Primary: 502,000 centage of the relevant age groups (see also Appendix Secondaryin schools: 446,000 6-A). Secondaryin technical institutes: 13,000 In general, Hong Kong has a highly uniform sys- Postsecondary (tertiary): 48,000. tem of schooling. There are no significant geographical differences in terms of curriculum, standards, or mode The bulk of this population is ethnic Chinese. A of operation. There are 937 government and aided small proportionabout 1 percentcomprises the chil- schools at the primary and secondary levels that are dren of those who have come to Hong Kong for busi- fully funded by the government. About 10 percent of ness and other purposes. These children receive an edu- these schools are run directly by the government. The cation based on a curriculum relevant to their own rest are operated by nonprofit organizations, such as countries. Consideration of this group is excluded for charitable or religious bodies, with government subsi- the purposes of the present paper. dies designed to provide the same standard of educa- All children in Hong Kong receive nine years of tion as government schools. A detailed breakdown of free, and compulsory, education, consisting of six years the number of schools at the kindergarten, primary, and

89 90 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 6.1 Definitions

Typically, Type and Level of Education How Do You Define In Terms of Grades/Levels Age Range of Students Required toTeach at This Level

Pre-primary schooling (a) A 1-year course of nursery (a) When a child has attained At least Secondary 5 or education the age of 3 Secondary 3 plus in-service (b) A 2-year course of kinder- (b) When a child has attained training. Most in fact have com- garten education the age of 4-5 pleted Secondary 5.

Primary schooling A 6-year course of primary Starting when a child has 1. Mainly secondary 5 + 3-year education attained the age of 6 . full -time preservice teacher training, or Secondary 7 + 2- year full-time preservice teacher training 2. A minority with secondary education + 2-year in-service teacher training

Secondary schooling (a) 3 years of junior secondary Starting when a child has 1. Secondary 5 + 3-year full-time education attained the age of 12 preservice teacher training, or (b) 2 years of senior secondary 2. Secondary 7 + 2-year full-time education preservice teacher training, (c) 2 years of 6th form mainly for (a) and (matriculation) education 3. Degree + Postgraduate Certificate in Education for the rest

Postsecondary schooling Education beyond the state of At least 17 years of age Degree plus PGCE or higher (other than teacher secondary education preparation)

Preservice teacher (a) 3-year course for Secondary Normally over 17 A combination as under preparation "5 graduates provided by secondary schooling for (a) and Colleges of Education (b). Degree and higher (b) 2-year course for Secondary qualifications for (c). 7 graduates provided by Colleges of Education (c) Diploma, certificate, and degree courses provided by tertiary institutions

secondary levels, together with their respective enroll- Others (practical schools, skills opportunity ments, can be found in Appendix 6-B. schools, industrial training centers) In addition to public-sector schools, some primary and secondary schools are run by private concerns A more detailed description of the specific mis- to meet the needs of a small proportion (11 percent) of sions and characteristics of these schools can be found the school -agr population that prefers privately run in Appendix 6-C. schools to public-sector schools. These are not covered in this paper. Public-sector secondary schools include the fol- BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE lowing: Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession Grammar schools Technical schools In 1992, there were 46,049 teachers engaged in teaching Special schools activities. In terms of deployment, 17 percent were Prevocational schools teaching in kindergartens, 39 percent in primary schools, Technical institutes and 44 percent in secondary schools. Their gender and

93 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 91

TABLE 6.2 The Provision of Subsidized Places for Different Levels of Education Expressed as a Percentage of the Relevant Age Groups

Policy Achieved Level Target (%) (%) Remarks

(a) Pre-primary Not set 85 Not within subsidized sector

(b) Primary 100 100 Part of 9-year free and compulsory education

(d) Senior secondary secondary courses 85 95 craft courses 10 8519510

(e) 6th form 28 28

(f) Tertiary first-year, first degree 18 18324 Achieved sub-degree 6 6 J 1994/95 academic year

age distributions, broken down by type and sector, can The balance of the teaching force is made up of be found in Appendixes 6-D, 6-E, and 6-F. teachers who have completed comparable schooling or Qualified Kindergarten Teachers (QKT) have com- teacher training courses but whose credentials (e.g., pleted senior secondary schooling and two years' in-ser- those obtained in foreign countries) are not fully rec- vice training conducted at the government's colleges of ognized in Hong Kong; or those who meet the basic education. Every kindergarten is required by law to academic requirements but are without professional employ a QKT as the principal. QKTs comprise 21 per- training. These teachers are normally appointed to cent of teachers in the kindergarten sector. They are vacancies that cannot otherwise be filled. While in employed directly by kindergarten operators. employment, they are encouraged to take up in-service Qualified Assistant Kindergarten Teachers (QAKT) training designed to bring them up to the level of have completed at least junior secondary schooling and Teacher Certificate holders. Bars to salary increments 12 to 16 weeks of in-service training at the same gov- serve to provide the needed inducement for profes- erruner* teacher training establishments. In fact, most of sional upgrading. these teachers have completed senior secondary school- Teachers in secondary schools comprise universi- ing as well. The QAKTs comprise 25 percent of kinder- ty graduates (those with university First Degrees) and garten teachers. Like QKTs, they are employed directly nongraduate, but qualified, teachersSecondary 7 grad- by the kindergarten operators. uates who have undergone two years of teacher train- These two types of kindergarten teacher.; make up ing, or Secondary 5 graduates who have undergone the trained element of the kindergarten teaching force. three years of teacher training in a college of education. Kindergartens are encouraged, but not compelled by University graduate teachers constitute 70 percent of the law, to have at least 40 percent of their teaching staff total. They usually teach higher forms, or grades, which trained. Seventy percent of kindergartens ha' ;e in fact demand more in terms of subject expertise, and they achieved, or exceeded, this target. generally receive better pay. Among the university grad- The basic requirement for teachers in primary uate teachers, only those who have gained a post-grad- schools is a Teacher Certificate. Those who hold Teacher uate Certificate of Educationinvolving one year of full- Certificates are either Secondary 5 graduates who have time or two years of part-time study after First Degree completed three years of teacher training, or Secondary graduationare considered fully qualified. Among non- 7 graduates who have completed two years of similar graduate teachers, all those holding a Teacher Certifi- training, either in preservice or in-service modes, at gov- cate are considered fully qualified. ernment colleges of education. These teachers form the Teachers in government primary and secondary bulk of the existing teaching force in this sector. schools receive a civil service appointment. Teachers in iv 0 92 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS other public-sector primary and secondary schools are is comparable to salaries for registered nurses in the employed by individual school managements. public sector and for personnel officers in the manufacturing and trading sectors. Point 17 is comparable to salaries for assistant engineers and assistant town Characteristics of Teaching Employment planners in the civil service and to salaries for mer- As civil servants, teachers in government primary and chandising officers in the private sector. Point 39 secondary schools receive terms and conditions of ser- approximates salaries for controllers of telecommuni- vice common to the rest of the civil service. These cations, chief medical technologists, and principal include a monthly salary (which is subject to annual information officers in the civil service, and is compa- cost-of-living adjustments and incremental increases on rable to the salary for accountants in the private sec- the basis of performance), leave, medical and dental tor. Point 49 is the the highest point for senior profes- coverage, a noncontributory pension on retirement, sionals, that 's. senior engineers, senior architects, or and, depending on rank, some assistance toward hous- chief social work officers. ing. Civil service terms and conditions of service are Teachers in Hong Kong are not compelled to join determined by the government on tile advice of an teacher unions, but several teacher unions and profes- independent body. The general policy is for the gov- sional bodies have been established. Although these ernment to be a responsible employer and to follow pay unions do not have a direct say on the salary and pro- trends in the private sector. fessional status of teachers, they promote the interest of Teachers in other public-sector primary and sec- education workers; the views of teacher unions and ondary schools parcicipate in the same pay scale as their professional bodies are taken into account by the gov- civil service counterparts. They also receive the same ernment in the formulation of policies. An elected rep- leave benefits. As noncivil servants, however, they are resentative of teachers sits on Hong Kong's legislative ineligible for the other fringe benefits as a general rule, assembly. but the government contributes substantially to these teachers' provident fund (5-15 percent of pay, depend- Patterns of Supply and Demand for ing on years of service, matched by 5 percent from the Teaching Positions teachers themselves). Schools operated by some charitable organizations also offer medical and dental bene- Generally, teacher vacancies in schools have stabilized fits through health and hospital services under the man- at less than 1 percent of the total establishment. Kinder- agement of the parent organization. A few schools offer gartens have experienced a higher vacancy rate, at less housing for staff from their own resources. than 2 percent. The gap between fringe benefits for civil servant The wastage rate in the existing stock of primary and noncivil servant teachers has been a longstanding school teachers has remained around 10 percent. New source of dissatisfaction. In 1993, the government intro- recruits make up about 7 percent of the stock. The bal- duced a limited scheme to assist noncivil servant teach- ance represents the decline in primary school enroll- ers with housing needs. ment due to population change. Secondary school There are four ranks, or categories, for nongradu- teachers have experienced a wastage rate of 11 percent. ate primary school teachers (see Appendix 6-H, Table New recruits now make up 14 percent of the stock. The 6.H-1) covering 26 ints on a Master Pay Scale (i.e., gain is due to greater success in recruiting graduate from points 14-39see Appendb- 6-G). A fully qualified teachers in recent years. Kindergartens have experi- teacher starts at Point 14 (HK$12,940, or US$1,660 per enced a high overall wastage rate of about 20 percent. month) and may aspire to the most senior rank pay at However, the wastage takes place mostly in the Point 39 (HK$40,960, or US$5,250 per month). untrained category. Trained, qualified kindergarten There are five ranks for university graduate sec- teachers suffer only a 9 percent wastage rate, which is ondary school teachers (see Appendix 6-H, Table 6.H- no more than that in primary and secondary schools. 2) covering 33 points on the same Master Pay Scale (i.e., Regarding teachers trained to teach specific sub- from points 17-49see Appendix 6-G). The salary of a jects, areas of shortage for secondary schools include graduate teacher without professional training starts at Chinese literature, English language, and computer stud- Point 17 (HK$14,990, or US$1,920 per month) and may ies, while the area of shortage for primary schools is in rise to the most senior rank pay at Point 49 (HK$59,965, English language. or US$7,690 per month). Nongraduate teachers in sec- Where fully qualified teachers cannot be found, ondary schools are paid the same as teachers in prima- schools are permitted to take on less qualified staff, and ry schools. encouraged to put them through in-service training to Teaching is generally regarded as a well-paid bring them up to the required standards. When teach- occupation, at least as far as the initial years are con- ers for specific subjects cannot be found, schools have cerned. The salary at Point 14 on the Master Pay Scale to make do by failing back on teachers with closely

1 roLi 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 93

related training, such as utilizing mathematics teachers education-specific programs accounted for HK$98 mil- for physics courses. In the final analysis, noncore sub- lion, or 1.5 percent. It is not possible to isolate the exact jects may he withdrawn. expenditure incurred in educating First Degree holders The supply-and-demand situation in terms of who subsequently join the teaching force. On the teachers' choices is highly volatile. Much depends on assumed unit cost of HK$95,000 per graduate in the attractiveness of teaching vis -a -vis other employ- 1992-1993, and on the basis of 1,870 graduates taken ment opportunities. In the special context of Hong into the teaching profession over the same period of Kong, it also fluctuates according to the propensity of time, the cost would come to HK$178 million. Thus, the people to emigrate and, lately, on how many of those total annual cost attributable to preparing teachers at the who have left later decide to return. The basic planning tertiary level would be some HK$276 million, or 4.3 objective is to produce enough qualified teachers to percent of the sum devoted to tertiary education. Total meet anticipated demand in quantitative and qualitative spending on teachers would thus be HK$464 million, or terms. Temporary shortfalls are met by ad hoc solutions, 2.4 percent of the total spending on education as a pro- to the best extent possible. gram area.

NATURE AND CONTENT OF POLICY GUIDANCE TEACHER PREPARATION The general policy on preservice and in-service teacher Characteristics and Governance of preparation is that the curriculum should be relevant Teacher Education Programs and kept up-to-date, and that the instruction should be maintained at a high standard. There are two main sources of teacher preparation. Non- The Education Department is responsible for devel- graduate teachers for primary and secondary schools oping and delivering the curriculum for nongraduate attend one of four government-run Colleges of Educa- teachers through the teacher training colleges. The tertiary tion (see Appendix 6-I for details and enrollment fig- institutionsas autonomous academic institutionsare ures). University graduate teachers attend one of seven similarly responsible for programs offered for university degree-granting institutionsthree universities, two graduate teachers. The present arrangement has been polytechnics, and two colleges (see Appendix 6-.). for found to be inadequate. Improvements are described details of in-service courses offered at these institutions). under the section on Policy Issues and Trends, below. The government Colleges of Education also provide training for kindergarten teachers and for other in- Accreditation/Approval service teacher education. Three of the seven tertiary institutions offer various programs in education. Two of The institutions responsible for running the respective the universities also offer Post-Graduate Certificates in teacher preparation programs also determine the acad- Education (PGCE) to equip subject-based degree hold- emic qualities of these programs. The Colleges of Edu- ers to acquire the necessary teacher training. They also cation are not externally accredited. Universities in contribute to in-service training. The Colleges of Edu- Hong Kong are self-accrediting, and employ networks cation are under the administrative jurisdiction of the of external examiners and peer group review. Nonuni- Further Education Division, which is one of ten divi- versity tertiary institutions are subject to external review sions in the Education Department. The colleges are by an independent accrediting body. under the immediate direction of an Assistant Director of Education (an outline of the organizational structure of the Colleges of Education can be found in Appendix NATURE AND CONTENT OF 6-K). Education-related programs are also offered by TEACHER PREPARATION faculties or schools of education within the tertiary institutions mentioned above. These programs are detailed Goals of the Teacher Preparation System in Appendix 6-L. The Colleges of Education have a total lecturing The goals are to attract good-quality recruits; equip staff of 440, representing 6.2 percent of tl-e total for the them with an understanding of young people, teaching Education Department. Spending for the colleges skills, and subject knowledge; and support them in their accounts for HK$188 million, which represents 1.5 per- professional development. The specific qualities are of cent of the recurrent expenditure of the departmenta these goals are: total of HK$13 billion in fiscal year 1992-1993. Of the total recurrent spending on tertiary education, amount- Physical and psychological well-being ing to HK$6.4 billion in 1992-1993, it is estimated that Sociability 102 94 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Positive attitudes toward the profession, learn- Linkages Between Curricular Standards for ing, and other people Teacher Education and Good communication skills Curricular Standards for Students Alertness, sensitivity, flexibility, adaptability, and Hong Kong has developed a common core curriculum assertiveness for the general guidance of schools. Individual schools are encouraged to develop their own school-based cur- Academic Preparation Prior to riculum to suit their own needs. In practice, most Preservice Teacher Education schools follow the common core curriculum, with This section is applicable to entry into the full-time, minor adaptations. The teacher education curriculum preservice programs offered by the Colleges of Edu- in use at the Colleges of Education is designed with the cation. Apart from meeting minimum academic school common core curriculum in mind. Emphasis is requirements, detailed in Appendix 6-M, candidates put, however, on the need to adapt to suit the needs of must undergo two interviews and a practical test for schools and students. The teacher education curricula certain subjects. The first interview involves an assess- used by tertiary institutions follow a similar approach. ment of the candidate's general qualities, includiag attitudes toward teaching and adaptability to the LICENSING working environment. The second interview assesses the candidate's competence in coping with the lan- Initial Requirements guage requirement of the academic programs,which are conducted in either English or Chinese. The prac- The registration of teachers is governed by law and tical test is for candidates intending to study physical administered by the Education Department. There are education, music, art and design, technical drawing, two channels for obtaining a license to teach. The first or computer literacy. is to become a registered teacher. This status applies to Candidates are selected on the basis of how holders of Teacher Certificates from the Colleges of Edu- well they perform in the interviews and on the prac- cation (whether obtained preservice or in-service) and tical test, if applicable. Where merits are equal, pref- university degree-holders with a Post-Graduate Certifi- erence is given to the candidates receiving the high- cate of Education. Registered teachers can teach in all est grades in public examinations. The number of schools, subject to the schools themselves deciding on entrants into the Colleges of Education is determined the level of classes and subjects taught. by projection of demand and, in the short term, con- The second is to be granted the status of a permit- strained by physical capacity at the colleges. In 1993, ted teacher. This approval limits the teacher to particular the target intake was 1,100. There were 9,315 appli- subjects within particular schools, and is not transferable. cants, of whom 2,173 were interviewed; 1,199 were It applies to graduates who do not have the PGCE and finally registered. to candidates who do not have Teacher Certificates.

Nature and Content of Licensing Reauthorization Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula The status of a registered or permitted teacher, once A detailed explanation of of full-time preservice cours- granted, is not subject to further renewal. es offered by the Colleges of Education appears in Appendix 6-I. Status of Qualifying Conditions

Differences in the Nature and Content of There are no variations in statutory requirements for Teacher Preparation Programs teacher registration. The statutory authority, however, in the person of the Director of Education, can exercise The Colleges of Education operate below the degree certain discretions on interpretation of the law. level. Their programs teach a combination of subject knowledge and pedagogy. Degree-level education- related programs have particular focuses, whether ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT they be the training of school administrators, physical educators, or music teachers. The Post-Graduate Cer- Induction or Transition Processes tificate of Education offered by the two universities aims to equip subject-based graduates with pedagog- The induction of new teachers takes the form of talks ical skills. and seminars organized by the Education Department, 103 95 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT INHONG KONG quality of recruits and by other teacher organizations, in the summerhol- to uphold and improve the level of idays before the start of the new term. Schools arealso by increasing the competitiveness of a teaching career encouraged to offer school-based programs with the in terms of status, initial prospects, and theavailability help of the more experienced teachers. Some funding of a clear path for career and professional develop- afflu- is provided by the government for this purpose. ment. Separately, as Hong Kong becomes a more ent community, its present stand ofleaving the kindergarten sector in the hands of private operatorshas Professional Development Opportunities come under increasing pressure. Theupgrading of the for teach- quality and professional competence of kindergarten A wide range of in-service courses is available when ers at different levels for the purposesof professional teachers has become a major issue (especially development. Some of these are prerequisites for pro- improvements to the primary school sector arebeing motion to higher ranks (for details, see Appendix6-J). pursued vigorously). It is recognized that a more structured andcoherent framework of in-service development isneeded. Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement Improvements are expected to emerge from the new school sec- Institute of Education and the new Advisory Committee In response to the problems in the primary ambitious pro- on Teacher Education and Qualifications(see section tor, the government has embarked on an below). gram to: Upgrade 35 percent of the primary teaching POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR posts to graduate status by the year 2007 TEACHER PREPARATION AND Upgrade the present government-run Colleges PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT of Education to a new, autonomous, tertiary- level Institute of Education, with the authority Present Concerns for Change and Improvement to offer its own degree programs (the new Institute will be subject to external academic The most pressing problem is the need to revitalize teach- accreditation) ing in primary schools. A past preoccupation has been to Create a new body to assess supply and demand expand opportunities for education. This has been of teachers and to recommend to the govern- achieved at the expense of quality. Now, the communi- ment how the demand should best be metby ty expects far more in terms of facilitiesand teachers. The the existing and new program providers advent of universal education has also brought with it problems not evident in an earlier era, when those for- These initiatives are estimated to cost HK$22 bil- tunate enough to gain access to education weremotivat- lion over a 15-year period. The reforms, to be imple- ed and able to do well. Now teachers have to cope with mented in stages, began in 1993. As regards the situa- pupils of much more diverse backgrounds, motivations, tion in the kindergartens, the government has embarked and abilities. This challenge puts new demands on the on a review of what must be done. Presentindications skills and dedication of the individual teacher. are that the upgrading of teacher preparationfor this Increased career opportunities outside of teach- sector is a foregone conclusion.. Thefocus is on how ing and expanded access to tertiary education have had improvements could best be achieved through govern- the effect of luring people of good quality away from ment action, without detracting from the meritsof a pri- a career in teaching. There is still noshortage of peo- vately run sector. ple interested in becoming teachers. But it is necessary

1 0 4 96 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 6-A

EDUCATION SYSTEM OF HONG KONG

LEVEL OF PROVISION FOR EDUCATION

Normal age Grads/year of study of study

21 FIRST DEGREE 20 SLISDEGREE 6% 18% 2

19 1

r-vmr 16 TECHNICIANel-. SIXTH FORM 28% Secondary 7 17 COURSES Secondary 6

16 CRAFT COURSES IC% Eleb 7. Secondary 5 16 cypti- taa_4,111-billete `ft Secondary 4

11774.-79:1 'Vat, 14 Secondary 3 13 Secondary 2 ; . p;" 12 Viraigkezi :14,111 Se-1

11 Primary 6 10 Primary 3 9 Primary 4 U Primary 3 7 Primary 2 a w-eg, Primary 1 ,L6SMAitY"..14x. ittteRE OWEOPIParldirik 5 Upper 4 WNW 3 gsgark,s. Nursery

103 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 97 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN HONG KONG Appendix 6-B

NUMBER OF DAY SCHOOLS AND ENROLLMENT BY LEVEL AND TYPE, 1992

TABLE B-1

Total Level Government Aided Private

KINDERGARTEN 743 No. of schools 743 189,730 Enrollment 189,730

PRIMARY No. of schools 48 562 78 652 Enrollment 31,050 421,768 48,807 501,625

SECONDARY 455 No. of schools 40 323 92 Enrollment 38,604 349,036 58,145 445,785 98 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 6-C

PUBLIC SECTOR SECONDARY EDUCATION AND which future vocational training may be based. Prevo- VOCATIONAL TRAINING INSTITUTIONS cational schools offer a five-year course leading to the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination and most of them also offer a further two-year course lead- Grammar Schools and Technical Schools ing to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination.

The general aim of grammar schools and technical Other Schools schools is that all children should follow a broadly similar course of secondary education comprising a bal- 1.Skills Opportunity Schools:Skillsopportunity inced blend of academic, practical, and cultural sub- schools are junior secondary schools for students jects. Technical schools give additional stress on and with severe learning problems and who cannot facilities for practical subjects within the standard course benefit from the ordinary curriculum, even with but the differences between grammar and technical intensive remedial support. Skills-related subjects _.chools are not great. Grammar and technical schools are provided in the curriculum. offer a five-year course leading to. the Hong Kong Cer- 2.Practical Schools: Practical schools are junior sec- tificate of Education Examination and, except for a small ondary schools for unmotivated students. A con- minority, a further two-year course leading to the Hong siderable emphasis is laid in practical learning with- Kong Advanced Level Examination. in the curriculum. Hong Kong Sea School is one of the practical schools. Special Schools Technical Institutes Special schools are aided schools catering to children with special educational needs. Some special schools The technical institutes offer craft and technician cours- also operate a boarding section. In general, the ordinary es to Secondary 3 and Se 5 leavers, respective- school curricula and syllabi are followed in special ly. The duration of full-time courses is one year for basic schools as closely as possible. However, to cater to the craft courses and two years for technician courses. Part- varied learning needs of pupils, adapted or specially time courses are offered on a day-release or evening designed curricula for different subjects, as well as pro- basis, and the duration is normally either two or three grams on daily living skills, are provided. years. The wide range of disciplines include commercial studies, computing studies, design, engineering, Prevocational Schools hotel keeping and tourism studies, clothing, and textile and construction industries. Prevocational schools provide the link between general education and education for employment through a Industrial Training Centers knowledge of broad-based basic skills and a wide range of applications of modern techniques in at least two Industrial training centers offer basic training or skills major fields of local employment. Pupils graduated from upgrading for industrial craftsmen and technicians, and a prevocational school should have acquired a solid for clerical and supervisory personnel in the service sec- foundation of general knowledge and an introduction tor. There are at present 19 training centers for different to a broad-based technical and practical education on sectors.

1 0", 99 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG Appendix 6-D

NUMBER OF KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS BY AGE,GENDER, AND TYPE OF KINDERGARTEN, 1992

TABLE D-1

Type of Kindergarten Age Group Gender Profit-making Non-profit making Total

15 Male Female 1 1 Subtotal 1 1

2 16-19 Male 2 929 Female 538 391 Subtotal 538 393 931

2 20-24 Male 1 1 Female 895 772 1,667 Subtotal 896 773 1,669

1 25-29 Male 1 Female 613 974 1,587 Subtotal 614 974 1,588 9 30-34 Male 2 7 Female 514 863 1,377 1,386 Subtotal 516 870

35-39 Male 4 3 7 Female 348 466 814 Subtotal 352 469 821

40-44 Male 4 6 10 Female 263 370 633 643 Subtotal 267 376

45-49 Male 2 4 6 Female 150 203 353 Subtotal 152 207 359

4 50-54 Male 2 2 145 Female 68 77 Subtotal 70 79 149

55-59 Male 8 3 11 Female 32 54 86 Subtotal 40 57 97

10 60 and above Male 3 7 Female 28 23 51 Subtotal 31 30 61

62 Total Male 27 35 Female 3,449 4,194 7,643 Subtotal 3,476 4,229 7,705

108 100 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 6-E

NUMBER OF PERMANENT PRIMARY TEACHERS BY AGE, GENDER, AND SECTOR, 1992

TABLE E-1

Sector Age Group Gender GovernmentAided Private Total

16-19 Male 2 2 Female 25 25 Subtotal 27 27

20-24 Male 36 156 30 224 Female 137 769 354 1,260 Subtotal 175 925 384 1,484

25-29 Male 20 508 52 580 Female 128 1,859 346 2,333 Subtotal 148 2,367 398 2,913

30-34 Male 12 504 30 546 Female 95 1,533 182 1,810 Subtotal 107 2,037 212 2,356

35-39 Male 17 497 20 534 Female 127 1,513 96 1,736 Subtotal 144 2,010 116 2,270

40-44 Male 17 718 10 745 Female 95 2,202 115 2,412 Subtotal 112 2,920 125 3,157

45-49 Male 16 619 7 642 Female 95 1,585 68 1,748 Subtotal 111 2,204 75 2,390

50-54 Male 39 552 10 601 Female 187 1,216 68 1,471 Subtotal 226 1,768 78 2,072

55-59 Male 25 531 9 565 Female 98 686 40 824 Subtotal 123 1,217 49 1,389

60 and above Male 2 48 18 68 Female 5 43 18 66 Subtotal 7 91 36 134

Total Male 186 4,133 188 4,507 Female 967 11,406 1,312 13,685 Subtotal 1,153 15,539 1,500 18,192 101 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN HONG KONG Appendix 6-F

NUMBER OF PERMANENT SECONDARY TEACHERS BY AGE, GENDER, AND SECTOR, 1992

TABLE F-1

Sector Private with Standard Staff Private Total Age Group Gender Government Aided CAPUT/APS Structure 2 16-19 Male 2 1 Female 1 3 3 Subtotal 730 20-24 Male 61 559 17 22 71 54 1,474 Female 104 1,243 41 32 2,204 Subtotal 165 1,802 58 54 125 2,218 25-29 Male 106 1,738 75 120 179 89 2,684 Female 148 2,282 47 118 4,902 Subtotal 254 4,020 122 238 268 2,155 30-34 Male 114 1,753 60 115 113 63 2,124 Female 144 1,764 53 100 4,279 Subtotal 258 3,517 113 215 176

89 1,940 35-39 Male 195 1,529 44 83 1,713 Female 205 1,353 37 79 39 3,653 Subtotal 400 2,882 81 162 128

1,381 40-44 Male 175 1,072 31 47 56 1,091 Female 141 870 18 31 31 2,472 Subtotal 316 1,942 49 78 87

38 623 45-49 Male 91 469 13 12 477 Female 73 368 4 19 13 1,100 Subtotal 164 837 17 31 51

553 50-54 Male 104 361 17 33 38 328 Female 69 221 11 11 16 Subtotal 173 582 28 44 54 881 400 55-59 Male 67 260 13 27 33 119 Female 12 90 5 6 6 519 Subtotal 79 350 18 33 39

33 103 60 and above Male 1 51 5 8 36 Female 16 6 3 11 11 49 139 Subtotal 1 67 11

110

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 102 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 6-G

MASTER PAY SCALE (IN HONG KONG DOLLARS*)

TABLE G-1

Point As of Jan. 1992 As of Jan. 1993

49 HK$54,635 HK$59,965 48 52,740 57,885 47 50,905 55,875 46 (44B) 49,125 53,920 45 (44A) 47,420 52,050 44 45,765 50,230 43 44,175 48,485 42 42,350 46,485 41 40,605 44,570 40 38,925 42,725 39 37,320 40,960 38 35,670 39,150 37 34,095 37,425 36 (33C) 32,565 35,745 35 (33B) 31,120 34,155 34 (33A) 29,740 32,645 33 28,530 31,570 32 27,245 30,150 31 26,020 28,795 30 24,855 27,505 29 23,745 26,275 28 22,675 25,090 27 21,655 23,965 26 20,685 22,890 25 19,760 21,865 24 18,890 20,905 23 18,040 19,965 22 17,235 19,070 21 16,450 18,205 20 15,670 17,340 19 14,925 16,515 18 14,220 15,735 17 13,545 14,990 16 12,895 14,270 15 12,280 13,590 14 11,695 12,940 13 11,130 12,315 12 10,490 11,610 11 9,875 10,930 10 9,305 10,295 9 8,765 9,700 8 8,225 9,105 7 7,720 8,545 6 7,245 8,020 5 6,805 7,535 4 6,380 7,065 3 5,995 6,635 2 5,625 6,225 1 5,285 5,850

*Note: The Hong Kong dollar is linked to the U.S. dollar at a fixed exchange rate of HK$7.8 = US$1. 103 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONGKONG Appendix 6-H

RANKS AND CORRESPONDING SALARY POINTS FOR NONGRADUATE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AND FOR UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

TABLE H-1 Nongraduate Primary School Teachers

Rank Salary Point (Master Pay Scale)

Certified Master 14-24 Assistant Master 25-29 Senior Assistant Master 30-33 Principal Assistant Master 34-39

TABLE H-2 University Graduate Secondary School Teachers

Rank Salary Point (Master Pay Scale)

Graduate Master 17-33 Senior Graduate Master 34-39 Principal Graduate Master/Assistant Principal 38-41 Principal II 40-44 Principal I 45-49

i 2 104 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 6 -I

COURSES OFFERED AND ENROLLMENT AT COLLEGES OF EDUC.AfiON

Courses Offered sional qualifications to make them eligible for classification as "Qualified Teachers." Applicants must 1.Three-year full-time (Chinese) preservice teacher be: Diploma holders of HK Baptist Colletge (from training using Chin6se as the medium of instruction, 1970); graduates or final year students of HK Shu designed to produce qualified teachers of general Yan College (from 1976) or Lingnan College, HK subjects at primary level and two elective subjects (from 1979); or holders of a Higher Diploma award- up to Secondary 3. Minimum entry qualification for ed by the HK Polytechnic or City Polytechnic of HK. this course is Grade E in six different subjects at the 7.Three-year, part-time, In-service Course of Training Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination for Teachers in Primary Schools (3-Y ICTT[P]) for (HKCEE), including English language and Chinese academically qualified teachers employed in aided language, obtained in not more than two sittings. or private schools who do not possess the profes- 2.Three-year, full-time (English) preservice teacher sional qualifications to make them eligible for clas- training using English as the medium of instruction, sification as "Qualified Teachers." The general entry designed to produce qualified teachers of general requirements are that applicants should be full- subj.- its at primary level and two elective subjects time, permitted or registered teachers in primary up to Secondary 3. Minimum entry qualification for schools and should have at least five subjects at this course is Grade E in six different subjects at the Grade E or above in the HKCEE. HKCEE level, including English language and Chi- 8.Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training nese language, in not more than two sittings. for Teachers in Secondary Schools (2-Y ICTT[SD 3.Three-year, full-time (English) preservice teacher and training using English as the medium of instruction, 9.Three-year part-time Inservice Course of Training for designed to produce qualified teachers of prevo- Teachers in Secondary Schools (3Y ICTT[S]). These cational schools. Minimum entry qualification for courses are provided for academically qualified this course is Grade E in six different subjects, teachers employed in aided or private schools who including English language and Chinese language, do not posseshe professional qualifications to at the HKCEE level in not more than two sittings. make them el .,ole for classification as "Qualified 4.Two-year, full-time (English) preservice training Teachers." The general entry requirements of the using English as the medium of instruction, three-year course is five subjects at Grade E or above designed to produce qualified teachers for general in the HKCEE. For the two-year course, applicants subjects at primary level, and two elective subjects must be: Diploma holders of HK Baptist Colletge up to Secondary 3. The minimum qualification for (from 1970); graduates or final -year students of HK this course is Grade E or above in at least two sub- Shu Yan College (from 1976) or Lingnan College, HK jects at A-Level in HKAL. (from 1979); or holders of a Higher Diploma award- 5.One-year, full-time Advanced Course of Teacher ed by the HK Polytechnic or City Polytechnic of HK. Education (ACrE) designed to equip serving, quali- 10.Part-time Refresher Training Course for Serving Sec- fied, non-graduate teachers of cultural, technical, and ondary School Teachers (Nongraduate) (RTaNGD practical subjects to teach their specialized subjects to acquaint serving, qualified, nongraduate sec- up to Sondary 4 and Secondary 5 levels. Teachers ondary school teachers who have more than five attendinge course are granted full-pay study leave years of teaching experience after their initial and school releas:;.ng the teachers for the course are teacher training with modern teaching methods provided wi h temporary replacement teachers. and approaches at secondary level. 6.Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training 11.Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training for for Teachers in Primary Schools (2Y ICTI[13]) for Qualified Kindergarten Teachers (2-Y QKT). Open to academically qualified teachers employed in aided serving kindergarten teachers with Grade E or above or private schools who do not possess the profes- in at least two subjects in HKCEE. On successful

113 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 105

completion of the course, participants will be accord- year students of HK Shu Yan College (from 1976) or ed "Qualified Kindergarten Teacher" (QKT) status. Lingnan College, HK (from 1979); or holders of a 12. Twelve-week, part-time In-service Course of Train- Higher Diploma awarded by the HI( Polytechnic or ing for Qualified Assistant Kindergarten Teacher City Polytechnic of HK. They should also have (12-week QAKT). Open to serving kindergarten majored in a technical or commercial discipline. teachers. On successful completion of the course, 16.Part-time Refresher Training Course for Serving Sec- participants will be accorded "Qualified Assistant ondary School Technical Teachers (RTC[T]) to Kindergarten Teacher" (QAKT) status. acquaint serving technical and commercial subject 13. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training for teacherswho have more than five years of teach- Teachers of Children with Special Educational Needs ing experience after their initial teacher training . (2-Y ICTIISED provides initial in-service training for with modem teaching methods and approaches at qualified nongraduate or graduate teachers teaching secondary level. in special schools or special education classes. 17. Five-week Retrair ing Course for Primary School 14. One-year, full-time course provides initial teacher Teachers (PRC) to acquaint serving, qualified pri- training to those who wish to become technical mary school teacherswho have more than five teachers in prevocational schools. Applicants must years of teaching experience after their initial possess either a Diploma/Higher Certificate/High- teacher trainingwith modern teaching methods er Diploma awarded by a Polytechnic or a Techni- and approaches at primary level. cal Institute or an equivalent qualification, and 18. Part-time courses: A range of trainers' training pro- should have at least two years of relevant postqual- grams for a wide spectrum of the HK community, ification industrial experience. notably the industrial and the commercial sectors, 15. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training for is provided. Technical Teachers (2-Y ICITET)) for academically 19.In-service Short Courses for Technical/Commercial qualified teachers employed in aided or private Teachers. Short courses and seminars on specific schools who do not possess the professional quali- topics tailored to the needs of serving technical and fications to make them eligible for classification as commercial teachers are provided. "Qualified Teachers." The general entry requirements are that applicants must be: Diploma holders Figures for student enrollment in the above courses, as of HK Baptist College (from 1970); graduates or final of January 1993, are shown in Table I-1.

TABLE 1-1 Student EnrollmentinGovernment Colleges of Education Courses as of Jan. 1993

Courses Enrollment

(a)3-year Fulltime (Chinese) 367 (b)3-year Fulltime (English) 855 (c)3-year Fulltime (English) (Technical and Commercial) 126 (d)2-year Fulltime (English) 659 (e)ACTE 94 (f)2-year ICTT (Primary) 161 (9)3-year ICTT (Primary) 333 (h)2-year ICTT (Secondary) 38 (i) 3-year ICTT (Secondary) 171 (i) RTC (non-graduate) 201 (k) 2-year QKT 294 (I) 12-week QAKT 160 (m)2-year ICU (Special Education) 338 (n)1-year fulltime (Technical) 9 (o)2-year ICTT (Technical) 20 (p)RTC (Technical) 32 (q)RC (Primary) 174 (r)Part-time courses 491 (s) Inservice short courses Total 4,523 106 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 6-j-

IN-SERVICE COURSES AT THE COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

Advanced Course of Teacher Education (ACTE) course of training.

This is a one-year, full-time course, which is intended Course for Teachers of Children with Special to equip nongraduate teachers of cultural, practical, and Education Needs technical subjects to teach these subjects up to senior secondary level. The course will comprise a core of This is a one-year, full-time course for nongraduate studies in Education, Educational Technology, Comple- teachers in special schools and special classes. The cur- mentary Studies, and Language Skills, which all students riculum of the course in the one-year study period will must follow. In addition, each student will study in include a Common Core Program, which covers essen- depth, on an elective basis, one area of subject special- tial areas of general and generic studies in special edu- ization. Practical teaching in schools will form an inte- cation. gral part of the course. For technical teachers, the prac- In addition to the Common Core, each trainee will tical teaching element.. will be replaced by a period of be required to take up a major and a minor elective to attachment to industry or to commercial firms. study in depth the adaptation and teaching techniques The areas of subject specialization offered are as for two types of children with special education needs. follows: The areas of specialization are as follows:

Art and Design Education of children with learning difficulties Home Economics (Home Management) Education of mentally handicapped children Home Economics (Dress and Design) Education of visually handicapped children Physical Education Education of hearing-impaired children Music Education of maladjusted and socially deprived Commerce children Design and Technology Education of physically handicapped children Management of children with speech and lan- An applicant should have two years full-time, guage problems posttraining teaching experience in the subject for which the application is made. Successful applicants will Retraining Course for Special Education Teachers be granted one year full-pay study leave. This is a one-year, part-time course of 150 hours' dura- Part-Time Conversion Course for Serving Primary tion. The course aims to provide experienced teachers and Secondary School Teachers of children with special educational needs with an opportunity to update their professional knowledge and This is one year, part-time conversion course for (1) skills in special education. holders of part-time "In-service Course of Training for The course consists of two main areas of studies Teachers in Primary Schools" who are now teaching at Optional Studies and Specialized Studies. Optional Stud- secondary level; and (2) holders of part-time "In-service ies covers both (1) the latest developments in theory Course of Training for Teachers in Secondary Schools" and practice in the generic domain of special education who are now teaching at primary level. and (2) a variety of issues in special education aiming Core studies for the first category above consist of at catering to the diversified needs and interests of indi- studies in Education, Teaching Techniques, and Educa- vidual participants. The following areas of Specialized tional Technology, while core studies for the second cat- Studies are offered: egory consist of studies in Education and Primary Stud- ies in Chinese, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Science Education of children with learning difficulties and Health Education. For practical teaching, teachers Education of mentally handicapped children will he supervised in their teaching throughout the Education of visually handicapped children 115 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 107

Education of hearing-impaired children hours each per week for a duration of 37 weeks. The Education of maladjusted and socially deprived Saturday mornings are for lectures and the weekday children afternoons for independent studies, assignments, pro- Education of physically handicapped children jects, tutorials, seminars, and visits. Management of children with speech and lan- The aim of the course is to acquaint teachers with guage problems recent methods and approaches to teaching in secondary schools and to promote further understanding Retraining Course for Primary School Teachers of the use of resources and new concepts in curriculum development. The course is subject-based, with half of This course lasts for five weeks and involves the use of the total contact hours allocated to the core studies distance learning techniques. The aim of the course for consisting of compulsory and optional subjectsand teachers is to acquaint serving teachers with modern half to the study of the elective subject. Core studies teaching methods and approaches at primary level, to pro- include Educational Ideology and School Practices in mote further understanding in the use of resources, and Education, Educational Technology, and Optional Sub- to introduce new concepts in curriculum development. jects. These last include two sets. Set I is as follows: Together with lectures, wordshops, tutorials, and Computers in Teaching seminars, the course will emphasize the use of distance Computers in School Administration learning techniques and independent, self-paced study. Workship on Video Program Production To ensure its efficiency and effectiveness, learning pack- Juvenile Delinquency ages comprising audio, video, and printed materials will Student Counseling and Guidance. be used throughout the course. The course content is divided into two modules, Set II is as follows: Core Area of Study and Curriclum and Methodology. Skills of Conducting Small Group Discussions Core areas consist of: Mixed Ability Teaching Child development and its implication for learn- Parent-Teacher Relations ing Educational Evaluation Activity approach and topic work Education for DemocracyClarification of Con- Student guidance cepts. School administration and extracurricular activi- For elective studies, teachers should select one ties subject, on an elective basis, from fourteen subjects. Computer application Remedial teaching Refresher Training Course for Serving Secondary Curriculum and Methodology consists of the School Teachers (Graduate) teaching of Chinese, Mathematics, English, Arts and Crafts, Music, Physical Education, and General Subjects. The course is operated on a mode covering 19 alternate Saturday mornings in sessions of four hours each for Course for Teachers of School-based Remedial lectures, and one three-hour weekday afternoon per week for independent studies, tutorials, and seminars. Support Program The aim of the course is to acquaint serving grad- This course lasts for four weeks. The course is specially uate teachers with modern methods of teaching in sec- designed for teachers of the three basic subjects of Chi- ondary schools and to promote further understanding nese, English, and Mathematics, who will teach the bot- of new developments in secondary education. tom 10 percent junior secondary students. The curriculum The course is held at the University of Hong Kong of the course will include the characteristics and special and the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The %.ourse needs of the target group of students and methods of at the University of Hong Kong comprises six compo- understanding and meeting their needs. Classroom man- nentsnew developments in curriculum and teaching, agement and management of behavior problems com- core studies, options, seminars, tutorials, and indepen- monly associated with these students will be included. dent study. Participants are required to select one subject, on an elective basis, from 13 subjects. General stud- Refresher Training Course for Serving Secondary ies are conducted in the following: School Teachers (Nongraduate) The education system in Hong Kongits impli- This course is operated on 19 alternate Saturday morn- cations for teaching ings and one weekday afternoon in sessions of three New developments in educational technology 1JO 108 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Psychology of learning Refresher Training Course for Serving Secondary Modern trends of assessment School Technical Teachers Curricular trends and roles of teachers in curriculum design and innovations This course is operated on 18 alternate Saturday mornings and a weekday afternoon in sessions of three hours Saturday Core studies includes Philosophy of Education and per week for a duration of 33 weeks. The Management of a Department in Schools. Optional stud- mornings are for lectures and the weekday afternoons ies include the following: for independent studies, assignments, projects, tutorials, seminars, and visits. Children with learning difficulties The aim of the course is to acquaint serving tech- Counseling skills nical or commercial subject teachers with recent meth- Environmental education ods and approaches to teaching in secondary schools Handling school delinquency and to promote further understnding of the use of Home-school cooperation resources and new concepts in curriculum development. The curriculum comprises two main areas, Pro- Mastery learning Organizing extracurricular activities fessional Studies and Elective Studies. The Professional Personal development of teachers Studies program aims at improving participants' under- Personal moral and religious eduction standing of current educational issues relevant to their School initiatives in curriculum design and inno- teaching, and at developing skills necessary for handling vations problems they encounter in teaching. The Educational Skills in conducting small-group teaching Technology part of the program introduces to partici- The concepts of school management pants the systems approach in instructional design and Initiatives (SMI) the selection, application, and evaluation of instructional Using microcomputers in schools. media for both teaching and learning situations. For Elective Studies, teachers select one subject on an elec- The program of the Chinese University of Hong Kong tive basis from 11 subjects. is designed to ensure a balance between theory and practice and a foundation on which the participating Course for Principal Graduate Masters/Mistresses teachers' further professional and career developments (PGM) in Secondary Schools. can be built. The program comprises the following courses and nonlecturing-type sessions: This course is operated by the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The aim of the course is to give graduate teachers in secondary 1. Advances in curriculum studies and teaching methods: The purpose of this cow-6e is to enable schools the opportunity to improve their efficiency and participating teachers to nurture a fresh outlook knowledge in discharging their duties after their pro- on their major areas of responsibility through motion to PGM. The different subjects offered in this lectures, group discussions, and tutorials. course are School Administration, Curriculum Devel- opment, Remedial teaching, Pastoral Care, and Extra- 2. Contemporary theories in education: The purpose of this course is to elucidate new developments Curricular Activities. The course has a duration of ten in educational theories from a global perspective. meetings, each three hours long. 3. Educational technologyanalysis of instructional processes: The purpose of this course is to Course for Principal Assistant Masters/Misstresses provide participants with opportunities to assess (PAM) in Secondary Schools. the efficacy of a variety of audiovisual aids in relation to improvement of teaching in class- This course is operated by the University of Hong Kong rooms. and the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The aim of 4. Cognate courses: The purpose of this course is the course is to give nongraduate teachers in secondary to enhance the participants' understanding of schools the opportunity to improve their efficiency and their role as teachers in the classroom and knowledge in discharging their duties after their pro- school, and to broaden their perception of their motion to PAM. The different subjects offered in this potential contribution to the community. course are Pastoral Care, Guidance/Counseling, and Extra-Curricular Activities. The duration of the course is 5. Seminars 6. Tutorials ten meetings, each three hours long. 7. Independent Studies 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 109 Appendix 6-K

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

Director of Education

Deputy Director

Senior Assistant Director Senior Assistant Director (Services & Institutions) (Development)

Assistant Director (Further Education)

Principal, Principal, Principal, Principal, Grantham Northcote Sir RobertHong Kong College of College of Black Technical Education Education College of Teachers' (GCE) (NCE) EducationCollege (SRBCE) (HKTTC)

BEST COPY AVAILABLE TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 110 Appendix 6 -L

PROGRAMS IN EDUCATION OFFERED BY HONG KONG TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS, 1993/1994

TABLE 1-1

Years of Program Mode Duration Entry Requirements Institution HKU, CUHK B Ed PT 4 Teacher's Certificate HKU B Ed FT 4 A-level B Sc in Speech FT 4 A-level HKU and Hearing Sciences

BA in Physical Education FT 3 A-level HKBC and Recreation Studies HKU CERT ED PT 1 First degree or Teacher Certificate plus 2 years teaching experience HKU, CUHK PGCE Fr 1 First degree PT 2 First degree HKU, CUHK, HKBC HKU M Ed FT 1 PGCE PT 2 PGCE HKU, CUHK HKU, CUHK M Phil FT 1 PGCE PT 3 PGCE CUHK

PhD Fr 3 M Ed/M Phil in Ed HKU, CUHK PT 4 M Ed/M Phil in Ed CUHK

Key PGCEPostgraduate Certificate in Education HKUUniversity of Hong Kong CUHKChinese University of Hong Kong HKBCHong Kong Baptist College FTfulltime PTpart-time 6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 111 Appendix 6-M

ENTRY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

TABLE M-1

3-Year Course 2-Year Course

1. Applicants should have completed 5 years Applicants should have completed 2 years of education of education in a secondary school. beyond the level of Secondary 5 in a secondary school.

2. Applicants should have reached 17 years of age Applicants should have reached 18 years of age by 30 Sept. in the year of application. by 30 September in the year of application.

3. (a) Applicants should have attained Grade E or above in 6 different subjects at HKCEE level in not more than two sittings, with atleast 4 subjects in one sitting.

(b) Applicants should have obtained not less than 11 points (b) Applicants should have attained Grade E in at least 2 subjects for the 6 subjects, calculated on the basis of 1 point at A-level in HKALE, plus at least Grade D in one other subject for Grade E, progressing to 5 points for Grade A. at HKCEE.

(c) The 6 subjects mentioned above at (a) must include Chinese Language and English Language. Applicants for the English Course should have attained at least Grade E in Syllabus B or at least Grade C in Syllabus A in English.

4. Those who have attained public examination results comparable to the standards stated in 3 above may also apply. 7 Teacher Training and. Professional Development in Japan

Submitted by: International Affairs Planning Division, Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture

CONTEXT Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at This Level: Associate's degree from junior colleges Definitions with certified teacher training courses.

The following information is provided for definition- Note: In primary schooling (elementary schools), stu- al purposes. Additional information is provided in the dents receive instruction in Japanese language, social following section, "General Structure of the Education studies, arithmetic, science, life environment studies, System." music, drawing and handicrafts, homemaking, physical Pre-Primary Schooling: Education in kinder- education, moral education (private schools may gartens and in kindergarten departments of schools for replace this with religion), and special activities. See the visually impaired, hearing impaired, and otherwise Table 7.1 for an outline of the standard number of year- handicapped. ly school hours devoted to these subjects. Secondary Schooling: Education in secondary In Terms of Grade/Levels: n/a schools and in secondary departments of schools for the Age Range of Students: 3-6 visually impaired, hearing impaired, and otherwise Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at handicapped. This Level: Associate's degree from junior colleges with certified teacher training courses. In Terms of Grade/Levels: Lower: 7-9; Upper: 10-12 Age Range of Students: Lower: 12-15; Upper: 15-18 Note: In pre-primary schooling (kindergarten), children Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at receive comprehensive instruction in the areas of health, This Level: For lower, associate's degree from human relationships, the environment, language, and junior colleges with certified teacher training expression. courses; for upper, bachelor's degree from uni- Primary Schooling: Education in elementary versities with certified teacher training courses. schools and in elementary departments of schools for the visually impaired, hearing impaired, and otherwise Note: In lower secondary schooling (lower secondary handicapped. schools), students receive instruction in Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine In Terms of Grade/Levels: 1-6 arts, health and physical education, industrial arts and Age Range of Students: 6-12 homemaking, foreign languages, moral education (may

113 121 APEC MEMBERS 114 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN

TABLE 7.1 Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in ElementarySchools

6th Gr. Subjects 1st Gr. 2nd Gr. 3rd Gr. 4th Gr. 5th Gr. 210 Japanese Language 306 315 280 280 210 105 Social Studies 105 105 105 Arithmetic 136 175 175 175 175 175 105 Science 105 105 105 Life Environment 102 105 Studies 70 Drawing and 68 70 70 70 70 Handicrafts 70 Homemaking 70 105 Physical Education 102 105 105 105 105

Moral Education 34 35 35 35 35 35 Special Activities 34 35 35 70 70 70

1,015 Total 850 910 980 1,015 1,015

Note:One school hour is defined as a class period of 45 minutes.

be replaced by religious education at private schools), tion, please see the section "General Structure of and special activities. See Table 7.2 for an outline of the the Education System." standard number of yearly school hours devoted to these subjects. In reference to the above definitions, please also note In upper secondary schooling (upper secondary the following: schools), general subjects consist mainly of Japanese language, geography and history, civics, mathematics, In schools for the visually impaired, hearing science, health and physical education, art, and foreign impaired, and otherwise handicapped, instruction languages. See Table 7.3 for an outline of general edu- will be based on the curricula at ordinary kinder- cation subjects in Upper Secondary Schools and the gartens, elementary schools, and secondary number of credits for each subject. schools. Instruction in the special field of educa- Specialized subjects include agriculture, industry, tional therapeutic activities is also provided. commerce, fishery, home economics, and nursing. In Based on the principle of providing equal edu- the 1994 academic year, a comprehensive course offer- cational opportunities, the Ministry of Education, ing integrated instruction in both general and special- Science, and Culture (Monbusho) has estab- ized subjects was also established. lishednationalcurriculum standards from Preservice Teacher Preparation:Teacher train- kindergarten through upper secondary school to ing courses at junior colleges, universities, and graduate secure an optimum national level of education. schools certified by the Minister of Education, Science, A Monbusho order, which is based on the and Culture as imparting the qualifications necessary for School Education Law, determines educational a teacher certificate. content and the number of school weeks for kindergartens, as well as the kinds of courses to In Terms of Grade/Levels: Junior colleges: 13-14; Uni- be taught in elementary and secondary schools, versities: 13-16; Graduate Schools: 17-18 (Master's and in schools for the visually impaired, hearing program) impaired, and otherwise handicapped. Based on Age Range of Students: Junior colleges: 18-20; Uni- this order, the fundamental standards for indi- versities: 18-22; Graduate Schools: 22-24 (Master's vidual course objectives and content are laid out program) in a "Course of Study" for kindergartens, ele- Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at mentary and secondary schools, and schools for This Level: For details on postsecondary educa- the visually impaired, hearing impaired, and oth- 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 115

TABLE 7.2

Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Lower Secondary Schools

Subjects 7th Gr. 8th Gr. 9th Gr.

REQUIRED SUBJECTS Japanese Language 175 140 140 Social Studies 140 140 70-105 Mathmatics 105 140 140 Science 105 105 105-140 Music 70 35-70 35 Fine Arts 70 35-70 35 Health and 105 105 105-140 Physical Education Industrial Arts and 70 70 70-105 Homemaking

NONREQUIRED SUBJECTS Moral Education 35 35 35 Special Activities 35-70 35-70 35-70 Elective subjects, etc. 105-140 105-210 140-280

Total 1,050 1,050 1,050

Note: (1) One schooi hour in this table shall be fifty minutes. (2) The number of teaching hours for Special Activities shall be allotted to "class activities" (other than school lunch activities) and "club activities" provided for in the Course of Study for Lower Secondary Schools. However, when necessary, it may be allotted to "class activities" only. (3) Teaching hours for "elective subjects, etc." may be allotted to additional teaching in Special Activ- ities, as well as to elective subjects. (4) As regards teaching hours for elective subjects, the standard number of teaching hours for For- eign Languages shall be 105-140 for each grade. The names of elective subjects other than For- eign Languages are specified in the Courses of Study.

erwise handicapped. Courses of study are drawn both general and specialized education for students up by the Minister of Education, Science, and who have completed compulsory education. Education Culture, ..ased on recommendations from the for the physically and mentally handicapped is carried Curriculum Council, an advisory body for the out at schools for the visually impaired, schools for the minister. hearing impaired, and schools for the otherwise handi- Schools establish their own curricula in line with capped. Kindergartens offer preschool education. the provisions of the School Education Law, the Specialtrainingcolleges and miscellaneous Enforcement Regulations for this law, and the schools, while not included in the category of "post- Course of Study, taking into account current secondary education," provide students with practical conditions in the school and community, the vocational training and specialized technical education physical and mental development of students, (see Figure 7.2). In addition, five-year colleges of tech- and student characteristics. nology offer graduates of lower secondary schools intensive specialized instruction and help them to devel- General Structure of the Education System op necessary vocational skills. By law, only the national government, local gov- The structure of Japan's school education system is set ernments, and educational foundations can be founders out in the School Education Law, which prescribes a sys- of schools. Schools can be divided into three cate- tem with six years of elementary school, three years of goriesnational, public, and privateaccording to the lower secondary school, three years of upper secondary status of the "founder." Local governments include school, and four years of university (see Figure 7.1). Japan's 47 prefectures and 663 cities (population of The nine years of elementary and lower secondary 50,000 or more), 1,962 towns, and 575 villages in these schooling are compulsory; parents and guardians are prefectures. The 12 cities with populations near or required by law to send children between the ages of 6 exceeding 1 million are specially recognized by law and and 15 to school. Upper secondary schools provide are given the equivalent authority of prefectures. 123 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INAPEC MEMBERS 116

TABLE 7.3 General Education Subjects in Upper Secondary Schools; Numberof Credits for Each

Standard No. Standard No. of Credits Subject Areas Subjects of Credits Subject Areas Subjects

HEALTH AND Physical Education 7-9 JAPANESE Japanese Language I 4 Health 2 LANGUAGE Japanese Language II 4 PHYSICAL Japanese Language 2 EDUCATION Expression 2 Contemporary Japanese 4 ART Music I 2 Language Music II 2 Contemporary Japanese 2 Music III 2 Use and Usage Fine Art I 2 Classics I 3 Fine Art II 2 Classics II 3 Fine Art III 2 Appreciation of Classics 2 Crafts Production I Crafts Production II 2 Crafts Production III 2 GEOGRAPHY AND World History A 2 Calligraphy I HISTORY World History B 4 2 Japanese History A 2 Calligraphy II 2 Japanese History B 4 Calligraphy III Geography A 2 4 Geography B 4 FOREIGN English I LANGUAGE English II 4 Oral Aural Communication A 2 CIVICS Contemporary Society 4 2 Ethics 2 Oral Aural Communication B 2 Politics and Economy 2 Oral Aural Communication C Reading 4 4 MATHEMATICS Mathematics I 4 Writing Mathematics II 3 German Mathematics III 3 French Mathematics A 2 4 Mathematics B 2 HOME General Home Economics 4 Mathematics C 2 ECONOMICS Home Life Techniques General Home Life 4

SCIENCE Integrated Science 4 Physics I A 2 Physics I B 4 Physics II 2 Chemistry I A 2 Chemistry I B 4 Chemistry II 2 Biology I A 2 Biology I B 4 Biology II 2 Earth Science I A 2 Earth Science I B 4 Earth Science II 2

school year are counted as one credit. One school hour lasts Note:(1)For both full-time and part-time courses, 35 school hours of lessons per 50 minutes. Either all or a selection of some courses are required of all studentsin all subject areas, except for Foreign Language. 80 credits or more. A student in a specialized course must (2)In order to complete an upper secondary school course a student must earn acquire 30 or more credits in vocational or other specialized subjects.

Table 7.4 shows a breakdown of schools by type dominate other school categories as well. The discus- and affiliation for the 1992 academic year. A majority sion in this chapter, therefore, will center on instruc- of the kindergartens are privately affiliated, while tors at public schools. Table 7.5 shows abreakdown more than 90 percent of elementaryand lower sec- of students by school type and affiliation for the 1992 ondary schools are public institutions. Public schools academic year.

124 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 117

IPreschooi I Education Primary Mt/cotton Secondary Educatlon Higher Edusatton I * * Advanced courses tower UPPer Momentary apartment secondary secondary Special Schools Clops:mem Deportment Gor the Handicappsd)

Kindergarten Department Gologes of Technology (Pan Urns) =""* (Conmentionos) *

thlverottlea GraduateGraduate Schools * Lower Upper Kinclorganan Mernantary Schools Secondary Secondary (Corresponds 1 Schools Schools (full-time) * Junto/ Collogos

jSpecial Training Colson

Macellaneous Schools

Special Training Colson

Miscollaneous Schools

1 2I3 4 5 1 1[7 1 1 9 10 11 12113 14115Ili 17 111 School Year 311111111111114 5 7 1 3 10 11 12 13 14 15IIIIIIItIllionnelAtt11 17 10 11 21 21 22 23 24

FIGURE 7.1 Organization of the present school system.

(Special training collages] Length dooms: one year or more School hours: 500 or more per year Enrolment: 40 students or more Postsecondary courses Admission requirement Completion of an upper secondary schad course or an upper secondary course of a special training college

Upper secondary Courses Admission requirement Graduation from a lower secondary school

CMineral courses No admission requirement

[Miscellaneous schools] Duration of course: One year or more (three months or more for some courses) School hours: 680 or more per yearNo admission requirement

FIGURE 7.2 An outline of the system of special training colleges.

123 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 118 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 7.4 Breakdown of Schools by Type and Affiliation as of May 1, 1992

Schools National Public Private Total

Kindergartens 49 6,220 8,737 15,006 Elementary Schools 73 24,487 170 24,730 Lower Secondary Schools 78 10,596 626 11,300 Upper Secondary Schools 17 4,166 1,318 5,501

Schools for the 1 67 2 70 visually impaired

Schools for 1 105 1 107 the hearing impaired Schools for 43 729 14 786 the otherwise handicapped

TABLE 7.5 Breakdown of Students by School Type and Affiliation as of May 1, 1992

Schools National Public Private Total

Kindergartens 6,613 391,213 1,551,042 1,948,868 (8)* (763) (3,036) (3,807) Elementary Schools 47,231 8,834,049 65,946 8,947,226 (104) (49,048) (946) (50,098) Lower Secondary Schools 34,811 4,782,499 219,530 5,036,840 (40) (23,948) (1,533) (25,521) Upper Secondary Schools 10,328 3,684,637 1,523,532 5,218,497 (19) (11,008) (5,006) (16,033) Schools for 212 4,592 115 4,919 the visually impaired (2) (21) (1) (24) Schools for 344 7,586 67 7,997 the hearing impaired (0) (28) (0) (28) Schools for 2,985 73,017 666 76,668 the otherwise handicapped (5) (239) (0) (244)

*The number of foreign students is indicated in parentheses.

Ofthe students who graduated from lower sec- BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE ondary schools in March 1992, 95 percent went on to upper secondary school. No special course is provid- Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession ed for students planning to go on to universities; any- one who has graduated from upper secondary school, Table 7.6 shows a breakdown of teachers by school who has otherwise completed 12 years of schooling, type, school affiliation, and gender for the 1992 acade- or who is recognized as having equivalent academic mic year. Elementary schools, schools for the hearing ability is eligible to enter university. Of the students impaired and otherwise handicapped, and kinder- who graduated from upper secondary schools in gartens feature a higher percentage of female teachers. March 1992, 32.4 percent went on to universities or While male teachers are more common at other kinds junior colleges. of schools, the percentage of female teachers is increas- The school founder is responsible for administering each year. ing school operations and for meeting expenses. Public Table 7.7 shows a breakdown of teachers by schools are administered by the local board of educa- school type and age for the 1992 academic year. At ele- tion, but the school principal is responsible for most mentary schools, the 35-39 group was the largest, day-to-day activities. accounting for 21 percent of all teachers, followed by the 126 119 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

TABLE 7.6 Number of Teachers by School Type, Affiliation, and Gender as of Oct. 1, 1992

Schools National Public Private Total

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Total 1,744 415,338 2,971 420,083 Male 1,387 171,196 1,522 174,105 Female 387 244,142 1,449 245,978 LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS Total 1,680 258,316 10,194 270,190 Male 1,345 163,512 6,756 171,613 Female 335 94,804 3,438 98,577 UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOLS Total 625 211,864 65,991 278,480 Male 524 169,832 50,526 220,982 Female 101 42,032 15,365 57,489

SCHOOLS FOR THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED Total 82 3,220 39 3,341 Male 53 1,866 23 1,942 Female 29 1,354 16 1,399

SCHOOLS FOR THE HEARING IMPAIRED Total 84 4,400 35 4,519 Male 54 2,097 17 2,168 Female 30 2,303 18 2,351 SCHOOLS FOR THE OTHERWISE HANDICAPPED Total 1,203 35,841 192 37,236 Male 688 16,546 83 17,227 Female 515 19,385 109 20,009

KINDERGARTENS Total 274 23,329 76,494 100,097 Male 36 551 5,937 6,524 Female 238 22,329 70,557 93,573

TABLE 7.7 Breakdown of Teachers by Age Group and School Type as of Oct. 1, 1992

Under 60 and Average Schools 24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 Over Age

Elementary 4.3 13.4 18.1 21 16 9.7 7.2 9.4 0.9 39.6 Lower Secondary 4.5 16.1 21.8 17.2 13.0 8.5 8.3 9.3 1.2 39.1 41.6 Upper Secondary 2.7 13.1 16.6 15 14.7 12 12.7 9.9 3.3 Schools for the 4.1 13.6 15.6 15.5 13.7 11.5 12 12.6 1.3 41.3 visually impaired Schools for the 5.3 15.5 17.1 16 12.9 - 3 6.6 7 0.7 35.3 hearing impaired Schools for the 5.6 19.5 21.3 18.6 12.9 7.8 6.6 7 0.7 37.7 otherwise handicapped Kindergartens 40,1 16.3 7.9 9.7 9.2 5.2 3,5 2.9 5.3 32.9

1 `; 120 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

30-34 group, with 18.1 percent. The average age of Regarding length of service, elementary school these teachers was 39.6 years. In the lower secondary teachers served an average of 16.2 years; lower sec- schools, the most common age group was 30-34, ondary school teachers, 15.2 years; upper secondary accounting for 21.8 percent of the total, followed by the school teachers, 16.7 years; teachers at schools for the 35-39 group, with 17.2 percent. Average age was 39.1 visually impaired, 16.4 years; teachers at schools for the years. At upper secondary schools, the 30-54 (16.6 per- hearing impaired, 15.9 years; teachers at schools for the cent) and 35-39 (15 percent) groups were the most com- otherwise handicapped, 13.3 years; and kindergarten mon, and the average age was 41.6 years. This trend is teachers, 9.3 years. Thus, length of service typically evidence of the change in the number of teachers hired averaged 15-16 years. resulting from steep fluctuations in the student popula- Table 7.8 shows the academic background of pub- tion (see the section "Employment Statistics" below). lic school teachers. Graduates of teacher training uni- When the age of public school teachers was bro- versities and similar specialized institutions accounted ken down by prefectures (for location of prefectures for 63 percent of all elementary school teachers, 43 per- in Japan, see Figure 7.3), Hokkaido had the highest cent of all lower secondary school teachers, and 19.6 average age for elementary school teachers, at 42.8 percent of all upper secondary school teachers. Thus, years, while Kagawa prefecture was lowest, with an the percentage of teachers graduating from general uni- average age of 36. 8 years. In general, instructor age versities rises with school level. Further, the percentage is higher for prefectures where there are declining of junior collece graduates is on the decline at elemen- populations and little new hiring, and lower for those tary and secondary schools, while the percentage of uni- with growing populations and more new hiring. For versity and graduate school graduates is increasing. lower secondary schools, Okinawa prefecture had the Generally, teachers are divided into the following highest average age, at 43.2 years, and Shiga prefec- grades:. principal, vice principal, teacher, assistant ture the lowest, at 35.9 years. For upper secondary teacher, nurse teacher, assistant nurse teacher, and lec- schools, Okinawa again had the highest average age, turer. Teachers at secondary schools and the secondary at 45.8 years, while Nara prefecture was lowest, at departments of special education schools specif- 38.4 years. ic subjects.

FIGURE 7.3 Locations of prefectures mentioned in the text.

Niigata

Ishikawa

Kagawa 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 121

TABLE 7.8 Academic Background of Teachers as of Oct. 1, 1992

TEACHER TRAINING UNIVERSITIES

Schools Total Grad. School Universities Junior Colleges

Elementary 63 0.6 36.5 5.9 Lower secondary 43 0.9 40 2 Upper secondary 19.6 1.1 17.9 0.7

GENERAL UNIVERSITIES

Total Grad. School Universities Junior Colleges Other

Elementary 37 0.1 21.9 14.1 0.9 Lower secondary 57 0.9 47.8 7.8 0.4 Upper secondary 80 7 70.8 1.8 0.8

Public school teachers are hired by the board of specified by law. In addition to their base salaries, teach- education (see "Certification" section below). In the ers are eligible to receive allowances for thefollowing: case of public schools, teachers (excludingpart-time dependents, financial adjustments, housing, transporta- lecturers) at elementary schools, lower secondary tion, assignments to outlying areas, administrative posi- schools, and schools for the visually impaired, hearing tions, periodic (end-of-term) costs, and diligent service. impaired, and otherwise handicapped are conside :ed The Special Measures on Securance of Excellent employees of the respective city, town, or village gov- Educational Personnel in Compulsory Education Schools ernment. To prevent salary disparities resulting from was enacted in 1974 to regulate compensation forteach- varying local budgets, the prefectural government also ers at elementary and lower secondary schools. This act pays half the salaries of all teachers employed inthe states that "necessary incentives, compared to ordinary levels of compulsory education in order to maintain civil servants, must be provided." By providing special compensation levels around the country. A prefectural incentives, the law is designed to allow teachers to con- Board of Education is responsible for hiring and centrate on their teaching duties, thereby contributing to appointing teachers whose salaries are paid by the pre- the hiring of talented teachers. In fact, teachers' salaries fectural government, while municipal Boards of Edu- and benefits rose steadily during the 1974-1979 period, cation supervise their service. producing a marked improvement in compensation. As The percentage of public school teachers belong- of the 1992 academic year, the starting monthly salary for ing to teachers' associations continues to drop, falling a government employee engaged in general administra- from 90.9 percent in 1960 to just 58.9 percent in 1992. tion was yen 161,400 (at the exchange rate concurrent with this writing, one U.S. dollar was equivalent to 100 yen) while teachers at national elementary and lower sec- Characteristics of Teaching Employment ondary schools received yen 180,800. Teachers at nation- Teachers at national schools are considered national gov-al elementary and lower secondary schools also receive ernment employees; those at public schools are consid- a special allowance for compulsory education teachers. ered local government employees; and those at private In 1972, the government abolished overtime com- schools are considered private citizens (i.e., participants pensation for teachers and substituted the ruling that, in an employment contract based on private law). based on the special nature of the work and the unique Compensation for public school teachers, who are employment conditions, all work, be it during or out- considered local government employees, is specified in side of official working hours, would be evaluated com- local ordinances. Compensation for local school teachers prehensively, and that teachers would be paid a uni- whose salaries are paid by the prefecture is specified in form teachers' adjustment allowance, equivalent to prefectural ordinances to ensure uniform compensation about 4 percent of current base salary. for all teachers in the prefecture. To achieve uniform com- Average monthly salaries as of September 1992were pensation nationwide, which is necessary to maintain yen309,400 for elementary school teachers (average age: national educational standards, compensation in each pre- 39.6 years), yen 305,700 for lower secondary school teach- fecture is based on the pay received by national school ers (39.1 years), and yen 330,400 for upper secondary teachers. Compensation for national school teachers is school teachers (41.6 years). Teachers who have per- 122 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS formed their duties well during a specified period (usual- Atelementary schools, 16,229 teachers were hired, ly 12 months) since the setting of their salary are general- 69,087 were transferred, and 15,895 were released. At ly given a raise. Teachers with frequent absences, or who lower secondary schools, 11,856 teachers were hired, have been subject to disciplinary measures, are not con- 40,712 were transferred, and 10,940 were released. At sidered to have performed their duties well. upper secondary schools, 8,753 teachers were hired, As government employees, teachers have their job 22,550 were transferred, and 9,169 were released (see security guaranteed by law. Unless specified by laws or Table 7.9). government ordinances, they are protected from inex- The rapid increase in the birth rate following World pedient actions, such as dismissals or pay cuts. When War H, a period commonly referred to as "the first baby such actions are deemed unwarranted by teachers, they boom," produced a marked rise in the student popula- may lodge protests and file lawsuits. As public servants, tion. To cope with this increase, the Law Concerning government employees are placed under certain restric- Class Size and Number of Educational Personnel in Pub- tions regarding their political activities. The government lic Compulsory Education Schools and the Law Con- has ruled that teachers, because they exert a significant cerning Establishment and Placement of Public Sec- influence over their pupils, are forbidden (in schools of ondary Schools and Number of Educational Personnel all affiliations) to carry on political indoctrination or were enacted in 1958 and 1961, respectively. Based on campaign activities, thus taking advantage of their posi- these acts, the number of public school teachers was cal- tion and authority. There are also restrictions on outside, culated based on a specific ratio for each type of school, part-time employment for teachers, since it is consid- according to the number of classes and students. As a ered a duty of government employees to devote them- result of efforts to improve educational standards, the selves fully to their jobs. number of teachers has risen steadily, and the ratio of Private-sector workers in Japan have the right to teachers to students is also increasing each year. organize, to negotiate, and to strike, and teachers at pri- Following another peak in the 1980s, the result of vate schools, because they are not government employ- a second baby boom, the student population entered a ees, are no exception. Employees of the national and period of decline, and fewer teachers are needed. Com- local governments (including teachers at national and bined with the fact that fewer instructors have been public schools) have the right to organize, but not the quitting in recent years, this has led to a situation in right to bargain collectively. They are also forbidden to which fewer teachers are being hired. go on strike. Japanese teachers' unions differ from ordi- Listed below are the figures for the number of nary labor unions in that they are allowed to report individuals who took the teachers' employment exam opinions and complaints about working conditions but in the 1992 academic year; the number who were actu- are not allowed to sign collective agreements or other- ally hired; and the ratio of applicants to openings. wise to determine their working conditions. Working In the case of elementary schools, 34,739 individ- conditions are specified in local ordinances. uals sat for the exam and 10,987 were hired, which translates into 3.2 applicants for every opening. For Patterns of Supply and Demand for lower secondary schools, the respective figures were Teaching Positions 39,005 and 7,839, for a competitive ratio of 5:0. For upper secondary schools, the figures were 28,007 and Teacher hiring, transfer, and separation for the 1991 4,383, with 6.4 applicants for every opening. In each school year, which began in April 1991 and ended in school category, then, the number of applicants is con- March 1992, are described below. siderably higher than the number of openings.

TABLE 7.9 Teacher MigrationApril 1, 1991March 31, 1992

No. of No. of No. of Total No. Schools Hires Transfers resignations Teachers*

Elementary 16,229 69,087 15,895 4Z:0,083 Lower secondary 11,856 40,712 10,940 270,190 Upper secondary 8,753 22,550 9,169 278,480 Special education 2,898 . 4,839 14,056 45,096

*As of Oct. 1, 1992.

130 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 123

When the ratio of applicants to openings is bro- teacher training certification courses (see Table 7.10). ken down by subject, it is found that, at lower sec- Forty-eight national universities have academic faculties ondary schools, the greatest competition is for positions devoted solely to teacher training; they are referred to as in homemaking (8.7) and health and physical education "teacher training universities." Basically, these national (7.3). Meanwhile, positions in industrial arts (2) and teacher training universities are located in each prefecture. mathematics (2.7) were the most available. At upper More than 60 percent of elementary school teach- secondary schools, the most hotly contested positions ers are graduates of these teachers' colleges. Thefigure were for social studies (11.3) and health and physical drops to 40 percent for lower secondary schools, and education (11). The most available positions occurred some 20 percent for upper secondary schools. Thus,the in nursing (1.8) and fishery (2). higher the level of education, the higher the ratio of When analyzed by prefecture, competition was ordinary university graduates (see above section, "Basic highest for positions in Osaka prefecture, with 12.5 Characteristics of the Teaching Profession"). applicants for every opening, followed by Ishikawa Because teacher training is based on an open sys- prefecture, with a ratio of 8:8. The lowest ratios were tem, and covers institutions ranging from teachers' col- shown by Hokkaido (2:2) and Niigata (2:2) prefec- leges to ordinary institutions of higher education, it is tures. very difficult to single out related expenses. Govern- The Educational Personnel Certification Law states ment budgetary outlays for education in financial year that a provisional teacher certificate, valid for three 1989 amounted to yen 14.935 trillion, of which institu- years, may be granted when an instructor with a stan- tions of higher learning accounted for yen 2.506 trillion, dard teacher certificate is not available. Generally, how- or 16.8 percent of the total. When the yen 2.579trillion ever, these certificates are granted to individuals who in donations to private schools are taken into account, already have teacher certificates for other school levels. educational costs for institutions of higher education At secondary schools, when no teacher is available for amounted to yen 5.085 trillion. a given subject, the granter of the certificate can autho- The national government determines the basic rize an instructor without a certificate for the subject to policy for measures to improve the quality of teach- teach for a period of up to one year. ers in three stagesteacher training, hiring, and in- service training. Decisions are made based on recommendations from the National Council on Education CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF Reform, which is an advisory body to the Prime Min- TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS ister, and the Educational Personnel Training Council, which is an advisory body to the Minister of Educa- Japan's teacher training is based on the teacher certifi- tion, Science, and Culture. In 1988, the Educational cation system and built around the principle of an open Personnel Training Council defined the qualities system, wherein both teacher training universities and required of a teacher as follows: a sense of mission as ordinary universities provide teacher training with their an educator; a deep understanding of the process of own characteristics. University programs are based on human growth and development; a professional ded- the minimum criteria set out by law and offer training ication to the students; education in one's subject spe- with individual characteristics. Teacher certificates are cialization; broad and rich knowledge; and practical granted to students who have earned the necessary teaching skills based on this knowledge. In the eyes number of credits as stipulated by law. To maintain uni- of the council, concrete measures needed to upgrade form standards for teacher training, the ml.iistry, or teacher quality include improvements in the teacher Monbusho, is responsible for certifying all training training and certification system; the creation of an courses. induction training program for newly appointed teach- Like elementary and secondary schools, universi- ers; and the systematic establishment of in-service ties are divided into three affiliationsnational, public, training programs. and privatebased on the status of the founder. The school founder bears administrative and financial Characteristics of responsibility for the school. It is left to Monbusho to Teacher Preparation Institutions certify that a given university course provides students with the basic qualifications required for a teacher cer- Teacher training courses are organized by universities, tificate (see information below in this section). Certifi- but the subjects and credit hours required for a teacher cation criteria differ for each type of teacher certificate certificate are determined by law. The Minister of Edu- (see "Certification" section, below). cation, Science, and Culture is responsible for certifying Between 70 and 80 percent of all junior colleges, each training course, based on its compliance with these universities, graduate schools, and advanced courses have criteria.

1iJ 124 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 7.10 Number of Universities and Junior Colleges with Certified Teacher Training Courses as of June 1992

Schools with Certified Teacher Training Programs

Schools, by Type No. of Schools No.

UNIVERSITIES National 98 79 80.6 Public 41 30 73.3 Private 384 306 79.7 Total 523 415 79.3

JUNIOR COLLEGES National 39 1 2.6 Public 53 30 56.6 Private 499 381 76.4 Total 591 412 69.7

GRADUATE SCHOOLS National 98 77 79.2 Public 23 13 56.5 Private 216 152 70.4 Total 337 242 71.8

ADVANCED COURSES National 40 36 90 Public 1 1 100 Private 44 36 81.8 Total 85 73 85.9

Concerning in-service training, the law stipulates The decision is based on factors such as the objec- that teachers at national and public schools must con- tives and character of the university or graduate school tinue training throughout their careers and that the department, the interrelationship of these factors with appointing authorities strive to implement training pro- the teacher certificate for which the school is applying, grams. So-called induction training programs for newly the curriculum, and teachers. In the case of a training appointed teachers are required by law. Guidelines of course for elementary school or kindergarten teachers, Monbusho are published for basic items such as the for example, the school must have a teacher training number of days of training and the methods to be used; department. Regarding the curriculum, the school must local boards of education draw up training plans refer- offer the subjects specified in the Enforcement Regula- ring to this basic framework, taking into account the tions of the Educational Personnel Certification Law for state of affairs in individual schools and communities, subjects and teaching, in accordance with the type of Further, Monbusho has the right to offer both general certificate being applied for. and specific guidance and advice concerning all aspects After a training course has been certified, Mon- of training implementation. busho is charged with the responsibility of providing The Minister of Education, Science, and Culture is appropriate guidance and advice to maintain and responsible for certifying that each teacher training course improve course standards. provides students with the basic qualifications required The appointing authorities are responsible for for a teacher certificate. To obtain such certification, the planning and implementingin-servicetraining. founder of the university submits to the Minister of Edu- Regarding induction training for newly appointed cation, Science, and Culture an application containing teachers, the implementing authority draws up an information about the name of the university, faculty and outline and annual training plan for basic items such department, the type of teacher certificate, the maximum as the number of days of training and training meth- number of students, the curriculum, instructors, and facil- ods, taking into account the guidelines published by ities. The Minister of Education, Science, and Culture then Monbusho. Individual schools base their annual consults the Educational Personnel Training Council and instruction plans on these and submit them to munic- decides whether to certify the course. ipal boards of education. 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 125

NATURE AND CONTENT OF secondary school teachers must earn at least 19 credits. TEACHER PREPARATION Teaching practice usually lasts at least four weeks (four credits) for kindergarten and elementary school To obtain a teacher's certificate, a person must, in prin- teachers, and at least two weeks (two credits) for sec- ciple, earn the university credits specified in the Educa- ondary school teachers. This includes 15-30 hours of tional Personnel Certification Law (see sections below instruction (one credit) before and after the teaching for details). experience. Universities and faculties designed for teacher training have schools attached to them for the schools Academic Preparation Prior to purpose of teacher training practice. When such are unavailable, the university makes a requestfor Preservice Teacher Education cooperation to a student's alma mater or to another suit- To be admitted to a university, a student must have able school. Schools that are willing and able to accept done one of the following: student teachers on a continuous basis are sometimes designated "special cooperating schools." Although the 1. Graduated from an upper secondary school university draws up the plan for teaching practice, guid- 2. Graduated from the upper secondary depart- ance during the teaching practice period isprovided ment of a school for the visually impaired, hear- alternately by the university and by the cooperating ing impaired, or otherwise handicapped school. During this period, student teachers experience 3. Completed three years of study at a college of a wide range of teaching duties both inside and outside technology of their subject specialty, including instruction in moral 4. Been certified by the Minister of Education, Sci- education, homeroom supervision, and an unders.talio- ence, and Culture as possessing equivalent qual- ing of school education and the state of the surround- ifications ing community and society. The university evaluates the student teacher and approves the credits based on There is no special preparatory school program, reports from the cooperating school. nor are there any uniform criteria, methods, or standards Regarding subjects in the student's specialization, for the acceptance of applicants; each university holds required subjects and credit hours are specified by the its own entrance examination. The maximum number Educational Personnel Certification Law and by directives of students to be accepted is specified in the school reg- from Monbusho. To be certified as an elementary school ulations for each faculty based on departments or cours- teacher, for example, a student must earn at least two cred- es. In the 1992 academic year, national teacher training its in each of the following subjects: Japanese language, universities accepted 19,930 new students. At ordinary social studies, arithmetic, science, life environment stud- universities, many students are not interested in obtain- ies, music, art and handicrafts, homemaking, and physical ing a teacher certificate or finding employment as a education. To be certified as a lower secondary school teacher after graduation. teacher in mathematics, a student must earn a minimum of 40 credits, including at least 20 .redits from among the Nature and Content of following subjects: algebra, geometry, analytical geome- Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula try, probability and statistics theory, and computers.

Subjects in the teacher training curriculum can be divid- Differences in the Nature and Content of ed into two categories: those concerning teaching and Teacher Preparation Programs those concerning the student's subject specialization. Regarding the former, required subjects and credit As noted above, universities are responsible for orga- hours are specified for each type of school by the Edu- nizing their own teacher training courses. Because the cational Personnel Certification Law and the Monbusho Minister of Education, Science, and Culture certifies the order, Science and Culture. Main subjects include the courses based on uniform standards, however, no sig- following areas: the essence and goals of education; nificant disparity can be observed among universities or physical and mental development and the learning districts. Training courses are different for each type of process of students; educational methods and tech- teacher certificate; subject matter and credit hours differ niques (including the use of computers and education- depending on the type of school (kindergarten, ele- al materials); subject teaching methodology; moral edu- mentary school, lower secondary school, upper sec- cation;specialactivities;studentguidance and ondary school, schools for the visually impaired, hear- educational consultations; and teaching practice. To be ing impaired, or otherwise handicapped), the grade of certified as elementary school teachers, students must teacher certificate (advanced, first class, second class), earn at least 41 credits; those desiring certification as and the teacher's subject specialization. 1 3 3 126 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Linkages Between Curricular Standards for certificate for upper secondary schools. Teacher certifi- Teacher Education and cates are granted to individuals who possess the basic Curricular Standards for Students qualifications outlined in Table 7.11, and who have earned the necessary college credits. Certificates for sec- To ensure national educational standards, the Mon- ondary schools are granted for each subject. Prefectur- busho order and Course of Study specify general stan- al boards of education are responsible for granting dards for the type and content of courses in elementary teacher certificates, and a standard certificate is valid schools, secondary schools, and schools for the visual- anywhere in the country. ly impaired, hearing impaired, or otherwise handi- The "special teacher certificate" was established to capped. The Educational Personnel Certification Law, allow the utilization of individuals from society at large which specifies the subjects for certification, and the who possess special skills or expertise. It is granted to accompanying enforcement regulations, which indicate individuals who pass the teachers' exam given by the which class subjects a university must offer, are gener- certificate-granting authorities. Provisional certificates ally revised in line with the Course of Study. are for assistant teacher and assistant nursing teachers and are granted to individuals passing the teachers' exam only in cases when a teacher with a standard cer- CERTIFICATION tificate is not available. Both special and provisional certificates have a limited lifetime and are valid only with- Initial Requirements in the prefecture where issued. For certificate holders to actually teach at a public All teachers must have a teacher's certificate. Teacher school, they must first pass the Teacher Employment certificates are issued under the authority of the Educa- Selection Test, held by boards of education in all pre- tional Personnel Certification Law and are of three fectures and selected cities. After passing this test, cer- types: standard, special, and provisional. Standard certificate holders are employed as teachers. Standard certificates are divided into advanced, first-class, and sec- tificates are valid indefinitely, and certificate holders are ond-class certificates for each school category (elemen- permitted to take the Teacher Employment Selection tary, lower and upper secondary, schools for the Test as many times as they wish during their careers. visually impaired, hearing impaired, or otherwise hand- The boards of education carry out a multifaceted eval- icapped, and kindergartens). There is no second-class uation of the applicant's skills, qualifications, and suit-

STABLE 7.11 Type of Teacher Certificates and Necessary Qualifications

Minimum Number of Credits Required

Subject Subject Specialty Type of Certificate Basic Qualifications Specialty Teaching or Teaching

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER Advanced certificate Master's degree or one year's residence 18 41 24 and 30 credits in subject specialty First-classcertificate Bachelor's degree 18 41 Second-class certificate Associate's degree from junior college 10 27

LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER Advancedcertificate Master's degree or one year's residence 40 19 24 and 30 credits in subject specialty First-classcertificate Bachelor's degree 40 19 24 Second-class certificate Associate's degree from junior college 20 15

UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER Advanced certificate Master's degree or one year's residence 40 19 24 and 30 credits in subject specialty First-class certificate Bachelor's degree 40 19

Note: Teacher certificates also exist for teachers at special education schools, for kindergarten teachers, and for nursing teachers. 131 127 .7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INJAPAN

ability for a teaching position. Evaluation methods are holder is a member of, or attempts to form, a political diverse and include written tests of general education party or other organization that supports theoverthrow and specialized knowledge in the applicant's subject of the government by violent means. The certificate may specialty; skills tests in areas such as physical education, also be revoked if the holder intentionally breaks the music, fine arts, and English conversation; essay tests law or commits a grave misdeed. (most of which question the candidate's dedication to Special teacher certificates are valid for a period education and awareness of related issues); interviews; of three to ten years; the exact term is determined by aptitude tests; and evaluation of a candidate's past par- the prefectural board of education. Provisional certifi- ticipation in extracurricular and volunteer activities. cates are valid for three years. In March 1992, 404,504 students graduated from Provisional certificates inay be granted only when it universities with certified teacher training courses. Of is impossible to hire a teacher with a standardcertificate. this total, 72,553, or 17.9 percent, earned teacher cer- Ordinarily, they are granted to teachers who possess stan- tificates, and 13,424, or 18.5 percent, of those with cer- dard certificates for other school categories. At secondary tificates passed the test and were employed as teachers schools, the certificate-granting authorities may permit a (see Table 7.12). teacher without a certificate for the relevant subject to teach said subject for up to a year when a teacher with the proper certificate is unavailable. Further, when there Certification Reauthorization is determined to be a special need in certain areasof a Standard teacher certificates need not be renewed. subject, the certificate-granting authorities may appoint as However, they are rendered invalid if the holder is part-time lecturers individi la's without a teacher certificate. judged to be incompetent or quasi-incompetent, if the This is done with the objective of tapping special skills holder is imprisoned for a criminal offense, or if the and expertise possessed by individuals outside academia.

TABLE 7.12 Number of Graduates of Universities and Other Institutions withCertified Teacher Training Programs and Number Receiving Teacher Certificates, as of March 1992 Number of Students Who Institutions Number of Graduates Received Teacher Certificates

UNIVERSITIES NATIONAL T.T.U. 19,345 17,182 Ordinary 67,405 8,230 Public 10,108 2,328 Private 307,646 44,213 Total 404,504 72,553

GRADUATE SCHOOLS NATIONAL T.T.U. 1,784 1,418 Ordinary 16,199 1,675 Public 954 146 Private 7,874 1,216 Total 26,811 4,455

ADVANCED COURSES NATIONAL T.T.U. 267 229 Ordinary 48 18 Public 14 13 Private 294 174 Total 623 434

JUNIOR COLLEGES NATIONAL T.T.U. Ordinary 675 27 Public 4,194 1,676 Private 152,421 44,641 Total 157,290 46,347

5,255 OTHER 5,283

129,044 TOTAL 594,511 IIIIN1111 135 128 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT teaching duties. At the same time, boards of education are charged with the responsibility of planning and Induction or Transition Processes implementing teacher training. Three types of training are recognized: professional training, which is consid- A training program for newly appointed teachers was ered a necessary part of the job; voluntary training, implemented in the 1989 academic year, based on the which is undertaken by the teacher outside of working Law for Special Regulations Concerning Educational Pub- hours; and work-exemption training, which can be lic Service Personnel. Under this law, appointing author- planned independently by the teacher and, if it does not kave a legal obligation to provide newly appointed adversely affect school activities and is approved by the teaciiers with induction training during their fast year of school principal, exempts the teacher from the obliga- work. Individual covered under this obligation include tion of concentrating on teaching duties while allowing teachers, assistant teachers, and full-time lecturers at him or her to draw normal pay. Prefectural boards of national and public elementary schools, secondary education play a central role in the implementation of schools, and schools for the visually impaired, hearing training programs for public school teachers. They are impaired, and otherwise handicapped. In addition to nor- responsible for implementing the following kinds of mal teaching duties (class and subject supervision), newly training: appointed teachers are required to undergo in-school training for two days a week and training outside school 1. Induction training: for all newly appointed for one day a week. The training covers areas necessary teachers with less than one year's experience (90 to the fulfillment of a teacher's duties, including basic days a year) skills, class management, subject instruction, moral edu- 2. In- service training for experienced teachers: for cation, special activities, and student guidance. all teachers who have completed 5, 10, or 20 Concerning in-school training, designated guidance years of service teachers offer guidance and advice to newly appointed 3. Master teacher training: for all newly appointed teachers with the help of other teachers. Guidance teach- principals and vice principals ers are selected from among a school's vice-principal, 4. Training for newly appointed curriculum coor- teachers, and lecturers (including part-time lecturers). dinators: for all new curriculum coordinators Only teachers with a great deal of experience are chosen for this duty. Out-of-school training includes such activi- For core teachers, there is a long-term dispatch ties as lectures, seminars, and hands-on guidance at edu- program to help them develop specialized skills and cational centers; visits to other types of schools, social qualifications. Under this program, which may last any- education facilities, child welfare facilities, and private where from several months to two years, teachers are corporations; volunteer activities; and outdoor activities. sent, with pay, to a graduate school or educational Along with this training, schools with one new research institute. In 1993, plans called for the dispatch teacher are assigned a part-time lecturer for three days of some 1,250 teachers to graduate schools for periods a week; those with two new teachers are assigned a full- of one-to-two years. time teacher. This helps to ensure a lighter work load Further, three universities with graduate schools (class hours, etc. ) for the newcomer and for guidance have been set up to ensure opportunities for research teachers. Necessary costs for induction training, includ- and study, primarily for experienced teachers. The three ing personnel costs, are borne by whoever implements universities are Hyogo University of Teacher Education the induction training program, that is, by the appoint- (founded in 1978), the Joetsu University of Teacher Edu- ing authorities (prefectural boards of education in the cation (1978), and the Naruto University of Teacher Edu- case of elementary and lower secondary schools). The cation (1981) national government reimburses compulsory education Municipal boards of education also provide train- schools for one-half of related personnel and out-of- ing programs for teachers at public schools that take school training costs. into account the state of local affairs. The national government, through Monbusho, directly implements the Professional Development Opportunities following types of training. Its aim is to train school principals, vice - principals, and subject teachers capable In recognition of the unique character of their duties, of playing a leadership role in each prefecture. (The teachers are offered a variety of training-related excep- government also provides support for prefectural train- tions that are not available to other government ing activities.) employees. The law requires teachers to continue training 1. central workshops for intensive in-service train- throughout their careers in order to carry out their ing: for school principals and vice principals (22

136 7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 129

c.;ays; 800 individuals a year), and for other core Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement teachers (36 days; 1,000 teachers a year) at pub- The Educational Personnel Certification Law was lic schools revised in 1988. As part of efforts to improve practical 2. Comprehensive colloquium on Course of Study guidelines: for all teachers at public schools teaching skills, this act raised certification standards and established the advanced teacher certificate. This cer- 3. Dispatch of teachers overseas: to inspect educational facilities: for teachers aged 35 or over tificate, designed with the objective of attracting indi- (1,200 teachers for 30 days and 3,800 teachers viduals possessing advanced, specialized expertise in a for 16 days) and teachers aged under 35 (180 certain field, has as its basic qualification the comple- teachers for 60 days) tion of a master's degree at a graduate school, and is for teachers at all types of schools, as well as for nurs- In addition, educational research institutes offer a vari- ing teachers. ety of training sessions, and each school has its own The special teacher certificate was created to bring individuals from society at large, possessing special unique training program. skills and expertise, into the educational system. The special part-time lecturer program was established to POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR make it possible to hire part-time lecturers without TEACHER PREPARATION AND teacher certificates. Concerning in-service training, the induction PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT training program was established in the 1989 academic year. In addition to the traditional prefecture-man- aged training programs undergone by all teachers after Present Concerns for Change and Improvement completion of five years of service, starting in the 1993 Expertise in subject specialty and practical teaching academic year, the national government established skills needs to be further developed during teacher two kinds of subsidies for training for teachers who training. Further, persons with deeper scholarship need have completed 10 and 20 years of service, respec- to be brought into the educational system. tively. The government also established a subsidy pro- An in-service training program should also be sys- gram that will allow local boards of education to carry tematically established to follow the training program out systematic certification seminars, helping teachers for newly appointed teachers. Other issues include the with second-class teacher certificates to obtain first- building of linkages between university training cours- class certificates. es, in-service training, and (especially) the training programs for newly appointed teachers.

1 ? Teacher Training and Professional Development in Korea

Submitted by: International Education and Cooperation Division, Ministry of Education Prepared by: Chung-Wha Sub, College of Education, Hong -Ik University

CONTEXT Definitions

Since the liberation in1945,education in the Republic The terms of schooling are six years in elementary of Korea has made remarkable progress in quantity. The school, three years in middle school, three years in high quantitative expansion has taken place in the increase school and four years in college and university. Ele- of the schools, in student population, and in growth in mentary and middle schooling is provided to all chil- the number of teachers. The expansion of elementary dren, compulsory and free of charge. General informa- school, middle school, high school, and higher education on schooling in Korea in terms of grade levels and tion from1945to 1993 is outlined in Table 8.1. student age ranges is presented in Table8.2. Qualitatively, however, much progress has not In 1993, about 13,000,000 children and youth been made in tandem with the rapid quantitative were enrolled in about 10,000 schools. The number of growth. During the past five decades, every effort has schools and students is shown in Table 8.3. The per- been made to solve educational problems and to centage of students in the total population is about 30 upgrade the quality of education. Innovative efforts, percent. The student population portion of non- especially to streamline the education system, have government school sectors is becoming higher than been carried out since the1980s.The focal point has that of government school sectors as school levels been placed on elevating the quality of education increase. This means that private schools contribute through a shake-up of the education system, and on much to the development of education. The entrance improving the conditions of education. The present rate of students and school enrollment ratio in each school ladder system follows a singular track of level of schools is growing steadily (see Table8.4). 6-3-3-4.Elementary school, middle school, high Table8.5shows the graduation rate of students by school, and college and university constitute the skele- level of schooling and the percentage of female stu- ton of the school system. This is illustrated in Figure 8.1. dents graduating.

131 136 132 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 8.1 Quantitative Expansion of Education by Enrollments, 1945-1993

Elementary Middle High Higher School School School Education*

1945 1993 1945 1993 1945 1993 1945 1993

Schools 2,834 6,057 166 2,590 307 1,757 19 655 Teachers 19,729 139,159 1,186 97,131 1,720 96,698 1,490 51,277 Students 1,366,024 4,336,252 80,828 2,410,874 40,271 2,069,210 7,819 2,099,735

*Higher education includes colleges and university, junior colleges, graduate school, miscellaneous school, air correspondence college, and open college.

TABLE 8.2 Definitions of Schooling

Student School Type Grade Levels Age Range

Pre-elementary 4-5 Elementary 1-6th grade 6-11 Secondary 7-9th grade 12-14 Postsecondary 10-12th grade 15-17 Preservice teacher 13-16th grade 18-21 preparation

TABLE 8.3 Number of Schools and Students

Schools Students

National & National & Total Public Private Total Public Private

Kindergarten 8,515 4,514 4,001 467,380 113,332 356,048 Elementary 6,057 5,981 76 4,336,252 4,268,860 67,392 Middle School 2,590 1,890 700 2,410,874 1,794,587 616,287 High School 1,757 864 893 2,069,210 787,827 1,281,383 Higher Education 655 134 521 2,099,735 712,682 1,387,053

TABLE 8.4 Student Entrance Rates and Enrollment Ratios

Middle School High School Higher Education

Entrance Enrollment Entrance Enrollment Entrance Enrollment Rate Ratio Rate Ratio Rate Ratio

1970 63.8% 51.2 70.9% 28.1 34.5% 8.8 1980 96.8 95 84.8 63.5 47.1 16 1990 99.5 96.9 91.3 87.6 54,4 38.1 1992 99.6 97 96.2 89.2 62.5 46.8

Note: Educational Indicators in Korea (KEDI), 1992. 8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 133

PreschoolElementary Secondary Higher Education Education Education

1819 grade 1 2 34567891011 1213141516 17 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I age 6 789101112131415161718192021 222324 25

General Dentistry & Medicine (Academic)4 Year College High Schooland University Graduate (3 years) School Kindergar- ten Middle Teachers' college (1 it 2 School years) (3 years)Vocational Korea Corres. Univ High Schoo (3 years) Open College Elementary School Misc. School (6 years) Nursing Jun- ior College I

4 rr- 3r-ri

1. Civic School 2. Specialized School 3. Higher Civic School 4. Trade School Special Educationfor the Handicapped 5. Higher Trade School 6.SpecializedHigh School Elementary Middle High 7. Correspondence School School School High School

FIGURE 8.1 School system in Korea. 134 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 8.5 Student Graduation Rates by School Level and Percentage of Females Graduating

Elementary Middle School High School

Total (%)Female (%) Total (%) Female (%) Total (%) Female (%)

1970 89.4 93.2 94.9 90.7 93.5 1975 90.4 90.4 92.7 93.9 94.8 97 1980 94.1 94.2 97 98.4 94.4 98.4 1985 97.7 97.9 96.9 100 92 94.7 1991 99.4 99.5 97.8 97.7 94.3 96.5 1992 98.9 99 97.7 97.9 94.5 96.7

TABLE 8.6 Percentage Distribution of Population by Educational Attainment

Elementary (%) Middle School (%) High School (%) Colleges & University (%)

1975 65.5 14.8 13.9 5.8 1980 55.3 18.1 18.9 7.7 1985 43.4 20.5 25.9 10.2 1990 33.7 18.9 33.2 14.2

TABLE 8.7 Expected Levels of Education for Children

Son Daughter

Middle High College &. Graduate Middle High College &. Graduate School (%)School (%) Univ. (%) School (%) School (%) School (%) Univ. (%) School (%)

1977 7.5 36.2 55.5 0.8 23.7 42.7 33.3 0.3 1987 1.6 13.9 60.5 24 4 25.6 55.1 15.3 1990 1.6 12.1 61.9 24.4 3.9 20.4 61.3 14.4

Source: National Statistical Office, Social Indicators in Korea, 1991.

Percentage distribution of population by educa- onthepercentagesof femaleteachers,from tional attainment has been greatly improved (see Table 1965-1992. As shown in Table 8.9, the percentage of 8.6). The total average years of educational attainment female teachers has increased as time passes. The per- was 9.20 as of 1990. It is noteworthy that the average centage of female teachers will become highfr in the number of years of educational attainment for those future in line with greater efforts at industrialization. 20-29 years old is 12.05. This is the result of the strong The academic attainment level of teachers is at least 16 desire of people for education and the supportive pol- years of schooling, because teachers' certificates are icy measures of the government. Table 8.7 shows the provided to those who have completed our four-year expected levels of education for children for 1977-1990. teachers' college and college of education, or to those Most parents want their children to complete college who have attained an equivalent level of academic and university and graduate levels. achievement. Since 1953, 11 national teachers' colleges, located in each province, have been the main source of sup- BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE ply for prospective elementary school teachers. Sec- ondary school teachers have been produced from the Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession colleges of education, which are,in most cases, attached to universities. At present, 35 colleges of edu- See Tables 8,8 and 8.9 for statistics ontrends in teach- cation produce prospective secondary school teachers. ers' average age and years of teaching experience, and In 1953, Provision 11 of the Law on the Educational

1 4 1 135 8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN KOREA

TABLE 8.8 Trends of Teachers' Average Age and Teaching Experience bySchool Level

Vocational High School Elementary Middle School General High School

Years of Years of Years of Years of Teaching Age Teaching Age Teaching Age Teaching Age

10.9 35.8 9.5 1970 33.2 11.3 35.3 10.1 36.7 35.5 11 1980 36.5 15.8 35.6 11.8 36.6 12.3 37.5 12.4 1990 40.3 18.7 36 11.3 37.1 12.5 38.2 13.1 1992 41 19.1 36.7 12.4 38.3 13.4

TABLE 8.9 Percentage of Female Teachers by School Level

Junior College & Elementary (%) Middle School (%) High School (%) University (%)

1965 25.5 16.1 8.9 11.9 1970 29.1 18.6 9 12.6 1975 33.7 25.1 12.7 14.5 1980 36.8 32.8 17.1 15.7 1980 36.8 32.8 17.1 15.7 1985 43.1 38.5 20.4 17.7 1991 51.6 47.6 23.3 20 1992 52.4 47.7 23.2 20.5

TABLE 8.10 Monthly Salary of Elementary and Secondary School Teachers by Salary Step,1993 (in U.S. dollars)

Salary Monthly Salary Monthly Salary Monthly Salary Monthly Step Salary Step Salary Step Salary Step Salary

21 $651 31 $914 1 $325 11 $439 32 942 2 336 12 452 22 676 971 346 13 473 23 702 33 34 999 4 357 14 494 24 727 35 1,0267 5 367 15 516 25 753 36 1,053 6 378 16 538 26 779 37 1,079 7 390 17 561 27 804 38 1,106 8 402 18 583 28 830 39 1,132 9 414 19 606 29 858 40 1,158 10 427 20 628 30 886

Public Service prescribed that graduates from the Characteristics of Teaching Employment national education institutions be given preferential treatment in the recruitment process in government pri- The teacher compensation system has been changed sev- mary and secondary schools. Thus, mostgraduates eral times in terms of its salary tables, various allowances, from private colleges of education could be recruited and fringe benefits, in accordance with the financial con- into private schools; they were unlikely to obtain teach- ditions of the Government and community support. Dur- ing positions in public schools. But in 1991, the Con- ing the past four decades, the mainstream of the salary stitutional Court decided that this teacher recruitment schedule has been developed toward the single-salary policy violates the equal opportunity principle solemn- schedule. In other words, every teacher with the same ly guaranteed in Constitutional Law. The teacher kind of teaching license and teaching experience receives recruitment policy has been revised, or improved, to the same amount of salary and allowance, regardless of ensure equal opportunity for competent,prospective whether he or she works in elementary, middle, or high teachers through open competition. school (Table 8.10 shows 1993 figures for monthly r 41 136 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS salaries for elementary and secondary school teachers). policy was overreliant on national institutions, discrim- In general, the starting salary step for the beginning inating against private institutions. But the recruitment teacher who graduates from teachers' colleges or colleges of teachers is now carried out on an open, competitive of education is number nine. (Table 8.10 shows only basis in order to induce more highly qualified teachers, fixed pay; various allowances are not included. Profes- regardless of their gender, birthplace, college of origin, sors in colleges and junior colleges are paid according to or other considerations, into the teaching profession. different salary tables.) And recruitment is based on a variety of criteriasuch The teacher salary schedule includes monthly pay as written examinations, college records, teaching skills, that is fixed plus several allowances. Besides the month- and personalityto induce bright, prospective teachers ly salary, additional allowances are paid on a monthly in each provincial area. basis, within the limits of budget, as bonuses, teaching Annually, about 7,000-8,000 teachers are recruit- allowances, family allowances, schooling expenses for ed. In 1993, 7,381 teachers were recruited into primary, children, allowances for special-area service, special- middle, and high schools. New teacher demand is, at duty allowances, allowances for overtime work, and so most, about 7,000 teachers yearly, even though about on. Teachers also have fringe benefits, such as medical 57,000 prospective teachers are available. Accordingly, insurance, pension, schooling expenses for children, the MOE tries every year to secure a larger educational loans for housing, and beft -- and after leave for child- budget in order to recruit more teachers into the teach- birth (about two months for iemale teachers). ing profession. The Korean Teachers' Mutual Fund is an organization that oversees the welfare of teachers and provides them with financial security so that they can devote CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF themselves fully to their profession. The Teachers Pen- TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS sion Fund of Private School Teachers is the equivalent organization for private school teachers. The Korean Fed- Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions eration of Teachers' Associations (KFTA) is recognized by the government as the only legal organization for the Institutes responsible for teacher education vary in type teaching profession. In 1952, this organization joined the and level. Kindergarten teachers are usually trained by World Confederations of Teaching Profession (WCOTP) junior vocational colleges; elementary school teachers as a full member, and has participated in various types of by teachers' colleges; and secondary school teachers by activities. However, some teachers who were discontent colleges of education and general colleges and univer- with the conservative activities of KFTA independently sities. These institutions supply nearly 30,000 teachers formed the National Council of Teachers, which later annually. Appropriate licenses for teaching are award- became a teachers' union, in 1990. Under the slogan ed to those who graduate from these institutions. "True Education," these teachers advocated collective Some kindergarten teachers are trained by four- struggles for teacher salary increases, the improvement year colleges and junior vocational colleges, as well as of deteriorated conditions of teaching, and democratiza- by colleges conducting courses through audiovisual tion of the educational leadership. They also demanded media and correspondence. Elementary school teachers the right to exercise collective bargaining, and even to are trained by 11 four-year national teachers' colleges. strike (with the provision that they would first ask the Secondary school teachers must be graduates of col- permission and cooperation of other professional teach- leges of education (there are 12 national colleges of ers' organizations). The government disagreed and dis- education in the Republic of Korea); of education missed about fifteen hundred teachers from their teach- departments or teacher education courses in colleges ing posts on the grounds that they had violated the laws and universities; or of Master of Education programs in and generated negative public sentiment. After four years, graduate schools of education. The entrance examina- the government allowed almost all of these dismissed tion for teachers' colleges and for colleges of education teachers to return to classrooms, on the condition that has changed, and now includes an aptitude test and an they secede from the labor union movement. Even interview. Colleges and universities, apart from offering though the government does not recognize the labor courses in teacher preparation institutes, also offer union movement of teachers, the union was enrolled as teacher education programs to supplement the supply a member of EI (Education International) in 1993. of teachers in secondary schools. These programs pro- Since 1992, KFTA has engaged in collective bar- vide an alternative path for students enrolled in other gaining with the Ministry of Education (MOE) on issues programs to receive teacher training. such as salary increases, teaching conditions, retirement Graduate schools of education were established to and health insurance policies, and so on. As mentioned upgrade the professionalism of teachers by providing above, during the past decades, the teacher recruitment exposure to research-based, in-depth studies. They offer

14:3 137 8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INKOREA

day and evening classes during designated seasons so candidates must achieve to gain entrance to colleges that teachers can attend at a time convenient for them. and universities. In addition, candidates for teachers' Special teachers for the handicapped are educated colleges or colleges of education must take an aptitude according to the level of schools where they are expect- test and undergo an interview, which -accountfor 10 ed to teach. Apart from the subjects of specialization, percent of the total score. they are also exposed to courses aimed at improving their teaching, relevant to the targeted audience. School Nature and Content of librarians must be graduates of universities and colleges Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula with a major in library science. Nurses are qualified to become teachers by graduating from junior colleges or The curriculum of teachers' colleges consists of required from a university, and by obtaining an RN license. and elective courses. The former include general subjects (national ethics, Korean language, the history of civilization, problems in Korean society, natural science, Policy Guidance mathematics, and a foreign language) and professional The guiding policy of teacher preparation and in-service education subjects geared to raising the professionalism training is to improve professional competency and of teaching. Elective courses include a variety of subjects. develop a sense of commitment to the teaching profes- The curriculum of colleges of education is com- sion based on sound views of education. The organiza- posed of general humanities subjects and specialized tion responsible for teacher policies is the Teachers subjects, which, in turn, are divided into required and Affairs Bureau in the Ministry of Education at the nation- elective subjects. The former are intended to produce al level. broadly informed teachers, whereas the latter focus on specific skills associated with teaching. Students are also encouraged to specialize in a discipline of interest to Accreditation/Approval them, for up to 21 credit hours. A four-week period of There is no formal accreditation system for teacher teaching practice is included in the curriculum of teach- preparation programs. But some specialists and profes- ers' colleges and colleges of education. In general, each sionals have been very emphatic about the need for college of education has an elementary school, a middle teacher preparation program accreditation to become a school, and a high school attached to it. Teachers' col- part of the college and university accreditation system, leges are attached to an elementary school, where the and there are plans to put this idea into practice in 1997. students are required to complete at least four weeks of on-the-job training. In the course of teaching practice, a student teacher must complete an internship, which NATURE AND CONTENT OF includes observation of class instruction, actual teaching, TEACHER PREPARATION and performance of attendant duties.

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT The goals of teacher education are to develop professional competency in prospective teachers in order to In-service teacher training aims at improving education- establish high-quality education. As mentioned above, al expertise, enhancing the quality of the teaching pro- teachers' colleges train elementary school teachers, and fession, and encouraging a sense of commitment. In-ser- colleges of education produce students for teaching at vice training is offered in five categories: qualification secondary schools. Korea National University of Educa- training to obtain credits for promotion; general training tion (KNUE) was inaugurated in 1985 with the specific to broaden overall knowledge in educational theories goal of producing a corps of teacher elites dedicated to and practices; induction training for new recruits to teaching and in-service training for teachers. acquaint them with the profession; refreshment training for in-service teachers to improve performance of teach- Academic Preparation Prior to ing duties; and special training, in the form of study at Preservice Teacher Education KNUE for two years in master's programs. Qualification trainingis the responsibility of In Korea, candidates for all colleges and universities teacher training centers established in each provincial must pass entrance examinations in the form of scholas- area. It requires trainees to complete a minimum of 30 tic aptitude tests conducted by the National Board of days (180 hours) of training to be certified for promo- Educational Evaluation. Scholastic achievement in high tion. It takes at least 10 days (60 hours) of training to school comprises 40 percent of the total score which complete a general in-service. Task-specific programs 1'i4 138 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS vary in duration, depending on their goals and contents. LICENSING An induction program is offered under the direct supervision of the provincial or municipal office of education. Classification of Teachers The National Institute of Educational Research and Training provides a variety of refreshment programs tar- In order to ensure the professionalism and the public geted for educational administrators and school man- accountability of teachers, graduates of teacher prepa- agers. Teachers are provided with scholarship opportu- ration programs are required to be licensed according nities for overseas study in order to observe teaching to criteria established by law. Teachers are classified practices and familiarize themselves with other educa- according to the following categories: Grades 1 and 2 tional systems. This program has proved to be effective teachers (i.e., of the first- and second-degree category, in developing a global outlook on education and in sen- rather than school grade level); assistant teachers; spe- sitizing teachers to their responsibilities. By and large, it cial education teachers; librarians; teachers for skill prac- has had a positive impact on teachers' morale. Foreign tices; and nursing teachers, Each category must meet language teachers are sent to countries where their spe- specific qualification criteria, established in Clause 1, cialization languages are spoken, and attend programs Article 79, of the Education Law. In accordance with there to improve their skills in verbal communication. these criteria, each prospective teacher is licensed by In-service training programs for 1992 are listed by train- the Minister of Education. ing institute in Table 8.11. Teacher certificates, or licenses, are valid throughout the teacher's lifetime. The main frame for teacher Professional Development Opportunities licensing is divided into four hierarchical categories: Grade 2 teachers, Grade 1 teachers, vice-principals, and Teachers must participate in in-service training in orderprincipals. (This hierarchy is illustrated in Figure 8.2.) to qualify for higher-ranking licenses; therefore, the Most beginning teachers enter the profession as Grade qualification training program is very popular among 2 teachers and are not subject to a probationary period. teachers, because it gives them an opportunity for career advancement. However, some teachers avoid or Status of Qualifying Conditions have negative views of general in-service training for their voluntary professional development. There are no Teachers can acquirehigher-ranking license after com- particular incentives or benefits offered for such train- pletion of 180 hours of in-service training programs; ing, such as salary increases of the kind that can be higher-ranking licenses provide teachers with better obtained through higher-ranking licenses. positions, more responsibilities, and added prestige. For

TABLE 8.11 In- service Training of Teachers by Training Institute, 1992

Training Institute Training Programs Trainees Total

Central Educational Research & General training 1,925 3,809 Training Institute Professional training 681 Other training 1,203 Regional teacher training institutes Qualification training 9,475 26,963 General training 8,447 Other training 9,041 Elementary teacher training institutes Qualification training 2,005 2,230 General training 225 Secondary teacher training institutes Qualification training 179 257 General training 78 Comprehensive teachers' Qualification training 1,255 1,437 training institute General training 182 Training institutes designated by Qualification training 2,828 29,131 MOE & Board of Education General training 26,303 Overseas observation Observation visit 3,217 3,759 Speciality training visit 542

Source: Education in Korea (MOE), 1992-1993.

145 8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 139 example, when Grade 2 teachers obtain Grade 1 teach- Grade 2 and Grade 1 teachers and vice-principals ers' licenses, they are eligible for promotion to head may work up to 65 years of age before retirement, as teacher positions, a stepping stone to vice-principal or long as they serve with good records. However, since school supervisor positions at the Education Office (see 1992, principals can hold office only for four years, and Fig. 8.2). And when Grade 1 teachers obtain licenses for can be reappointed for one additional term. The term vice-principal, they can qualify for appointments as system of principalship was introduced on the basis of principal. In this sense, the teacher licensing system is the recommendation of the Central Council of Educa- geared more toward professional advancement than it tion as a response to overwhelming numbers of teach- is toward professional development. ers applying for promotion to principal, and also in an Promotion and transfer policy is specified in offi- attempt to curb the authoritarian leadership styles of cial regulations for the civil service in the education sec- some principals. The school supervisors who are pro- tor, in the sections concerning promotion and perfor- moted from within the ranks of experienced teachers mance appraisal. Promotion to higher positions or are very popular among teachers. Recently, there have transfer to other administrative positions requires appli- been efforts in most provinces to recruit new school cants to have good career evaluation records, perfor- supervisors through open competition.In some mance appraisals, a record of in-service training, and provinces, supervisors, vice-principals, and principals extra, additional points. Career evaluation records refer can be transferred interchangeably. primarily to seniority, whereas performance appraisal, in-service training, and additional points are based mainly on merit. In general, teachers with significant teach- POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR ing experience tend to rely on seniority for promotion, TEACHER PREPARATION AND while teachers with little experience prefer the merit sys- PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT tem. The conservative climate of educational circles in the Republic of Korea promotes a preference for senior- Present Concerns for Change and Improvement ity as a gage of teacher qualification for advancement. The opportunity for promotion often goes to "inside" It is imperative to lure competent teachers into the candidates rather than to "outside" ones. In a sense, this teaching profession and to encourage and maintain their means that administrative or supervisory positions are professional development in order to upgrade the qual- not widely publicized, and that qualified candidates are ity of education. But there are many obstacles associat- seldom made aware of the vacancies. ed with teacher preparation and professional develop-

FIGURE 8.2 Senior School Supervisor Teacher certificate and Pt ncipal Senior Educational Researcher promotion system.

t Principal Certificate

Vice Principal Junior School Supervisor Junior Educational Reseatcher t Vice Principal Certificate

1st Grade Teacher Promotion t 1st Grade Teacher Transfer Certificate t

2nd Grade Teacher 148 140 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS ment that must be overcome in order to solve the prob- as well as with centralized administrative power. In lems related to licensing, promotion, in-service training, addition, this kind of climate could be attributed to the teaching conditions, salary, social expectations, and so irrational teacher licensing system, in which the teach- on. There are many issues and problems that should be ing professions are mixed with the management func- resolved. tions. In other words, classroom teachers such as Grade First of all, teacher education institutions do not 2 teachers and Grade 1 teachers occupy a lower posi- offer enough teacher specialization courses. Teachers' tion, and administrators like vice-principals and princi- colleges and colleges of education are hardly differen- pals are in a higher position. Thus, teachers see them- tiated, in terms of program contents and methods, from selves in a humble position, and administrators consider the teacher education courses in general colleges and themselves fortunate to have escaped it. universities. This means that the identity of teacher edu- Fourth, teachers are stymied by heavy teaching cation institutions is not fully reflected in the training loads. Above all, this situation comes from unmanage- programs. Some see this as a good reason to discontin- able class sizes. According to 1992 estimates, there were ue their operations. As was also pointed out, there are 32.8 students for every teacher in elementary schools, too many teacher education institutions and courses and 24.5 students per teacher in middle schools, and 22.1 they produce overwhelming numbers of prospective students per teacher in high schools. The large number teachers, especially in the case of colleges of education of students per class (39.9 in primary, 48.6 in middle, 49 and teache. education courses in general colleges and in high school) is the source of the increasing teacher's universities. load. In urban areas, classrooms are even more crowd- Second, in-service training does not give enough ed. These figures compare unfavorably with those of the impetus to professional development. After their recruit- more advanced countries. Heavy teaching loads may be ment, teachers would greatly profit from professional better illustrated by the number of teaching hours per development in the form of systematic in-service train- week. In 1993, elementary school teachers worked 26.0 ing, in order to develop knowledge and skills associat- hours per week, middle school teachers 17.0 hours, and ed with teaching, student guidance, classroom manage- high school teachers 16.0 hours. Besides the regular ment, and so forth. As mentioned above, Grade 2 teaching hours, teachers spend additional hours for sup- teachers can become Grade 1 teachers after completing plementary or enrichment teaching programs, and are in-service training. But once they become Grade 1 also burdened with a considerable paperwork load. teachers, most of them, with the exception of those who These adverse conditions have their roots in a shortage become vice-principals, continue teaching until retire- of funds in the education budget. Despite the rapid ment without considering the advantages of further pro- expansion of the student population, the government fessional development. This means that most teachers has allocated only small amounts to education, under complete in-service training exclusively for career the pretext of concentrating limited financial resources advancement rather than from intrinsic motivation for on economic development, national defense, and social developing professional competency. development. Third, teachers are more concerned with promo- Fifth, economic compensation for teachers is low. tion than with teaching. It is not an exaggeration to say In general, teachers are well respected by students and that most teachers are only interested in administrative their parents, and the teaching profession has been or supervisory positions, particularly teachers with the regarded as good job, with a high reputation. The pub- most seniority. For instance, Grade 1 teachers who have lic recognizes that teachers make a great contribution to significant teaching experience want to be promoted to society, but they are not compensated for this contri- vice-principal, or to be transferred to a school supervi- bution. This situation is one of the factors that leads to sor position. Compared with the pyramid structure of low job satisfaction for teachers. hierarchies in other occupations, the structure of the Teachers also perceive that their socioeconomic teaching profession is flat. Accordingly, only 10 percent status has been lowered compared with the situation of classroom teachers can look forward to promotion or in the past, and perhaps as a consequence of industri- transfer. Thus, those who fail to be promoted to admin- alization, even though their job contributes signifi- istrative positions are often looked on as incompetent cantly to social progress and national development. teachers, even though they may be excellent classroom This poor conception of themselves as teachers can teachers with considerable teaching experience. This consequently lead to a lack of commitment to teach- results in dissatisfaction and frustration on the part of ing. The salary level of beginning teachers is not low many competent teachers, and hinders the advancement compared with that of other occupations. However, of professional development. the salary level of experienced teachers who have This strong status-oriented tendency has much to served a long time in the teaching profession is low do with authoritarian and bureaucratic administration, compared with the salary level of other occupations. 14 8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 141

Since 1960, salary levels have increased dispropor- sciousness, and a sense of commitment to the teaching tionately in comparison to teachers' salariesfor civil profession. In addition, the structure of the teaching fac- servants employed, for example, in the state-owned ulty in colleges of education should be realigned by banks, or as high-ranking public officials. Fortunately, adding subject-matter specialists to the teaching staff, so efforts by the governmentthe levying of an educa- that programs will be characterized by a greater empha- tion tax in 1982have resulted in a steady increase in sis on subject matter. the general level of teachers' pay. Nonetheless, present Second, periodic in-service training is needed. The salary levels fail to provide enough incentive for teach- present main stock of in-service training is qualification ers to increase their professional development experi- training and general training. As mentioned above, qual- ence and expertise. ification training, which leads to career advancement, is Finally, supportive administration for teaching presently the most popular program among teachers. In- has been insufficient.Administrativeauthorities service training should be similarly compensated, with should support and encourage teachers' educational effects for teachers' salaries and for their promotion activities; this should be their driving force. But the opportunities, and teachers should be provided with rapid growth of the student population and the expan- more opportunities to voluntarily participate in profession of the teaching profession has brought with it a sional development initiatives periodically, to enhance growing tendency to rely on controlled supervision, their skills and competence levels and to keep pace with allowing bureaucracy and authoritarianism to take rapidly developing trends in the different disciplines of hold. It goes without saying that the centralized model teaching methods. It is also necessary to renew teachers' in political, economic, social, and cultural affairs has license periodically, through in-service training. both directly and indirectly influenced educational Third, it is urgent that a new teaching-oriented policy formation, implementation, and governance. licensing system be established, reforming the current Elementary and secondary school teachersnumber- management-oriented licensing system, both to dis- ing more than 300,000 across the nationcomprise a courage administration-driven teacher expectations and formidable force, and they cannot be ignored. The to expedite professional development. One proposal, very limited range of teacher autonomy and control recommended by KFTA, would be to replace the pre- over their teaching situations has left them with no sent system with Grade 2, Grade 1, senior, and master alternative than to submit to the administrative author- teacher categories, eliminating the vice-principal and ities. This was one of the motives that led militant principal positions. This type of ranking is the one most teachers to organize and participate in teacher labor often found in research institutes or colleges. The cre- unions advocating the reformation of administrative ation of these new categories would mean a change leadership in education. Fortunately, this authoritari- also in the roles, salaries, teaching hours, and fringe an leadership and conservative, centralized adminis- benefits of teachers. Under a new system like this, prin- trative system has been gradually improved since the cipals could be appointed from among senior and mas- late 1980s. ter teachers. Fourth, optimization of teaching loads is urgent. Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement Teaching loads should be optimized to provide extensive and high-quality teaching. This must begin with reducing Korean education is expected in the future to play a class size, bringing it into line with levels in advanced more important role in national development, as well as countries. The Presidential Commission for Education in individual self-actualization. The teacher is one of the Reform (PCER) recommended that teaching hours per most crucial elements in education. In this sense, it is week should be gradually decreased, to a point that imperative to reform the teacher preparation and pro- makes it possible to individualize instruction and increase fessional development system. The major thrust of teaching effectiveness. In elementary schools (where a reform efforts should be directed toward streamlining teacher is responsible for all subject matter, unlike in sec- the professionalization process for teachers in all relat- ondary schools), teaching hours could be reduced ed areaspreservice education, the licensing system, in- through a partial implementation of departmentalization service training, teaching loads, socioeconomic status, in music, arts, and physical education. It is also necessary and administration and finance. to relieve teachers' overloads of administrative, clerical, First of all, specification of teacher education insti- and non-educational chores through employing teachers' tutions is needed. It is essential that the curriculum of aides. elementary and secondary schools be directly linked to Fifth, improving the socioeconomic status of teach- the programs of the teacher education institutions. And ers could make the teaching profession more attractive teacher training programs should emphasize the devel- and is directly linked to the quality of education. To opment of a well-rounded character, a moral con- ensure a high motivation for teachers toward teaching, 148 142 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS before anything else, increasing their monthly salary level increase provisions of materials and means involved in is crucial. At the least, the salary schedule, allowances, and teaching. Teachers should also be encouraged to partic- fringe benefits should be adjusted to be competitive with ipate in the decision-making processes related to school those of other occupations. To raise the social and eco- management since their experiences with teaching and nomic status of teachers, special legislative actions are in its related activities form a pool of ideas to be drawn on. order. The PCER and KFTA have recommended the enact- Efforts also should be intensified to secure financial sta- ment of special legislation, known as the Act for Attract- bility in order to meet the additional financial require- ing Qualified Teachers. Japan is a case in point. In 1974, ments needed for salary increases and for reducing the the Japanese Government enacted similar legislation and workload of teachers, and so on. salary levels have improved remarkably as a result. During the last five decades, teacher training and Finally, administrative and financial support is also professional development policies in Korea have been needed. Autonomy should be granted to schools to affected by the surrounding social context, especially by encourage teachers to plan and solve their ownprob- the top-down, rigid, political management system, and lems outside central control. The MOE and BOE should also by economic conditions. The rigid control in par- delegate as many of their functions and powers as pos- ticular resulted in uniformity in all areas of teaching pol- sible directly to schools and teachers themselves. icy, such as teacher preparation, recruitment, licensing Traditionally, the custom has been for Korean edu- and promotion, in-service training, and administrative cation administration to work from a centralized, author- system. Economic conditions directly influenced salary, itarian model, but their function should instead be one teaching conditions, and so on. With the fast-approach- of support. To provide adequate support, efforts should ing 21st century in view, feasible alternatives and strate- be made to train professional administrative personnel, gies for professional competence of teachers should be to introduce updated management techniques, and to developed and implemented. Teacher Training and Professional Development in Malaysia

Submitted by: Teacher Education Division, Ministry of Education

CONTEXT level with five credits; PostGraduate Diploma in Educa- tiona recognized first degree with "0" level certificate. Definitions Categories of Teachers: Based on academic qualification. Table 9.1 provides information for definitional purposes. Recruitment of Teachers: 1. Applicants sit for teachers' qualifying test. Educational Systems and Student Population 2. Those who pass attend an interview. 3. Selected applicants undergo a 2.5 year training The educational system can be described as follows: program (Basic Course). For postgraduates, the training program is one year. Both courses Primary Schooling: 6 years include a semester of practicum. Lower Secondary: 3 years 4.After graduation teachers are placed on proba- Upper Secondary: 2 years tion from 1 to 3 years before being confirmed as Upper Six ("A") level): 2 years qualified teachers. 5. Teachers are trained for regular academic Enrollment of students in government schools is: schools and also for vocational and technical schools. Preschool: 26,000 Primary School: 2,705,966 Characteristics of Teaching Employment Secondary Schools: 1,449,873 Nongraduate teachers stc:-ting salaries: RM592.00-RM 1,740.00. BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE Graduate teachers starting salaries: RM 1,075.00- RM2,979.00. Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession Benefits: Accrue to all qualified teachers, and include medical, housing loans, and car loans. Age limit for training: Basic Course-27 years old and Pension: All qualified teachers are pensionable below; PostGraduate Diploma in Education-35 years and are considered government employees. old and below; Gender (Intake)-60 percent Female; Teachers' Unions: Included by the government in 40 percent Male. discussions relating to teachers' welfare, but with no Level of academic attainment: Basic Course"O" direct influence on the decisions taken.

143 1u0 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 144

TABLE 9.1 Definitions of Schooling in Malaysia Type and Level of Education In Terms of AgeRange Typically, Required to Teach at This Level How Do You Define: Grade/Levels of Students 4-6 years Trained & untrained "0" level Preprimary schooling Preschool Trained & certificated Years 1-6 6-12 Primary schooling teachers"0" level Bachelor's Degree plus 1 year Post Forms 1-5 13-17 Secondary schooling Graduate Diploma in Teaching or Certificate of Teaching plus Bachelor's Degree Bachelor's Degree plus 1 year Post Full certificate and statement 18-20 Postsecondary Graduate Diploma in Teaching or (Form Six & matriculation) Certificate of Teaching plus Bachelor's Degree Bachelor's Degree plus 1 year Post Excellent, credit pass and fail 20-35 Preservice teacher preparation Graduate Diploma in Teaching or Certificate of Teaching plus Bachelor's Degree

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF Foster social consciousness Cultivate competencies in effective communica- TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS tion regarding Characteristics of Promote international understanding Teacher Preparation Institutions politics, ecology, cultures, and mankind

Teachersare trained according to leveland subject; that The qualities that are fostered among teacher is, for primary and secondary schools,and also for the trainees are the improvement of knowledge,skills, and various subjects. attitudes in the profession.and academic fields of the All teacher preparation programs are conducted teaching profession. by the government, and all costs are borne bythe government. The annual expenditure for theTeacher Train- Academic Preparation Prior to ing Division is approximatelyRM214,314,802.68. Preservice Teacher Education

Policy Guidance Basic Course: Candidates who are ofsound physical and mental abilities, and who possess the necessary The Teacher Education Division of the Ministryof Edu- number of subject credits from the National Examina- cation is the main agency responsible forthe training of tion ("0" Levels). all types of teachers. Post Graduate Diploma in Education:Candidates who are of sound physical and mental abilities,and who Accreditation/Approval possess the recognized necessarydegree qualification in the subject area of training, and "0" level education. All teacher preparation programs come under govern- Factors given weight in candidate admittance are ment supervision and are conducted at government academic excellence, co-curricular and specialachieve- teacher training colleges and universities. ments, communication abilities, andpersonality traits. Allocation and number of intake for teachers annually NATURE AND CONTENT OF into teacher training colleges are based onteacher TEACHER PREPARATION requirements, determined by government agencies.

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System Differences in the Nature and Content of Teacher Preparation Programs Strive toward national unity fol- Develop national pride and identity Teacher Education in Malaysia is organized at the Uphold democratic ideas and ideals lowing two levels: 151 9 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA 145

University: Conducting one-year Post Graduate with practicum during the training course, as well as on- Diploma in Education courses and the four-year Bach- site practicums for the last semester. During the on-site elor of Education Program. practicum of one semester, teacher trainees are sup- Teacher training colleges: 2.5 years of Basic Pri- ported by teacher mentors at school sites and by teacher mary Teacher Training; 2.5 years of Basic Non-Gradu- trainers, inspectorates, and other relevant agencies on a ate Secondary School Teacher Training; and one year of regular basis. Post Graduate Diploma in Education courses. Professional Development Opportunities Linkages Between Curricular Standards for Teacher Education and Teachers are given incentives to participate in a multi- Curricular Standards for Students ple in-service program provided by state education departments, by teacher training colleges, and by the The centralized system of education in Malaysia requires Professional Division of the Ministry of Education and the linking of the Teacher Education Curricula to the Universities. In-service programs also provide scholar- national schools' curricula (primary and secondary). ships for teachers to follow master's and Ph.D programs. Linkages are made via national curriculum bodies at the policy and implementation stages. POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR TEACHER PREPARATION AND LICENSING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Authority to teach: It is required for all teachers to be Democratization of education in Malaysia has brought registered with the Teachers alai Schools Registration about the necessity of providing enough teachers in all Division, Ministry of Education. Confirmation of per- schools. In the short term, teacher training colleges have mission to work within the Public Service (civil service) to stretch their resources, in terms of both manpower requires that teachers undergo a probationary period of and financial support. one to three years, after which they are confirmed in the In order to fulfill the requirement for trained teach- service as qualified teachers. ers, teacher training colleges have embarked on a dou- Licensure waived: Due to teacher shortages, ble intake program, in terms of numbers taken into train- attachment teachers, that is, teachers who have not ing, and a restructuring of the teacher training curricula. undergone teacher training programs, are recruited. In the next five years, it is foreseen that the teacher training colleges will be addressing issues of quantity in teacher output, while upgrading quality ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT through innovative training programs.

Induction or Transition Processes For primary and secondary nongraduate teacher trainees, there is an induction program that commences 10 Teacher Training and Professional Development Practices in New Zealand

Submitted by: Ministry of Education

New Zealand is a country of nearly 3 1/2 million peo- almost from birth to death. The Education Act of 1989 ple. It has been populated by Maori for over a thousand provides a state system of free, secular education for all years and by Europeans for nearly two hundred years. children between the ages of 5 and .19. In addition, the Today, most New Zealanders are English-speaking government operates a study right scheme to enable Europeans. The indigenous Maori comprise the second students to continue with tertiary education. largest group. At the last census (1991), Maori made up The education system involves a comprehensive 14 percent of the population and numbered 155,947. range of early childhood services; 13 years of school- The New Zealand Maori population is consider- ingcomprising 8 years of primary schooling and 5 ably younger in age structure than the total population: years of secondary schooling; the provision of post-sec- 37.5 percent of Maori were under 15 years of age at the ondary education through universities, polytechnics, 1991 census, compared with 23.2 percent of the total colleges of education, and private training establish- population. This youthfulness is reflected in the per- ments; and transition education, community education, centages of Maori in primary (over 21 percent) and sec- adult education, nonformal education, and distance ondary (17 percent) schools. education opportunities and provisions. The next largest group comprises peoples from Since the late 1980s New Zealand education has the Pacific Islands. Since the 1960s, this group has expe- been characterized by comprehensive education rienced the fastest growth rate of all ethnic groups in reforms affecting all education sectors and institutions New Zealandfrom a population of just over 14,000 in throughout the country. There have been substantial 1960 to an estimated 150,000 today. Like the Maori, the changes to the administrative structures, together with Pacific Islands population is significantly younger in age comprehensive new national curriculum and qualifica- than the total New Zealand population, with 38.7 per- tions frameworks. Successive governments initiated the cent of Pacific Islanders under 15 years of age at the reforms to achieve higher educational performance 1991 census. standards, increased participation rates, greater effi- In more recent years, increasing numbers of peo- ciencies, more decentralized decision making, and ples from Asian countries have come to settle in New greater emphasis on meeting both the nation's eco- Zealand. Table 10.1 shows the ethnic composition of the nomic and labor market needs and its community population, 1936-4991. needs. (See Appendix 10.A, The New Structure of the Education is available to all New Zealanders New Zealand Education System.)

153 147 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 148

TABLE 10.1 Ethnic Composition of the Population-1936-1991Censuses

Pacific Is. Chinese Indian Fijian Other Census Tot. Pop. Maori* Polynesian 2,943 1,200 1,486,355 1936 1,573,812 82,326 988 4,940 1,554 1,594,901 1945 1,702,298 98,744 2,159 5,723 2,425 1,812,024 1951 1,939,472 115,676 3,624 6,667 3,087 479 2,018,575 1956 2,174,062 137,151 8,103 8,333 4,027 746 2,220,452 1961 2,414,984 167,086 14,340 9,982 6,655 1,323 2,431,529 1966 2,676,919 201,159 26,271 12,470 7,140 1,147 2,573,542 1971 2,862,631 227,414 40,918 14,860 9,247 1,548 2,772,339 1976 3,129,383 270,035 61,354 19,248 11,580 1,908 2,774,052 1981 3,175,737 279,252 89,697 20,259 12,483 2,127 2,877,421 1986 3,307,084 295,659 99,135 19,566 12,126 1,875 1986* 3,263,283 295,317 91,869** 2,842,530 37,689 26,979 2,760 2,859,825 1991* 3,373,929 323,493 123,183** origin. Those specifying themselves as half or more NewZealand Maori, plus those not specifying the degree of *Usually resident population. **Comprises Samoans, Tongans, Cook Islanders, andNiueans.

systematically audit CONTEXT Its responsibility is to regularly and and review the performance of all registeredschools require- Definitions and licensed early childhood centers against ments set out in legislation,charters, agreements, and Tables 10.2 and 10.3 provide information fordefinition- other policy directives. (NZQA): al purposes. New Zealand Qualifications Authority The New Zealand Qualifications Authorityis a Crown entity established under the EducationAmendment Act Education Administration of 1990. The two central purposesof NZQA are to Framework, built Virtually every aspect of the administration ofeducation establish the National Qualifications the quality delivery in New Zealand has been reviewedin the last five on defined standards, and to ensure Framework.2 The years.' As a result of the reforms, thefollowing educa- of those standards on the basis of the qualifications are tion agencies have been established. NZQA also ensures that New Zealand recognized overseas, and that overseasqualifications are recognized in New Zealand; and it administersnational CentralAgencies. secondary and tertiary examinations. Ministry of Education: The Ministryof Education was Teacher Registration Board: The Teacher Registra- under the Educa- established in 1989 as a department of stateunder the tion Board is a Crown entity established of teachers. It does State Sector Act of 1988. It isresponsible for providing tion Act of 1989 to maintain a register teachers will policy advice to the government on all aspectsof edu- this by determining the policies under which and issu- cation, from early childhood to tertiary,for overseeing be able to be registered, approving registrations teacher's name the implementation of approved policies,and for ensuring practicing certificates, deciding if a boards ing the optimum use of resourcesallocated to education. should be removed from the register, and providing Education Review Office: The Education Review of trustees with the names of de-registered teachers. All of the Office was also established in 1989 as anindependent Four service pr oviding organizations: Crown department of state under the State Sector Actof 1988. four service organizations were established as

'The reforms are spelt out in a series of governmentpol- (school sector),1988; icy documents: Tomorrow's Schools 2Quality is defined by the authority as "the totalityof Before Five (early childhood education), 1988; Learningfor that bear and training), features and characteristics of a product or service Life One and Two (postcompulsory education on its ability to satisfy stated orimplied needs." 1988 and 1989. 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 149

TABLE 10.2 Overview

Type of Institution Levels AgeRange Type/Level ofEd. Required to Teach

PREPRIMARY SCHOOLING Early Childhood N/A Before 5 A range of education and qualifications, including Diploma of Teaching (Early Childhood)1 PRIMARY SCHOOLING J1 -F2 (Y1-8)2 5 to 12 Diploma of Teaching (Primary) (there is a growing trend toward a university degree) COMPOSITE SCHOOLING (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY) Area 11-F5/7 5 to 16/18 (Y1-11/13) SECONDARY SCHOOLING F3-7 (Y9-13) 13 to 16/18 University degree or diploma in subject specialty or in education, Diploma of Teaching (Secondary) POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION (PSET)(L1-8)3 AND TRAINING University L4/5-8 16 plus Advanced PSET degree or diploma in area of specialty PRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION College of Education L2-7 16 plus Education degree or diploma, or other university degree or diploma in area of specialty; teaching experience

'The Diploma of Teaching is not a required qualification; however, an increasing number of early childhood servicesare preferring to employ staff with a diploma. 2The traditional (usual) nomenclature for primary schooling is J1 -3 (junior) for the first threeyears (13 and S1 are interchangeable); S2-4 (standard) for the next three years; and Fl&2 (form) or 55&6 for the final two years. A new nomenclature, basedon years for all of schooling (Y1-13), is being considered. 3National Certificate levels.

entities under the Education Act of 1989, and are char- It has the responsibility for payment of ancillary staff tered to the Ministry of Education. They are the Early salaries and allocation of funds for the operational activ- Childhood Development Unit (ECDU), which promotes ities of the school. Since January 1, 1993, it also has the development and provision of quality, accessible, and responsibility for the payment of senior management staff culturally appropriate early childhood services; the Spe- salaries. The board must ensure that there is a written cial Education Service (SES), which provides quality ser- charter of aims, purposes, and objectives of the school vices to assist those learners from early childhood to ter- approved by the Minister of Education. The school char- tiary who have special educational and developmental ter includes the National Education Guidelines and local needs; the Careers Service Rapuara (CSR), which has the goals and objectives that reflect the particular aspirations role of providing advice and information that helps peo- of individual schools and their communities. ple choose the work, education, and training that suits Tertiary Councils: Each university, polytechnic, them; and the Education and Training Support Agency and college of education is controlled administratively (ETSA), which develops and administers training to sup- by a council, which represents the interests of staff, stu- port individuals preparing to enter or reenter the work dents, relevant education groups, the community, and force, or who are participating in work-based training. the Minister of Education. Education Service Centers: Fourteen independent Other Administrative Bodies education service centers offer a range of administrative services to schools, such as school transport, payroll, Boards of Trustees: All state primary and secondary and property services. schools in New Zealand are governed by a board of trustees. Members of a board include those elected by parents of students enrolled at the school, the principal, THE EDUCATION SECTORS and a staff representative. Secondary school boardsmay also have a student representative. Along with many other countries, New Zealand has Each board of trustees has a large measure of well-developed systems providing for early childhood, autonomy in its control of the management of the school. primary, secondary, tertiary, community, and transition 155 TABLE 10.3 Educational System and Student Population,1 July 1992

No. of Students No. of Teachers Completion Rates (%) Type of Institution No. of Institutions 135,732 EARLY CHILDHOOD 3,336 centers 38,734 3,739.35 Licensed Childcare Centers 852 20,601 1,237.24 Playcenters 578 45,603 1,521.74 Kindergarten 582 12,617 N/A' Kohanga reo 719 3,682 N/A PI Language Nest 170 9647 3,054.94 Funded playgroups 334 3,470 88.77 Home-based 72 397,100 19,645.52 100 PRIMARY 2339 135,916 7,040.4 Full primary 1152 197,175 9,486.7 Contributing primary 954 56,951 3,118 Intermediate 148 7,058 422.2 Private 85 COMPOSITE (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY) 9,860 692.8 Area schools 39 10,852 11,501.1 Private 30 10,845 372.2 Correspondence 1 227,912 16,3703 1st yr 98.8 SECONDARY 339 2nd yr 96.9 242 194,416 State F3-7 3rd yr 88.7 57 22,785 State F1-7 4th yr 75 19 10,196 State F3-7(with AT)4 5th yr 55 21 6,195 463.9 Private 6th + yrs 05% MAORI MEDIUM SCHOOLS 510 Kura Kaupapa 13 13,843 Primary schools 250 795 Composite schools 15 2,278 Secondary schools 40

POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION 58,745 (FT)6 3,521 (FT) Universities 7 34,437 (PT)6 1,339 (PTE) 33,589 (FT) 3,956 (FT) Polytechnics 25 65,057 (PT) 3,917 (FT) 5,583 (Fr) 560 (FT) Colleges of Edn. 5 4,732 (PT) 138 (PT) 913 Private Training Est. 7 17 6,094 584.4 Special schools8 59 2,124 Home schooling-primary Home schooling-secondary 454 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION TOPs9 15,045 49,782 State schools 4,407 Universities 39,672 Polytechnics 1,114,680 TOTAL '6,160

'Not available. 2State only: 16,812 regular, 1,525 reliever, 3,942 part-time. 3State only: 12,491 regular, 621 reliever, 3,258 part-time. 'With attached intermediate. 6Full-time. 6Part-time. rrhere are currently many more establishments than thesenumbers. 8lncludes hospital schools and health camps. 9Training Opportunities Programmes. Of these, 72 percent Note:Comment on Primary figures: Three quarters (77 percent)of primary and intermediate staff held permanent positions. for 91 percent of these positions. The were women. Relief and part-time teachersmade up 15 percent of the staff, with women accounting filled by provisionally registered teachers (i.e., first- andsecond-year teachers) remaining 7 percent of primary and intermediate positions were employ four times as many staff as do schools in rural areas. of whom 83 percent were women. Schools in main urban areas overwhelming major- In the 11 years prior to 1 March 1993, 108 state orintegrated schools closed, 107 of which were primary schools. An Southland education district. ity of school closures were in rural areas (97 schools),and the largest number of schools were closed in the schools, the majori- In the 11 years prior to 1 March 1993, 42 state orintegrated schools opened. Almost half were kura kaupapa Maori ty of which have been established in the last 4 years.

150 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 151

TABLE 10.4 Comparison of the Number of Students in State, Private, and Correspondence Schools, 1981-1991

1981 1991 Change

Number Percent Number Percent 1981-1991

State 648,488 90.3 678,101 95.9 30,387 Private 66,977 9.3 24,387 3.8 -42,590 Correspondence 2,342 0.3 2,285 0.4 -57 education. The Education Act of 1989 provides for free The mainproviders of early childhood care and education in state primary and secondary schools and education are kindergartens, playcenters, childcare cen- attendance is compulsory until the age of 16.3 ters, home-based day care schemes, Early Childhood On July 1, 1992, there were 664,408 students Development Unit (ECDU) funded playgroups, Pacific enrolled at schools it New Zealand, the first significant Islands Language Groups, and Te Kohanga Reo, which total increase since 1986 (672,040), and the first increase are based on total immersion of children from birth to in primary school rolls since 1977. The large majority of school age in Maori language, culture, and values. students attend state primary and secondary schools. A Early childhood services are subsidized through small percentage enroll at private schools (see Table sessional payments to providers, on the basis of the num- 10.4). Parents are also able to educate their children at ber of children enrolled. The increase in government home, provided that a standard of education similar to funding available to early childhood education since 1988 that available in state schools is maintained. Children has stimulated an increase in the number of places avail- living in very remote areas, or unable for other reasons able. In 1988, there were 2,570 centers. In 1992, this had to attend an ordinary school, may be enrolled in the increased to 3,336. In 1988, the number of children Correspondence School, which is a national distance enrolled was 94,677. By 1992, this had grown to 135,732. education provider. Lessons are provided in print and Today, 46.6 percent of all New Zealand children aged on tape and video modes. one to four yearsincluding most three-year-olds (73.2 Primary and secondary schools are required to be percent) and nearly all four-year-olds (92.7 percent)are open each year for at least 396 half days and 380 half enrolled in some form of early childhood education. days, respectively. The school year usually starts at the Figure 10.1 and Table 10.5 show, respectively, the beginning of February and finishes in mid-December, distribution of early childhood education enrollments on and is divided into three terms. The first term usually July 1, 1992, and the percentage of an age group commences on the 5th Monday of the year, the second enrolled at an early childhood service, 1990-1992. term in May on the 21st Monday, and the third term in September on the 37th Monday. The major holidays Primary Education occur in May, August, and December-January, and primary schools have a one-week, mid-term break in the Primary education is compulsory from six years of age, second term, usually during the first week of July. but nearly all children start formal schooling on their fifth birthday and receive eight years of education Early Childhood Education before moving to secondary school. The first three years are spent in junior classes schooling (J1-3), the next Most New Zealand children begin their formal educationthree in middle primary (S2-4), and the final two years before primary school. Early childhood education is as senior primary or intermediate (S5&6/F1&2). Class available to children under five years of age through a promotion is not based on academic performance. Chil- wide range of services, most of which are administered dren generally move from one standard, or form, to by voluntary agencies with government assistance. Ser- another with their age group, a practice generally vices do not differentiate between core and education. known as social promotion. The typical New Zealand primary school enrolls children between the ages of five and twelve (full primary) or between five and ten (contributing). The final 3Most aspects of primary and secondary education are free, funded by the state from general taxation. Parents must two years of primary schooling, forms one and two, meet some costs for items such as exercise books and other may be taken at a full primary school (new entrants to materials. form 2), an intermediate school (forms 1 and 2), an area TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APECMEMBERS 152

Preschool Classes (State Schools and Homebased Services 3% Correspondence School) 1% Pacific Island Language Nests 3%

ECDU Funded Playgroups 7% Kindergrutens 33%

Kohanga Re* 9%

Playcentres 15%

Licensed Childcare Centres 29%

FIGURE 10.1 Distribution of early childhood education enrollments as of 1 July, 1992.

TABLE 10. 5 Students who have completed eight years of pri- Percentage of an Age Group Enrolled at an Early mary schooling are normally admitted to asecondary Childhood Service school, most often at age13.Students are legally obliged to remain at school until their sixteenth birthday. Age 1990 1991 1992 Nearly all complete three years of secondary education. However, a substantial majority of students today Under 1 year 9.4 8.6 10.8 remain at school beyond their sixteenth birthday. In 22.7 1-2 years 18.1 19.1 1993, of the cohort starting in form 3 (Y9), nearly 85 2-3 years 34.4 34.7 37.7 3-4 years 71.5 71.4 73.2 percent were still at school at the end of the fourth year 4-5 years 95.5 92.2 92.7 (F6), and 52 percent for the following fifth year(F7) over three times the percentage continuing toform 7 in 1983(17percent). It is expected that retention rates in the senior secondary school will continue to rise. school (new entrants to form7),or a form 1-7 school, depending on where a child lives. Schools with fewer than 150 pupils make up 55 percent of the primary and The School Curriculum intermediate schools. The primary rolls as of July1, 1987-1992,and the The Ministry of Education is responsible for developing projected rolls for1993-1997,are shown in Figure 10.2. and setting the national curriculum objectives for New Zealand schools. Boards of trustees, principals, and teachers in schools are required to meet and follow the Secondary Education objectives as part of their charter obligation. The nation- Secondary education starts at form 3 and continues al school curriculum has for many years included a basic core of English, mathematics, science, socialstudies, through to form7.Nearly all secondary schools in New Zealand are part of the state system. Most are co-edu- music, arts and craft, and health education and physical cational. There is a small number of single-sex schools education for the years of compulsory schooling(J1-F4). and schools with a religious affiliation. At intermediate level, the curriculum also includes work- 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 153

470000 460000

450000 111.11, .2440000 430000 420000 410000 400000 390000

Year

Ill Actual Student Numbers Projected Number of Students

FIGURE 10.2 Primary rolls (infantsto Form 2) as of 1 July, 1992actual and projected.

shop craft and home economics. During their first two els one and two approximate what can reasonably be years of secondary schooling, students follow the expected of most students in the first four years of national school curriculum (see above), and also select schooling and levels seven and eight in the final post- a number of optional subjects, which frequently include compulsory two years. Teachers are expected to assess economics and second languages. For their final three and report students' progress in relation to these levels. years (F 5-7), students are encouraged to pursue a more specialized program of in-depth studies, choosing four Secondary School Attainments to six subjects from a wide range of options, most of which contribute to national qualifications. There are currently four national awards for senior Maori language and culture is taught widely in secondary school students: School Certificate, Sixth schools. Recently, as a result of Maori initiatives, state- Form Certificate, Higher School Certificate, and Uni- funded kura kaupapa Maori schools have been estab- versity Bursaries Entrance and Scholarship. The lished to improve Maori educational achievement and awards are approved by the New Zealand Qualifica- promote the Maori language. Kura kaupapa Maori teach tions Authority. the same syllabi as other state schools, except that Maori School Certificate: Subjects for School Certificate is the principal language of interaction and instruction. are taken by most students in their third year of sec- In April 1993, the government launched the New ondary education, most often at the age of 15. School Zealand Curriculum Framework (NZCF) as the official Certificate is awarded in single subjects. A student may policy for teaching, learning, and assessment in New take any number of subjects, with English a requirement Zealand schools. The framework describes a set of for all full-time students. Student achievement is credit- broad curriculum principles, seven essential learning ed with a grade from AE for each subject, where A is areas (language and languages, mathematics, science, highest and E lowest. Assessment of subject perfor- technology, the social sciences, the arts, and health and mance is by external examination, by internal school physical well-being); and eight groups of essential skills assessment, or a combination of both. (communication, numeracy, information, problem-solv- School Certificate is broadly equivalent to the ing, social and cooperative, self-management and com- British General Certificate of Secondary Education petitive, physical, and work and study skills). (GCSE) at grades AE; the British General Certificate in National curriculum statements for each of the Education (GCE) at 0 level; the British Certificate of Sec- learning areas are being progressively developed to spell ondary Education (CSE) at grades 1-3; the Canadian or out in more detail the knowledge, understandings, skills, United States Grade 10; and the Australian states year attitudes, and values that are described in the framework. 10 awards, School Certificate, Junior Certificate, or The curriculum statements include achievement objec- Achievement Certificate. tives set in eight levels to indicate student progress in Sixth Form Certificate: The Sixth Form Certificate learning throughout the years of schooling, where lev- is awarded on a single-subject basis to students who

1 5 `--) MEMBERS 154 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC have satisfactorily completed a course of one year Composite Schools beyond School Certificate level. It is a nationally moderated, internally assessed qualification, with no public Composite schools, most often comprising the consoli- examination. A candidate may enter a maximum of six dation of smaller rural schools, have been established subjects, one of which must be English. Grades are in the last 30 years in order to provide children in small- for secondary awarded by schools on the basis of student achievement er centers with an improved opportunity in each subject taken, on a scale from 1 (highest) to 9 education, enjoying the special facilities and more specialized teaching of larger schools. These rural schools (lowest). Sixth Form Certificate grades are recognized for provide education at both primary and secondary lev- entry to courses offered by polytechnics and collegesof els, either in the form of area schools (from junior to education and, to a lesser extent, by universities. form 7), or form 1 to 7 schools. It is broadly equivalent to a Canadian or United States Grade 11. Private Schools Higher School Certificate: The Higher School Certificate is awarded to students who have satisfac- In addition to state schools, there are a number of reg- torily completed five years of study at a secondary istered private primary and secondary schools run by school level, which includes an advanced course of religious or philosophical organizations, or by private one year beyond Sixth Form Certificate in atleast individuals. To be registered, a private school must com- three subjects. It is also awarded to students who have ply with national standards of accommodation, staffing, obtained an A or B Bursary qualification from the Uni- equipment, and curriculum set down in the Education versity Bursaries Examination (see below). The award Acts of 1964 and 1989. Some financial assistance is pro- is decided by schools on the basis of certain national vided by the state toward running costs and teachers salaries. The Private Schools Conditional Integration Act guidelines. University Entrance, Bursaries, and Scholarships: of 1975 has allowed for the voluntary integration of pri- This national qualification has been the recognized vate schools into the state system, without their surren- method of entry for study at a New Zealand university dering their special religious or philosophical character. since 1986. The national examination for these awards A large number of private schools (predominantly is most often taken by secondary students at the end of Catholic schools) have taken advantage of these provi- their form 7 year (though an increasing number of sions to become integrated schools. Independent (non- schools allow more able students to sit in form 6). It is integrated) schools are largely schools run by non- a competitive examination for supplementaryawards Catholic religious organizations. for study at a university. Outstanding achievement in individual subjects is recognized by the award of sub- Resources for Teaching ject scholarships, and may allow successful students to study at a more advanced level at university. Learning; Media Limited is frequently contracted to University Bursaries Entrance and Scholarship are undertake development, production, dissemination, and broadly equivalent to British GCE A levels; Canadian or promotion of resources for learningespecially of United States Grade 12; and in different Australian materials that document and support the national cur- statesyear 12 awards, Higher School Certificate, riculum for schools. Learning Media Limited is a com- Senior Certificate, Matriculation, or Secondary School mercial publishing company owned by the Crown. Its principal activity is the development, production, and Certificate. National Certificate: The New Zealand Govern- distribution of materials for students and teachers in ment has recently decided that it will reform senior New Zealand schools. It also publishes policy docu- secondary qualifications through the introduction of a ments for the Ministry of Education, the New Zealand comprehensive National Certificate within the Nation- Education Gazette, the video magazine Education al Qualifications Framework. The new qualification Update, and the School Journal. will be available at secondary and tertiary levels. In The Rural Education Activities Programme, estab- 1997, it is planned that the National Certificate will be lished in 1979, has the role of providing extra resources the sole nationally approved qualification for senior to isolated and sparsely populated rural areas. secondary school students, and that the Sixth Form The Reading Recovery Programme is an early inter- Certificate and Higher School Certificate will be phased vention program that provides intensive individual help out. School Certificate and University Entrance, Bur- to any child who is falling behind in reading and writing saries and Scholarships will remain, if in modified after one year at school. There are also specialist teach- form, as options outside the National Qualifications ers attached to schools throughout New Zealand, providing long-term assistance for children with serious read- Framework. id() 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 155

ing difficulties. Over 200 primary and secondary advisers 84,364 to 126,155an increase over four years of 49.5 are employed by colleges of education to provide advice percent (see Table 10.7 for participation rates by age and guidance to schools, and to run in-service courses and gender, 1981-1991). This improvement is expected for teachers throughout the country. to continue, reflecting higher retention rates in the senior secondary school, increased recognition by Special Education young people of the link between tertiary education and employment prospects, and the government's commit- Whenever possible, children with physical or other dis- ment to increasing the number of funded places in ter- abilities are enrolled with other children at regular early tiary institutions. childhood centers or in regular classes ai. their local primary or secondary schools. When necessary, buildings Universities are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist teachers. Specialist There are seven universities in New Zealand, located in assistance in helping children with special needs is pro- or near the major cities of Auckland, Hamilton, Palmer- vided mainly by the Special Education Service. ston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The There are residential schools that meet the needs universities are predominantly government-funded insti- of a small number of children with disabilities for peri- tutions and each offers undergraduate and postgradu- ods of time ranging from one term to several years. In ate degree programs. They award bachelor's, master's, addition, there is a small number of state day schools and doctoral degrees, and postgraduate diplomas. Some for students with intellectual and physical disabilities. offer undergraduate certificates and diplomas. There are also hospital classes that meet the needs of Entry to academic and professional programs children who are long-term patients. offered by New Zealand universities is open to all school leavers who meet prescribed minimum stan- Postsecondary Educator: n I Training dards of academic achievement in the senior school (forms 6 and 7), and to all adults (over 20 years). Uni- Formal tertiary education in New Zealand is provided versity Councils have the power to limit entry to spe- by universities, polytechnics, wanaga, colleges of edu- cific courses. cation, and private training establishments. Each university sets its own program, and each Until the mid-1980s, New Zealand had compara- university council sets the dates for terms or semesters. tively low levels of participation in tertiary education. Typically, the academic year runs from late February to Since 1988, successive New Zealand governments have early November. initiated far-reaching reforms of the tertiary sector to improve access to higher education. The Equivalent Full Polytechnics Time Student (EFTS) funding system was introduced in 1990, under which tertiary institutions are funded There are 25 institutions in New Zealand that are part according to the number of students they attract, though of the Polytechnic System, 18 in the North Island and 7 the overall budget is capped. Within course and cost in the South Island. They vary greatly in size, from the categories, institutions were given discretion to mount smaller institutions in regional centers to large metro- a range of courses of their choice, up to degree qualifi- politan organizations. The Open Polytechnic, situated in cation. In 1992, the Study Right policy was introduced, Lower Hutt, Wellington, provides distance education for providing a range of allowances, for tertiary students 16 25,000 students who cannot attend a polytechnic as full- years and over, and for secondary students 18 years and time students, offering over 800 courses spanning from over. At the same time, the Students Loans Scheme was certificate to degree level. established, under which eligible students can receive a Polytechnics provide a wide range of vocational, loan from the government to cover fees and course- professional, and community education at various lev- related costs, and for living allowances while studying. els of specialization to over 100,000 full-time and part- Tertiary institutions are able to set tuition fees to meet time students. Courses range from short courses teach- the balance of their costs. ing a specific skill or subject to three-year professional The success of these policies is reflected in the diploma and certificate courses. As a result of the recent improved proportion of 18-year-olds advancing into ter- education reforms, New Zealand polytechnics are now tiary educationan increase from 26 percent in 1985 to able to offer undergraduate degree programs. It is also above 45 percent in 1992 (see Table 10.6 for distribu- possible for polytechnic graduates to transfer credit to tion of tertiary students by sector and ethnic identifica- some university degrees, such as Commerce. tion, 1992). Between 1987 and 1992, the number of Typically, the polytechnic academic year runs equivalent fulltime students (EFTS) increased from from late February to mid-December. 161 1'4 TABLENumber 10.6 of Tertiary Students by Sector and Ethnic Identification as of 31 July, 1992 Ethnic Groups European/ Pakeha MaoriFemale Pacific Islands Female Male Asian Female Male Other Ethnic Groups Female Male StudentsOverseas Female MaleNot Specified Ethnicity Female Male FemaleTotal Total PolytechnicsUniversitiesSector Male40,60034,788 36,38336,627Female Male5,0592,852 3,7145,532 1,410Male 903 1,262 951 1,5421,950 1,9561,253 1,320 990 1,202 920 1,698 906 1,264 556 1,132 994 1,101 973 51,63944,495 47,00748,687 93,18298,646 TOTALEducationColleges of 76,960 1,572 82,012 7,002 8,176 265 10,024 778 2,397 84 2,493 280 3,502 10 3,262 53 2,334 24 2,244 122 2,146 7 2,151 21 2,501 20 1,841 77 98,116 1,982 104,027 8,333 202,143 10,315 162 16 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 157

TABLE 10.7 Participation Rates in Formal Education and Training Courses by Age and Gander, 1981-1991

1981 1991

Age Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) Male (%)Female (%)Total (%)

15-19 49.1 50.1 49.6 64.9 65.8 65.3 20-24 145.8 9.7 12.3 21.5 18.8 20.2

Colleges of Education Transition Education The training of teachers is carried out in seven institu- Secondary schools,polytechnics, and community tions spread throughout New Zealand. The main providers play important roles in providing transition providers are five independent colleges of education education and training. Schools encourage the integra- (situated in Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington, tion of transition skills development across the curricu- Christchurch, and Dunedin) and the School of Educa- lum. Polytechnics provide substantial and numerous tion at the University of Waikato. The seventh institution transition programs. Many programs are offered on con- is a regional polytechnic offering a single program for tract to the Education and Training Support Agency. primary teacher trainees. Numbers of community and private providers were All colleges provide programs that lead to a Diplo- involved in the provision of ACCESS courses, and now ma of Teaching in early childhood, primary, or sec- provide courses under the Training Opportunities Pro- ondary education. Other details about course programs, gramme (TOP). entrance requirements, and characteristics are provided All groups are represented in the Link program, in the following sections. which allows secondary students, while still at school, to undergo specialized vocational education and train- Private Training Establishments (PTEs) ing, or to experience the tertiary education sector. The Careers Service Rapuara has responsibility for the coor- A number of private training establishments are regis- dination and administration of Link. tered with the New Zealand Qualifications Authority. In 1992, for the first time, a small number of these received National Qualifications Framework funding from the Ministry of Education. The PTEs offer certificate and diploma courses and may, as a result of By 1997, it is envisaged that all nationally approved qual- recent reforms, offer degrees. There is a wide variety of ificationsin New Zealand for both schooling and PTEs offering English- language study, largely to over- postschooling, including degrees and advanced degrees, seas students. A small number of establishments receive will come under the umbrella of the new National Qual- funding to assist Maori teacher education. ifications Framework.4 The New Zealand Qualifications Authority has responsibility for developing the framework, Community Education which will regulate transactions between qualifications through a mechanism of eight levels, where level 1 is Community education is provided through a variety of broadly equivalent to form 5 studies and level 8 is the educational institutions and other groups. Secondary standard of an advanced graduate and diploma qualifica- schools provide both day and evening classes for adult, tion. The framework will allow students to take courses community, and nonformal education. Polytechnics also at different institutions, and with private providers. provide a wide range of community education courses The components of qualifications are units of and programs. All universities have continuing educa- learning based on clearly defined learning outcomes tion departments that provide seminars and short- and (unit standards). All learning seeking national qualifica- medium-term courses. A number of other organizations tion will be translated into unit standards, and assigned are also involved, for example, Workers' Educational Association, Adult Reading and Literacy Assistance, Par- ents Centre Federation, and Country Women's Co-ordi- 4For the moment, the university sector has decided that nating Committee. its qualifications will remain outside the framework.

164 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APECMEMBERS 158 to a level between 1 and 8. The unit standardswill con- than are those of electives) and advancing to anywhere tribute to one of three new nationally recognized quali- from two to several senior management positions. fications: a National Certificate for levels 1 to 4; a Nation- al Diploma for levels 5 to 7, including a first degree at Average Age university; and higher degrees/diplomas for level 8. In both primary and secondary sectors, the average age of teachers is rising. As of March 1, 1987, the largest BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE numbers of both genders in the primary service were in the 35-39 age group. As of March 1, 1992, the largest Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession numbers were in the 40-44 age group. Only 17 percent of permanent teachers at state primary and intermedi- Teachers comprise one of the largest groups in the ser- ate schools were under 30 years of age, and 24 percent vice industries in New Zealand. In 1992, there were over were over 50 years. 10,000 early childhood teachers, nearly 20,000 primary Male teachers continue to be slightly older, on teachers, nearly 17,000 secondary teachers, 13,500 ter- average, than female teachers. The average age formale tiary teachers, and a large number of paid and volun- teachers in the primary sector was 42.9, compared with tary teachers in other education services. 40.7 for women; and 42.1 and 41.5, respectively, in the The following analysis of the teaching profession secondary branch. (See Table 10.8.) is based largely on the characteristics of teachers in the school sector. Length of Service

Different Categories of Teachers Like other government employees, schoolteachers and college and polytechnic lecturers are available to work In the early childhood sector, there is a variety of work- to the official retirement age of 60 years. Male teachers, ers, both paid and voluntary. They cover a rangeof edu- in general, work for this length of time. The length of cation and qualifications, from those who have trained service for women teachers varies considerably. For and gained a diploma in teaching at colleges of educa- many, their service is interrupted by parental leave. As tionas well as a university degreeto those who are with other occupations, an increasing number of women untrained. Primary and intermediate teachers are trained are returning to the work force, either asfull-time or as generalist teachers able to teach a rangeof classes of part-time teachers. University lecturers have tended to students. from junior primary to senior primary, in most if have more flexibility to retire earlier or later than 60, not all areas of the curriculum. There are some specialist according to health or to other factors. However, recent teachers in intermediate schools. Secondary teachers are changes in the superannuation conditions will mean that trained and employed largely as subject specialists. an increasing number of teachers in all educationalinsti- Teachers in all sectors are also categorized accord- tutions are likely to continue teaching until 65. ing to their level of responsibility. The range of levels is generally in proportion to the size of the institution. Sec- Gender ondary schools, for example, usually offer a greater range of positions than do primary schools, with three/four iic proportion of teaching staff who are women has graded positions of responsibility allocated on the extent continued to increase in all sectors except secondary, of responsibility (usually heads of department of the core, where it has remained the same. The largest increase has or common learning areas are allocatedhigher positions been in colleges of education, where women in 1992

TABLE 10.8 Ages of Permanent Full-time Teachers in Each Branch, 1 March 1992

Primary Area Secondary

Women (%) Men ( %) Women (%) Men (%) Women (%) Men ( %)

29 years andunder 19 9 7 3 14 7 30-39 years 22 26 22 30 27 31 40-49 years 36 38 45 47 38 41 50 plus years 22 26 26 20 21 20 Mean Age 40.7 42.9 43.3 42.8 41.5 42.1

1. 6 3 10 I TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 159

TABLE 10.9 Percentage of Women Teachers in the Education Sectors, 1992

ECE (%) Pri (%) Sec ( %) Uni (%) Poly CoE ( %)

Total staff 98.2 76 51 26 48 60 Senior positions 95 52 39 13 36 47 were 60 percent of the staff, compared with 38 percent schools, and have higher success rates than do men in in 1987. In schools, women tend to hold a much higher most subjectsfor example, English (76 percent), phys- proportion of part-time positions (96 percent primary, 72 ical education (57 percent), and art (55 percent)but percent secondary) and relieving (or substitute) positions less success in science (41 percent), mathematics (43 (86 percent primary, 66 percent secondary), but not in percent), and social sciences (44 percent) (see Tables universities (31 percent part-time). 10.10 and 10.11). Women are less likely to hold senior positions than would be expected on the basis of their proportions in Recruitment and Employment of Teachers each of the sectors; for example, women were 51 percent of secondary teachers but only 19 percent of sec- As a result of the reforms that occurred in the school ondary principals (see Table 10.9)5. The general pattern sector at the end of 19896 and in the tertiary sector in is for the proportion of women to decrease as the level 1990,7 decisions relating to the training, recruitment, and of the position increases. Consequently, the salary levels appointment of teachers were decentralized. In addi- for women are on average below those of men (see section, responsibility for determining the numbers of pre- tion "Characteristics of Teaching Employment," below). service teacher trainees and for the recruitment of Though the percentage of women holding princi- trainee teachers was transferred to individual teacher pal's positions in schools is rising steadily (27 percent in training providers. 1992, up from 18 percent in 1987), the proportion of each Individual boards of trustees have been given the gender who hold principal positions has not changed in roles of recruitment, appointment, and performance the past five years (constant 3 percent for women, 31-32 appraisal of school teachers. On approval from the Min- percent for men). Furthermore, the proportion of appli- istry of Education, they were also provided with the cations from women for senior positions (at all age lev- opportunity to employ additional teachers over and els) is lower than would be expected on the basis of their above their ascribed staffing entitlement, using locally proportion in each branch. The proportion tends to raised funds and/or their operations funding. decrease as the level of position increases, with women As for most other positions, teachers are employed more likely to apply for lower positions. following written application and interviews. The proportion of applications from women is much higher for positions at girls' schools than for those Characteristics of Teaching Employment at co-educational schools (70 percent vs. 40 percent). In terms of location, schools in the main urban areas had the highest proportion of applications from women. In Average Salary Levels terms of subjects, women formed a higher proportion of applications for positions teaching English (61 per- Table 10.12 shoWs a sample of mean salaries for 1992. cent), dean (55 percent), and guidance (55 percent). In comparison, the average (ordinary time) annu- Women continue to have a higher success rate al wage for the New Zealand work force in 1992 was than men for positions at all levels of schooling; for approximately NZ$28,000. With overtime included, it example, women made 43 percent of the applications was approximately NZ$30,150 per annum. for senior secondary positions and comprised 56 percent of the appointees. Women are more likely to be successful when applying for positions in their current 6 Tomorrow's Schools, the Reform of Educational Admin- istration in New Zealand, Government Printer 1988; Admin- istering for Excellence, Affective Administration in Education., Government Printer, 1988. 5Women were principals of only 15 out of 220 state and 7 Learning for Life: Education and Training Beyond the integrated coeducational secondary schools (7 percent) and at Age of Fifteen, Government Printer, 1989 and Learning for Life none of the 44 boys' schools. Men, on the other hand, held Two, Education and Training Beyond the Age of Fifteen, Gov- six of the 49 principals' positions at girls' schools (12 percent). ernment Printer, 1989. 1Go 160 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 10.10 Tenure of School Teachers,1 March 1992Percentage of Each Position Held by Women

Permanent and Provisional (%) Part-time (%) Relieving (%) Total (%)

Primary Schools 73 96 86 78 Area Schools 52 76 78 60 Secondary Schools 45 72 66 51

TABLE 10.11 Tenure of Tertiary Teaching Staff 1 July, 1992Percentage of Each Position Held by Women

Full-time Part-time Total (%) (%) (%)

Colleges of Education 58 71 60 Polytechnics 40 57 48 Universities 24 31 26

TABLE 10.12 Mean Salary of Permanent Full-time Teachers in Each Branch, 1 March 1992

Women Men All Difference

Primary Schools NZ$32,828 NZ$39,008 NZ$34,495 NZ$6,180 Area Schools 37,411 42,186 39,727 4,775 Secondary Schools 41,025 43,640 42,474 2,615

In New Zealand, teachers are generally seen by the hierarchical differential between the various education community asa professional class, although not as high- sectors, in which teachers in the early childhood cen- ly regarded as doctors, lawyers, and accountants. As for ters receive the least, and those in university positions other professional groups, there is now a national regis- the most. New Zealand primary and secondary teachers ter of teachers who have fulfilled certain professional are not paid on a common salary scale. On average, a requirements, such as training accreditation and qualifi- primary teacher with the same qualifications and teach- cations (see section on "Licensing Requirements," below). ing experience, and doing similar tasks, receives about Education is a service of the state, which provides 10 percent less than her secondary teacher colleague. nearly all the funding from general taxation, including Regional and local salary incentives are occasion- teachers' salaries. While teachers are not civil servants, ally offered by boards of trustees to attract school teach- they are considered government employees. From the ers to isolated areas. Special offers of attractive condi- informal data available, it would appear that teachers' tionssuch as low-rent housinghave been used to salaries, in relation to those of other government encourage teachers to take up positions in remote areas, employees, have improved in the past decade but still or where there is an acute staffing shortage. Secondary lie below the mean. school boards occasionally offer incentives in the form In 1992, the average teaching salary for men was of higher positions of responsibility to attract staff in higher than that for women in all sectors. Gender salary areas of subject shortage. differences tend to widen as the seniority of the position increases, probably the result of underrepresenta- Employment Conditions and Salaries tion of women in the more highly paid, senior positions. Variation in salaries was also the result of differ- Since the beginning of 1990, there have been substantial ences in credentials/qualifications, teacher experience, changes in the legislation surrounding the determination levels of responsibility, and sector. There is a clear salary of teachers' salaries and conditions of employment.

167 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INNEW ZEALAND 161

The main changes have been the introduction of teacher/pupil ratios in primary schools improved over- individual contracts for secondary school principals, the all from 1:21.2 to 1:18.9. In secondary schools, the ratio passing of the Employment Contracts Act (1991), and improved over the same period from 1:17.3 to 1:15.7. the removal of senior management staff from the basic Since 1984 the government has employed an addi- scale rate. tional 1,456 teachers to improve the educational oppor- As part of the State Sector Act of 1988, the States tunities of children in their early years of schooling. Services Commission8 has been given the responsibility In order to assist the process of mainstreaming to negotiate with teacher unions the pay and conditions children with disabilities into ordinary schools, the gov- of all education services employees (other than princi- ernment, in June 1990, announced extra funding to pro- pals), in consultation with the representatives of the vide additional hours of teacher-aide employment. employing partythe Schools Trustees Association. In 1992, such negotiations were conducted for the first Patterns of Supply and Demand for time under the terms of the Employment Contracts Act. Teaching Positions The agreed conditions are set out in employment contracts negotiated under the system established by the The size of the teaching service is directly linked to Employment Contracts Act. demographic factors, primarily to changes in the size of As the legal employer of teaching and support the student population. As well as demographic factors, staff of education institutions, local boards of trustees the retention of the existing teaching force is influenced must comply with the terms and conditions of all teach- by political and economic change. Changes in the ing and nonteaching collective and individual contracts industrial relations environment have removed the abil- and salary scales, and must also observe the principles ity of any central agency, such as the Ministry of Edu- of the State Sector Act. cation, to take a direct role in planning and managing Section 79 of the act sets out the general principles teacher supply. Changes in retirement provisions are for a good employer. These are the same as for other also likely to have an influence on supply and demand state sector workers, and include good and safe work- in the teaching services. An extension of the age of ing conditions (including a clause on sexual harass- retirement resulting from changes in the eligibility age ment); an equal employment opportunities program; for superannuation will probably cause an increase in impartial selection of suitably qualified staff for appoint- the number of older teachers working in schools and, ment; recognition of the aims, aspirations, and employ- during a transition period, a reduction in the level of ment requirements of the Maori people; and opportuni- loss from the teaching service through retirement. As ties for the enhancement of the abilities of individual with other occupational groups, the implications of such employees (professional developmentsee below). The changes have not yet been worked through. Education Review Office has the function of regularly monitoring boards' performance in these areas. Loss Rates As noted above, teacher unions act as the agent for teachers on the basic scale in the annual national Economic instability and relatively high unemployment collective negotiations as regards salaries and conditions in New Zealand society have contributed to the trend of of employment. Teacher unions can take compliance the last two decades for teachers to remain in a school orders against boards of trustees who fail to meet the or institution for longer periods. The 1992 loss rates for "good employer" provisions of the act. Like workers in schooling were the lowest recorded for several years: other areas, teachers also have the alternative option of eleven years for primary service, six years for area pursuing a personal grievance under the Human Rights schools, and seven years for the secondary sector. The Commission Act of 1977, the Race Relations Act, or the loss rates were higher for basic scales positions than for Employment Contract Act of 1992, where the circum- senior positions, and the highest for teachers under 34 stances make this appropriate. years and over 55 years. Women and men had similar loss rates. The loss rates for 1992 were as follows: Other Conditions Primary: 10.3 percent In 1979, the govertunent introduced a class-size sched- Area: 12.4 percent ule of one teacher to 25 pupils in primary schools with Secondary: 8.7 percent rollsof below151.Between1982 and1988, The rates varied according to type and location of school. The main reasons for resignation were person- 8A department of state that has responsibility for indus- al, retirement, to take up another occupation, and over- trial relations in government agencies. seas travel. 168 162 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Turnover Rates Other sourcesPrimary: 78 percent Other sourcesSecondary: 70 percent For the past decade, there has also been a reduced turnover of staff in all schools, in response to falling Policies and Programs Instituted to Address Issues rolls and socioeconomic uncertainty. More teachers than of Supply or Demand previously are staying put. Mobility within services for 1992 was as follows: Current market trends tend to determine policy action. Funding and staffing in colleges of education were Primary: 10 percent reduced in 1993, partly in response to market forces. Area: 6 percent Increased numbers of new entrants to schooling in the Secondary: 9 percent next several years, predicted by demographic forecasts, may encourage the government to consider new poli- In 1992, of those primary teachers who had cies and programs. changed position, 30 percent had moved to another appointment within the same school, and over half to another school in the same education district.Insec- CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF ondary schools, half had moved to another position TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS within the same school, and 28 percent within the same district. Women were more likely than men to have Characteristics of moved to another position within the same school. As Teacher Preparation Institutions the seniority of the position increased, so did the proportion of moves to another district. The greatest mobil- Preservice education for teachers is provided in seven ity rates occurred for primary and secondary teachers institutions spread throughout New Zealand. The main aged 25-44. Primary teachers under 25 were the most providers are five independent colleges of education (sit- likely to move to a school in a different education dis- uated in Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington, trict. Secondary teachers under 29 were the most like- Christchurch, and Dunedin) and the School of Education ly to have moved to a different school within the same at the University of Waikato, all of which offer preservice district. training programs for early childhood, primary, and secondary teacher trainees. Furthermore, the five colleges of Recruitment of College Trainee Graduates education all offer conjoint degree/diploma in teaching courses with neighboring universities. The seventh insti- Until the early 1980s, both the primary and secondary tution is a regional polytechnic offering a single program school sectors relied heavily on the entry of newly for primary teacher trainees. Enrollments at colleges of trained young graduates from teacher education pro- education, by institution, are given in Table 10.13. grams of the colleges of education. Today, the large majority of recruits are either teachers who are trans- Governance ferring or those who have returned from retirement or overseas. Percentages in 1992 of new recruits to school Each college of education is an autonomous body, institutions were as follows: administratively and financially accountable to the Crown (government) through its Council. The chief Colleges of Ed/UniversitiesPrimary: 22 percent executive officer (principal) is responsible to the Coun- Colleges of Ed/UniversitiesSecondary: 30 per- cil for the running of the day-to-day activities of the cent college and for the quality of its education program.

TABLE 10.13 Preservice Education Enrollments at Colleges of Education, 30 April 1993

Institution Early Childhood Primary Secondary Total

Auckland 281 153 329 763 University of Waikato 174 709 112 995 Palmerston North 146 2187 52 2385 Wellington 255 810 33 1098 Christchurch 146 590 299 1035 Dunedin 154 693 41 888

163 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 163

Diversification of College Activities/Structures The main gain from off-campus programs accrues to the community in which the program is established. Colleges of education are experiencing a period of rapid Links with Universities: There is a move national- change as they explore ways of producing better teach- ly toward a much closer relationship between universi- ers and as they adapt to revised governmentrequire- ties and colleges of education, with a complete integra- ments for the management of tertiary institutions and tion in the case of Waikato University and the Hamilton the delivery of tertiary education. Among the important Teachers College.9 Conjoint degree/diploma programs changes are: with neighboring universities are run at all college cam- puses. All colleges are committed to degree programs Increased responsibility to manage their own for primary teacher trainees. affairs Of particular importance is the degree of consul- Bulk funding and financial accountability tation between colleges and universities in the teach- The movement of teacher support services to ing and administration of courses. In Auckland, for the colleges example, the program for the B.Ed. degree is jointly Closer affiliation with universities planned, written, and taught by university and college Revisions and changes in the content of training staff, with equal time given to university and college programs papers. Opportunities to diversify their operations Ministry of Education Contracts: Colleges are well suited to tender for Ministry of Education contracts relat- As a result, while primary teacher education is still ed to the school curriculum and to teacher profession- the main function of colleges of education, they have al development because of their expertise, regional diversified and taken on many other responsibilities and location, national coverage, infrastructure, and the net- functions as well. These developments have tended to work of schools associated with them. Contracts won increase the individual differences between the colleges by colleges are essentially of four kinds: in what they offer and in how they operate, differences influenced by size, geographic locality, and proximity For the development of a particular curriculum, to other education institutions (particularly to universi- for example, in science ties and polytechnics). Some of these activities are out- For assisting teachers in becoming familiar with lined in the following paragraphs. the new national curriculum statements Professional Development Courses: The addition For the development of resources in association of a teacher support service role has encouraged col- with the new curricula leges to offer a wide range of approved, after-hours, For other forms of teacher development, for advanced-study coursesfor teachersseeking to example, school management, or mainstreaming upgrade their professional skills and qualifications. On special education students. successful completion of courses, teachers may gain credit toward the Higher, or Advanced Diploma of The most important gains for the colleges are that Teaching, or toward a service increment. The Advanced staff have been put at the center of national curriculum Studies for Teachers Unit at Palmerston North College development, gaining a much closer liaison with both of Education caters to the continuing education of teachers in schools and the Ministry of Education. teachers, and of other adult learners, through distance Teachers are now looking more to colleges as a pro- education. fessional resource base. Teachers participate in these courses on their own Equal Education Opportunities: Fundamental to time outside classroom hours. A limited number of the health of New Zealand society is increased access study awards are availablefor teachers seeking for Maori students to education. Included in the range advanced qualifications in special education. of activities colleges of education provide to achieve Off-Campus Programs: Colleges of Education greater access are intensive Maori language courses, have established a number of off-campus programs to upgrading basic skills, kura kaupapa Maori courses, increase access to teacher training education for com- bilingual and immersion programs, and off-campus pro- munities and groups that previously have tended to grams. As part of their equity policies, colleges have a be excluded from formal training, and to fulfill the col- range of student support systems for Maori students. leges' charter objective of providing more equitable The growing number of Pacific Islanders in New access for Maori people to teachers' training. The most established of these programs is the Southland campus of the Dunedin College of Education, located in 9Since June 1991, all teacher education at Hamilton is Invercargill. now done in the School of Education of Waikato University. 164 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Zealand society, and especially in the school system, ments have the potential to make colleges accountable has encouraged some of the colleges, particularly Auck- for the quality of their teacher education "outputs," land, to develop programs appropriate to the learning although the full extent of such accountability is still needs and cultural styles of Pacific Islands communities. being worked through. College policies are set out in All colleges now have a staff member responsible charter mission statements and in goals and annual for equal educational opportunities. financial statements (see section "Goals of the Teacher Teacher Support Services: The former Advisory Ser- Preparation System," below). vice of the Department of Education (pre-1989) is now located in the colleges to operate as teacher support ser- Policies Guiding In-service Teacher Education vices. Over 200 primary and secondary advisers are curriculum specialists who have been appointed to assist For many years in New Zealand, continuing education teachers and schools with the implementation of the for teachers has been regarded as a professional respon- nationalcurriculum.Colleges have subsequently sibility. It is expected of all teachersboth permanent become more involved in local and regional curriculum and part-timethat they be engaged in the continual and teacher development. improvement of their practice. Entrepreneurial Activities with Overseas Clients: The structures underpinning teacher development Several of the colleges have entered into a number of were significantly changed on October 1, 1989. Changes ventures involving overseas students (most of them in school funding implemented as part of the school from Japan) and teachers (largely from the United administration reforms of 1989 have meant that 70 per- States). cent of the funds previously allocated for a centralized system of professional teacher development provision Relationship Between College Courses and School is now distributed to schools as part of their bulk oper- Learning and Teaching Experience ating grants. As a consequence, each school determines how much money to spend on teacher development College staff regularly evaluate their courses to ensure that and how the money will be spent. This has increased they are relevant to national curriculum needs and class- the scope for schools to undertake new and innovative room practice. Recent research generally supports their teacher development initiatives and to tailor teacher view that college courses satisfactorily prepare New development programs to their particular needs. The Zealand trainees for a career in teaching (see also section remaining 30 percent has been retained at the center "Nature and Content of Teacher Preparation," below). and is now disbursed through contracts let by the Cur- riculum Functions and Contracts Management Division Financing of Teacher Education Programs of the Ministry of Education." The Education Review Office has a mandate, as As noted in the first section above, the state is the sub- part of its assurance audit and effectiveness review of stantial funder of tertiary education in New Zealand. schools, to report triennially to the Minister of Educa- Tertiary institutions are able to set tuition fees to meet tion on each board's performance in this area.12 the balance of their costs. For 1994, colleges will be sub- The introduction of new curricula by the govern- sidized per EFTS to the sum of NZ$9,671, the equiva- ment is an important factor in setting priorities for pro- lent of approximately 5 percent of the total government fessional development activities undertaken by schools. funding for tertiary education. This amount constitutes a 25 percent reduction in the 1993 secondary trainee EFTS grant, and a 4 percent decrease to the 1993 primary trainee grant. Typically, student fees for 1993 were 10 "The annual financial statements shall be prepared in approximately NZ$1,700. accordance with generally accepted accounting practice and shall include ... (d) a statement specifying the financial 'per-per- Policy Guidance formance to be achieved by the Crown entity during the financial year; (e) ... a statement of objectives specifying the classes of outputs produced ... as established at the beginning of Policies Guiding Preservice Teacher Education the financial year ...; (f) a statement of service performance reporting the classes of output produced." Each college of education has the autonomy to devel- "Funds in addition to this sum are currently provided op its own policies within administrative and qualifica- by the government to support the implementation of the New tion guidelines, and within the government funding Zealand Curriculum. 12Written policies on teacher development are held by policies. As Crown entities, colleges of education are 62 percent of schools. The common format across all sectors bound by the Public Finance Act of 1989 to follow cer- includes a statement of rationale, purpose/goals, detailed tain financial reporting requirements.'° These require- guidelines, and conclusion.

171 165 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEWZEALAND

Teacher Professional Development Issues The New Zealand Qualifications Authority oversees the setting of standards as they relate toqualifica- Contextual issues affecting teacher development include tions, including teacher education. The Teacher Regis- the changing ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic profile tration Board determines the policies under which of the student population; changes in curriculum, assess- teachers will be able to be registered, and approves reg- ment, and qualifications; changes in public expectations istrations and the issuing of practicing certificates. of teachersaccountability, increased standards; and Chartered early childhood centers have an oblig- changes in the school/community contextmanage- ation annually to have a staff development program ment systems, parental choice, vocational pressures. approved by their management committees. School The aging of the teaching force creates challenges boards of trustees have a responsibility for ensuring that for teacher education. It is appreciated that the aging teachers at their school receive appropriate teacher edu- teacher work force needs to be carefully targeted for cation. They can determine the amount and scope of teacher development if the new curriculum is to be the budget set aside for teacher development. In pri- effectively implemented. mary schools, the board usually works withthe princi- Another. issue concerns the appropriate time when pal and staff to manage the teacher development pro- teacher development courses should be heldduring gram. In secondary schools, it is common forboards of or after school hours, or at vacation time.In New trustees to leave the management of the program to the Zealand, teacher development programs mostly take schools' professional staff. Tertiary councils are expect- place during the school year. Exceptions are courses run ed to provide for staff professional development. by the Teachers Refresher Course Committee and by ter- Tertiary institutions are providers of teacher tiary institutions for teachers during May, August, and development services. Colleges of education provide the summer vacations. There is no contractual mandate the major contribution through "advanced studics for or incentive to persuade teachers toattend such vaca- teachers" courses, training of associate teachers, semi- tion courses. nars on educational issues, research findings andtheir dissemination,holiday courses,running contract Agencies That Develop, Issue, Enforce, and teacher development projects, and their advisory ser- Implement Policies of Teacher Education vice role. Polytechnics provide teacher development through language and computer studies. Universities The Ministry of Education is responsible for providing provide development through their degree, diploma, policy advice to the government on all aspects of edu- and extension courses. cation, including teacher development, and for overseeing the implementation of approved policies. The Accreditation/Approval government has recognized the strategic importance of teacher development for the effective implementation Currently, accreditation of teacher education courses is of the new curriculum. It has made available NZ$5 mil- the responsibility of each college though its academic lion per annum over the ensuing years for teacher board and the New Zealand Council for Teacher Edu- development to assist the implementation of the new cation (NZ(; i h). Each college of education has an aca- curriculum statements;it also currently funds various demic board, usually comprising one or more members forms of teacher development, for example, NZ$7 mil- of the College Council, the chief executive officer, other lion bulk operation grant to schools (a component of senior members of the management team, and repre- which is expected to be used, but not tagged, for staff sentatives of the teaching staff. The academic board is development); over NZ$4 million per annum for cur- accountable to the council each year for the provision riculum and teacher development contracts; NZ$16.66 each year of a quality program. Before any course is million annual grant to colleges of education to support approved as part of the college program, it must be the cost of advisory services; NZ$340,000 to the Teach- submitted in writing to the academic board, setting out ers Refresher Course Committee for funding ofteachers its objectives, its relationship to the overall goals and attending vacation courses. program of the college, its content, assessment strate- The Ministry of Education budgets annually to gy and procedures, time and staff allocation, and bud- fund a range of teacher professional development pro- geted costs. grams to support the national curriculum priorities. It The procedures for course approval are common provides both curriculum and teacher development of to all colleges. The courses must be: about NZ$11 million annually. The central funds for teacher and school development are targeted at quality In line with college charters and goals (see sec- projects, with a view to their becoming models for tion "Goals of the Teacher Preparation System," schools to emulate or develop programs from. below)

172 166 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Responsive to government policy, including cur- of trustees as future employers of students riculum initiatives Appraisal of lecturing staff at the college and rel- Subject to scrutiny by community committees evant staff development representing subject experts, professional and Feedback information from research community groups, Maori and Pacific Islands communities, employers, and students Academic Preparation Prior to Integrated with other courses and with the total Preservice Teacher Education college program Informed by research Since 1989, colleges of education have been responsi- Subject to regular review ble for their own selection of students. Previously, all colleges were required to follow a national policy in the Once the council has agreed on what courses form of a quota, based on national, regional, and local should comprise the annual program of the college, the statistics of supply and demand, national priorities, and total program is submitted for approval to the Academ- social objectives. ic Programmes Committee of the NZ(..;i1.. Government funding for colleges today is still By 1997, it is planned that all courses of teacher based largely on EFTS projections in the light of known education institutions that lead to nationally approved current supply-and-demand data, national priorities, and qualifications will come under the National Qualifica- social objectives. However, colleges have the freedom tions Framework. To be registered, courses must be to recruit more than their EFTS quota if they have alter- subject to NZQA criteria for accreditation and quality native means for funding these students. For the last few management. Criteria for the registration of unit stan- years, all colleges have increased student fees to help dards for teacher education courses are currently being fund more places and activities. All colleges, to a greater developed. At this stage, it is uncertain what the precise or lesser degree, have become entrepreneurial, seeking outcome of NZQA accreditation requirements will mean to attract sponsorship and fee-paying (nonsubsidized) for the independence of colleges to design and accred- students from overseas. it their own teacher education programs. The need for a better educated workforce implies higher levels of professional competence in teachers at all levels. The National Recruitment and NATURE AND CONTENT OF Selection Committee (representation consists of senior TEACHER PREPARATION staff members from each college) was established by the New Zealand Council for Teacher Education in Goals of the Teacher Preparation System 1989.

Each college is responsible for setting out its goals and Early Childhood and Primary Teacher Education objectives in its charter. These are usually defined in terms of a mission statement related to purposes or Most students admitted for training for early childhood goals. In some cases, a statement of beliefs and values and primary teacher education are under 20 years of is added. A selection of college mission statements is age. The minimum academic entry requirement for provided in Appendix B. such students has been the satisfactory completion of 12 years of schooling and a qualification of 20 or less Quality Assurance in the best five subjects of Sixth Form Certificate (with a mark of five or better in English). Students with an It has always been the espoused goal of colleges of edu- equivalent overseas qualification may also be admit- cation to produce quality teachers. Their increased ted. Applicants 20 years or over at time of entry, with- autonomy is encouraging them - -and a more competi- out the above academic qualifications, must have evi- tive environment is forcing themto pursue this goal dence of recent/current study and/or recent relevant more vigorously. Important components of quality experience. assurance are: In recent years, colleges have been able to select from a larger and more highly qualified pool of people Changes in the selection process and in the than ever before, with the result that for primary teacher quality of students accepted for training education, colleges are increasingly taking students who The standards of work demanded of students have university experience or who have successfully throughout the course, and in order to graduate gained entrance to university. It is increasingly expect- as certified teachers ed of students pursuing primary teacher education that The consumer satisfaction of schools and boards they undertake a B.Ed. degree. 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 167

Secondary Education for training and appreciation of quality standards. Three- year programs for early childhood workers and teacher Students seeking a career in secondary teacher educa- trainees are operating in each of the colleges of education are expected to have completed a university degree tion. A B.Ed. degree for early childhood education has in their areas of specialty. recently been introduced. In addition, all colleges, and the Advanced Studies for Teachers Unit at Palmerston Other (Nonacademic) Criteria for Selection North College of Education and Massey University (through distance education), offer a comprehensive Besides having relevant academic qualifications, teacherprogram of early childhood equivalency courses for trainees are expected to have the right qualities, expe- people who are currently employed in early childhood riences, and potential to become good teacherssuch centers but who do not have the recognized trained as communication skills in English and involvement in teachers' qualification. cultural, sporting, social, and welfare activitiesand to have the kind of attitudes that affirm New Zealand's Primary Education equity and bicultural values. The normal course of training for primary teacher Selection Procedures trainees is a period of three years at a college of education, followed by two years of satisfactory teaching in While the selection process varies from college to college, a state primary school. This "Division A" course is still the following characteristics are largely common to all. the main route for students aiming to gain a diploma in teaching However, increasing flexibility in delivering There is wide representation on selection pan- courses has enabled colleges to offer their students els, for example, colleges' program committees, alternative pathways to complete their teacher training. School Trustees Associations, teachers' unions, Maori iwi. A four-year course has been available for a num- All members of selection panels receive at least ber of years for students who enroll for B.Ed. a half day's training in selection processes. degrees as well as for a diploma in teaching. There is some moderation across panels to This course is also campus-based.13 ensure a consistent selection process, with one For a number of years, colleges of education member sitting on all panels. have provided a shortened, two-year primary Some interviews take place on a marae, where preservice program for university graduates they can be assisted by local Maori elders. entering college, and, in some cases, for those Some colleges encourage applicants to bring a who have almost finished their degree. support group with them to the interview. In recent years, there has been some recognition of other forms of prior training and experience as credit toward the completion of a teacher edu- Nature and Content of cation course. In such cases, the length of course Preservice Preparation Curriculums is reduced, usually by six months, for those students who can pit ve to the satisfaction of the Each college designs its own program on the basis of its college that they have already fulfilled require- mission and goals, and of national and community expec- ments of the course.14 Colleges are presently tations. They all start from a common position of focus- working with the New Zealand Qualifications ing on learning outcomes that prepare a "good" teacher. Authority on the accreditation of prior learning. The program consists of a collection of courses, or units, which are first approved by an academic board on behalf of the College Council before the courses are forwarded to the Academic Programmes Committee of the New Zealand Council for Teacher Education 13If the current trend continues, the four-year B. Ed. will (NZCTE),. under delegated authority from the New replace the current three-year diploma course as the norm for Zealand Qualifications Authority. primary teacher education. 14However, accreditation of prior learning has its difficulties. Itis often not easy to clearly assess the range of Early Childhood Education knowledge, understanding, and skills of informal prior learning experiences, and to equate it with what is offered at col- Preservice early childhood education has developed lege. The task also places heavy demands on the time of col- steadily in recent years in response to growing demand lege staff. l'14 MEMBERS 168 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC

The number and range of courses among the col- Framework, and in the supporting national curriculum leges of education vary, as does 'he terminology used statements. to describe them. However, in all colleges' primary programs, some courses are compulsory,while others are Evaluation of Programs optional. There is a core of compulsory subjects, which is the same across all colleges. These subjects tend to A four-year longitudinal research project into New relate to the nationally prescribed core-curriculum areas, Zealand students' perceptions of their primary educa- which all trainees are expected to be competent to tion training has recently been completed by the New teach in primary-school classrooms. Electives, or option- Zealand Council for Education Research on behalf of al subjects, tend to relate to students' personal interests the New Zealand Council for Teacher Education. The and development, although students may also choose study affirms that the present New Zealand system of to take one or more optional subjects tostrengthen their primary teacher education is capable of producing com- skills in specific curriculum areas. petent beginning teachers. Despite some criticisms of Courses are broken down into major and minor son e courses, students were quick to affirmthe impor- subjects, the former being those subjects that students tant e of the central professional emphasis ofthe pro- take over their three-year course. gram: the focus on child-centered learning,the need for regular diagnostic assessment of children, the value of integrated approaches to primary school curriculum, the Teaching Practice in Schools merits of cooperative planning, and the need for on- All colleges recognize the crucial importance of stu- going, reflective self- evaluation.'5 dents' gaining practical experience in schools alongside able teachers. Thus, as an integral part of their training, Secondary Programs all students have a series of teaching practice "sections" (when they spend a period of time, usually four weeks) Two options are available to people who wish to train in a range of different types of schools. About one-third as secondary teachers. For graduatesand others with of students' training time is spent in schools. Primary approved advanced qualifications, there is a one-year trainees are attached to an associate, or tutor teacher ("Division C") course. Most secondary teachers have and class. They also spend regular, shorter periods in been trained by this route. People with University schools as part of various curriculum courses, for exam- Entrance or acceptable Sixth Form Certificate may be ple, the teaching of reading. accepted into a Division B course, which involves up to Colleges are regularly evaluating and improving four years consecutive or concurrent university and pro- the quality of implementing this practical component of fessional teacher training study. All colleges of educa- the teacher education program. The selection and tion provide both division B and C courses. preparation of associate or tutor teachers is of crucial importance. In Wellington, the Advanced Studies for Special Education Training Teachers course has been organized for associate teachers. It is hoped that eventually all associateteachers will Colleges also provide various courses in teaching peo- have this qualification. ple with special needs, with reading difficulties, and with visual or hearing impairments. Students who wish to become speech/language therapists enroll for a four- Toward a Graduate Primary Profession year Bachelor of Education (speech-language therapy) All colleges are committed to degree programs as the degree at the University of Canterbury. Postgraduate norm for primary teacher education. The processhas courses for teachers who wish to be trained as teachers been accelerated by the government's policy to raise of students with special needs are available at Auckland, primary teacher education and training to degree status, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch Col- andtoensurethatcolleges,whileremaining leges of Education. Specialist postgraduate training autonomous, become affiliated with universities and courses for teachers of the deaf and visually impaired facilitate integrated degree courses. are located in Auckland and Christchurch. There is also a postgraduate courbi.for bilingual (Maori/English) teachers available at the School of Education at the Uni- Links with Government Curriculum Initiatives versity of Waikato. In revising current courses and introducing new courses, all colleges are concentrating on the need to prepare their students to work with the new New Zealand Cur- 15 Windows on Teacher Education, Margery Renwick and riculum, as set out in the New Zealand Curriculum June Vize, 1990-93.

1 7 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 169

A number of colleges offer a nationally accredited oped a set of competencies each trainee should have to course for community workers in the field of disability. be a competent teacher. The move is a response to the The course was set up at the instigation of the New prevailing educational interest in measuring definable Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, and learning outcomes, especially skills development, which other service providers, to fulfill a training need. is being actively pursued by the New Zealand Qualifi- cations Authority 2nd the Teachers' Registration Board. Other Courses Each of the college courses has been scrutinized against these competencies, and restructured to focus on devel- The recent changes have encouraged colleges to initi- oping the competencies. An important role of the pro- ate a range of training courses, certificates, and diplo- fessional studies tutor is to assist students to develop mas to meet community needs, as exemplified in the various skills and competencies in the context of over- following situations. all professional development.

Since 1987, the Auckland College of Education Differences in the Nature and Content of has offered the "Introduction to reacher Training" Teacher Preparation Programs Access course, which is targeted at Mo.ori and Pacific Islands people over 20 years of age. The Because New Zealand is a relatively small country, with course is designed to better inform students of the a state education system, a national curriculum, and a teacher training opportunities that exist for early relatively coherent philosophical view of education that childhood, primary, and secondary education. focuses on child-centered learning and equity and Dunedin is preparing a package for community achievement objectives, it is not surprising that the pro- tutors to assist in the training of people who teach grams of the different providers are in some respects in the community, such as health educators. remarkably similar. They all seek to prepare their stu- Wellington has a small unit, the School of Train- dents for teaching in any part of the country. ing for Trainers, that offers skills-based training to It is also true, as already remarked, that there are staff training officers, training advisers and admin- significant differences in both emphasis and organiza- istrators, managers, and in-service educators. tion. As observed above, the increasing opportunities Palmerston North offers a certificate in educa- for colleges to diversify their activities and functions tional management. have tended to increase the individual differences Auckland has been conducting a summer school between the colleges in what they offer and in how they program since 1991 in such subjects as comput- operate. These differences are influenced by size, geo- er education, mainstreaming, and management. graphic locality, a community's ethnic mix, its proximity to other education institutions (particularly to univer- Assessment sities and polytechnics) and the collective and personal philosophies of its staff. Some of these differences have There have been criticisms in the past of the light work- already been commented on. load and the standard of work expected of students, and On the other hand, there are major centralizing of the methods used to assess student work. A recent forces at work that could, in the future, bring about survey of student perceptions of their teacher training even greater coordination and cohesion among the experience, carried out over a period of four years, con- providers of teacher education. The same government firms that these criticisms are still being aired by some.16 education reforms of the last five years, which deliber- However, all colleges believe that they are being ately brought about greater autonomy for the institu- more stringent in their standards of assessment. and in tions, have, in some significant areas, strengthened the an increasingly competitive market, are more prepared authority of the center. Lines of accountability to the to reject students they do not consider will make suc- state are now much stronger than they were previous- cessful classroom teachers. To be approved, all courses ly. The new qualification structures and arrangements must have clear statements on assessment procedures are already tightening up courses by providers in readi- and methods. Stronger links with universities are also ness for the day when all their programs will lead to encouraging more rigorous standards of assessment. All nationally recognized qualifications. The Teachers' Reg- colleges write profiles of graduating students according istration Board (TRB) has established clear guidelines to agreed-on guidelines. and criteria for trainee graduates to be provisionally reg- The Christchurch College of Education has devel- istered. And the New Zealand Council for Teacher Edu- cation, supported by improved communications and wider opportunities, is bringing together staff from the

16Ibid. various colleges to work collaboratively. 170 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Linkages Between Curricular Standards for Teacher good character and fit to be teachers. Since Education and Curricular Standards for Students March 1993, this includes vetting for civil or criminal convictions. As stated above, colleges of education are autonomous Teachers must prove they have been satisfacto- institutions. However, since their core service is to pre- rily trained to teach, having completed a teacher pare trainees for teaching in schools and childhood cen- educationqualification,whichhasbeen ters, colleges ensure that their programs closely take appraised and regarded as suitable for teaching into account national education policies and guidelines in New Zealand. relating to what takes place in schools, for example, cur- Teachers must reach a "satisfactory" standard of riculum, assessment, qualifications. All colleges have teaching, measured against listed criteria, and revised their programs to incorporate the new national judged by other experienced teachers. t7 curriculum emphasis. Teachers must undergo a supervised period of "internship" for two years, and be found satisfactory; if they are overseas teachers or New LICENSING REQUIREMENTS Zealand teachers returning after a lengthy break from the profession, they must be supervised for Initial Requirements at least three months to determine whether they are familiar with current curricula and proce- Registration is not a compulsory requirement for teach- dures in the general education system. ers in New Zealand. Few teachers in the early childhood Teachers must maintain the standards listed centers and tertiary institutions are registered teachers. above, and be able to prove that they have met On the other hand, employment by a school board of professional criteria for registration for two of trustees and acceptance as a professional teacher in the the past five years. state school system is virtually impossible without being registered. Boards of trustees, as good employers, are Teachers who successfully meet the criteria for expected to require their staff to register and to have registration are issued a Practicing Certificate by the current Practicing Certificates. Most private schools Teachers' Registration Board on payment of a small fee. require their teachers to be registered. Some teachers in The certificate is valid for three years from the date of tertiary institutions are also registered. issue. The registration system assists employers of teach- There are three categories of registration: ers by providing a minimum assurance of qualityand a continuing standard by which the minimum quality can Provisional registration for new entrants to the be measured. teaching profession, or for those teachers who have not previously been registered The Teachers' Registration Board Registration, subject to confirmation, for an experienced teacher from overseas, or for a New The Teachers' Registration Board is an independent Zealand teacher who has had some time away Crown Agency established under the 1989 Education from teaching Act with the following responsibilities: Full registration for a teacher who has, within To determine the policies by which teachers will the past five years, satisfactorily completed two be registered years uninterrupted employment as a teacher in To maintain a register of teachers New Zealand To approve registration of different categories and issue practicing certificates To move from provisional to full registration, a To decide if a teacher's name should be teacher must have completed a total of two years' con- removed from the register secutive teaching in an approved New Zealand educa- To provide boards of trustees with the names of tion institution, and be recommended by the principal teachers with canceled registration or head teacher of the school or institution employing

Requirements and Process '7A teacher is considered satisfactory who enables and encourages pupils to learn; has competence in the NZ cur- To become fully registered: riculum; has appropriate teaching techniques and pupil management skills; plans and prepares programs of work; and Teachers must undergo a formal application pro- contributes toward the work of the school or learning cen- cedure, which determines whether they are of ter/institution as a whole. 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 171 the teacher to the effect that he or she is a satisfactory or her by the board, and is thus no longer teacher for practicing in the New Zealand education deemed to be "of good character" or "fit to be a system. teacher" The responsibility for determining whether a When a teacher has resigned or been dismissed teacher meets the requirement for registration lies with because of competency proceedings initiated the principal or head teacher of the school and/or, in against him or her under the relevant employ- some cases, with the board of trustees. Examinations, or ment contract, and is thus no longer deemed to similar forms of testing, are not used in making an be a "satisfactory teacher" assessment of a teacher's competency. For each case, the TRB will appraise the informa- Universality of the Practicing Certificate in New tion and decide whether to proceed, or ask for more Zealand Education information. In the case of his or her removal from the register of teachers, a teacher has the right to appeal to There is no sector differentiation, and no subject or geo- the High Court against the TRB decision. graphical variation in the registration of teachers in New Zealand. A teacher who is registered is deemed satis- Status of Qualifying Conditions factory to teach and can apply for teaching positions in a primary or secondary school, in an early childhood Because it is not legally binding for teachers to be reg- center, or in a tertiary institution. Such flexibility enables istered, or for boards of trustees (or other employers) to institutions to employ teachers from a range of different hire a registered teacher, a nonregistered teacher may learning and training backgrounds. In practice, registra- be appointed to any position in the education service. tion is seen to be an appropriate system for the school As noted above, only some teachers in early childhood sector. Registration and salary payments are totally sep- centers and in tertiary institutions are registered. School arate issues. boards of trustees are likely to appoint nonregistered teachers in cases where a vacant position cannot be Licensing Reauthorization filled by a registered teacher, for example, for teachers of Maori language and/or culture, for specialist teach- Renewal ers, or for short-term reliever, or substitute, teachers. However, as noted above, it is a generally expect- The Practicing Certificate must be reapplied for every ed procedure in New Zealand that, wherever possible, three years, and is renewed for teachers who can registered teachers should be appointed to vacant teach- demonstrate that they have taught satisfactorily for two ing positions in schools. of the last five years. If teachers do not qualify for renewal, registration expires. They must then reapply for registration if they wish to remain on the register of ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT teachers. If a teacher fails to renew a Practicing Certifi- cate, registration expires after five years from the initial Induction or Transition Processes date of registration. A teacher's registration also expires if the "provisional" registration, or the registration "sub- New Zealand has recognized for many years that ject to confirmation," is not confirmed. teacher education is a continuing process of education and training throughout a teacher's career. It is general- Cancellation ly accepted that the first years in the classroom represent a continuation of the preservice training students The TRB can cancel or refuse a registration in the fol- have received in the college, and the first stage of their lowing cases, on the recommendation of the principal ongoing professional development. or head teacher of a school/institution where the teacher is employed/has taught: Advice and Guidance Program When a teacher is convicted of an offense for As noted in the previous section, beginning teachers are which the offender could have been liable for not eligible to become fully registered teachers until imprisonment for a term of twelve months or they have completed at least two years' classroom expe- more, and is thus no longer deemed to be "of rience. During this time, it is expected that they will good character" and "fit to be a teacher" receive support and guidance from experienced teach- When a teacher has resigned or been dismissed ers on the staff and attend professional development because of disciplinary action taken against him courses. This "advice and guidance program" (or intern- .' TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 172 ship/induction) is available to all beginning teachers cially secondary teachers, are given the opportunity to during their initial two years. In order to gain the visit other schools and to observe lessons. approval of the TRB, this program must be made available in a written form from the schools where begin- In-service Education for Fully Registered Teachers ning teachers are employed. The details of the program vary from school to New Zealand has, for many years, accepted that quali- school and from person to person, and also according ty programs of professional development should exist to whether the beginning teacher holds a full-time or a for all teachers, from the time they are accepted into a part-time position. However, the TRB has set out the fol- preservice teacher education program. The imperative lowing guidelines of what is necessary for acceptable for an aging teaching force to adapt to and implement programs: the changes that have taken place in New Zealand education over recent years has heightened awareness of Resource and personal support from colleagues the importance of continuing teacher education. But, as working in the same curriculum area, school, or noted above, there is no compulsory requirement for center New Zealand teachers to undertake professional devel- Receiving classroom visits and written lesson opment other than those activities organized for staff by appraisals on progress toward meeting the cri- local management as part of its annual program. teria for registration There exists a range of professional development Visiting and observing other teachers opportunities for teachers. Meeting with senior staff and other teachers to Many are provided by the local institutions them- clarify the wider aspects of the beginning selves as part of their charter responsibilities. There is evi- teacher's work and responsibilities, including dence to suggest that there is more "in-house" staff devel- professional development opment underway now than there was previously. On A written record of the program, containing the average, the budgeted amounts for teacher development advice and guidance received and the extent of increased by 30 percent per school from 1991 to 1993. participation in planning the corporate life of the On average, schools in 1992 spent 3.5 percent more than school or center budgeted. For secondary schools, the most important on- It is common for the advice and guidance to be site activities in 1992 were teacher effectiveness activ- more intensive in the first two years. ities18 (35 percent), curriculum-related activities (29 percent), and school administration (21 percent). For primary and intermediate schools, the most important Professional Development Opportunities on-site activities were curriculum-related (57 percent) To assist the beginning teacher's professional develop- and teacher effectiveness (14 percent). Such activities ment, all schools employing a beginning teacher are usually range between one or two hours' to one or two entitled to additional time (in the form of an additional days' duration. They are held during or after school 0.2 teaching entitlement per week in his or her first hours, or during holiday time. Some schools allow year). 1!timary schools use this time to release either the individual teachers or faculties to spend time with beginning teacher and/or other teachers in the school other schools for their professional development. to work with the beginning teacher. Nonbeginning There are also many opportunities for individual teachers released are experienced tutor/assistant teach- teachers to improve 'heir competency. Some of these ers who have designated responsibilities towork with opportunities are provided through national avenues, the new teacher. The additional time in secondary and are advertised through the journalNew Zealand school is given entirely to the beginning teacher, whose Education Gazette.For example, the Ministry of Educa- first-year teaching workload is represented by 0.8 of the tion contracts out teacher development projects, mainly teaching entitlement of a fully registered basic teacher. to colleges of education, to help individual teachers There is little doubt that beginning teachers in both become familiar with the new national curriculum devel- sectors benefit from this entitlement, although there opments, and to try out some new ideas in the classroom appears to be considerable variation in the an:ount of in a supported environment. Over 43 percent of New time used specifically for professional development. Zealand schools participated in at least one of the Min- Most beginning teachers seem to be szilsfied with the istry of Education teacher development programs in amount of time they receive and the use they are able to make of it. It is common for beginning teachers to attend at least one and frequently two or more profes- intat is, activities in such areas as assertive discipline, sional development courses during the year. Some, espe- accelerated learning, etc. 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 173

TABLE 10.14 Participation by Staff in Teacher Development Activities

Primary/Intermediate Secondary Schools (%) Schools (%)

All Most Some All Most Some

Type of Activity Staff . Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff

On-site activities 32.6 9.7 57.7 34.9 32.6 32.5 Conferences/seminars 5.8 7.3 87.0 6.4 17.6 76.1 Courses of study 0.6 0.6 98.8 0.3 12.1 47.7

1992. The programs normally take place over a school applied postgraduate qualifications(for example, term. The models used in these programs vary consid- Massey University offers a Diploma in Special Educa- erably, but all cover the two essential ingredients of pro- tion, Victoria University a Diploma in Education Stud- viding input and giving time for teachers to plan, imple- ies, and Waikato University a Master of Science and ment, and reflect on progress. Contractors are required Ph.D. in science education). The Research Affiliateship at regular intervals to report on their ongoing monitor- Scheme, administered jointly by the University of Can- ing and to relay their reflections on the program.19 terbury and the Ministry of Education, has operated An autonomous national body, the Teachers' since 1976. The scheme provides Christchurch teachers Refresher Course Committee, provides a series of in-ser- with the opportunity to undertake research projects in vice, week-long courses for teachers during holiday peri- areas relevant to current preschool, primary, intermedi- ods, focusing on topics suggested by teachers themselves. ate, or secondary school practice or needs. Supported by government funding, the New Subject associations and teacher professional orga- Zealand Council for Teacher Education facilitates a nizations also provide their members with quality pro- number of teacher exchange awards to New Zealand fessional development courses. Some publish maga- teachers for positions in foreign countries significant to zines on a regular basis, which include information on New Zealand. new materials, methods, and other aspects of profes- As noted above, colleges of education are increas- sional interest to teachers. ingly involved in teacher in-service education, offering a For primary and secondary teachers, teacher range of courses and programs for practicing teachers development conferences and seminars attended off-site wishing to improve their qualifications and professional are most commonly curriculum-related.. Teachers par- skills through postbasic level study or in-service training. ticipate in these courses in their own time, outside class- All colleges provide Advanced Studies for Teachers (AST) room hours. courses, through which teachers (mainly primary) are Tables 10.14 and 10.15 represent staff participation able to gain qualifications and (in some cases) higher levels, by type of activity, in teacher development activ- salaries. Two advanced teaching qualifications are avail- ities and participation in Ministry of Education contracts able to teachers based on these courses: the Higher by type of school. Diploma of Teaching and the Advanced Diploma of Teaching. Palmerston North College of Education pro- Inclusiveness vides the opportunity for these qualifications to be obtained through distance education, or correspondence Consideration is given to.provide in-service models that programs. In 1992, some 2,500 teachers were involved in take into account the particular learning needs of sub- the advanced-study courses provided by the colleges of ject groups, women, and Maori and other ethnic minori- education, or in the correspondence course of the AST. ties; and the different circumstances of urban and rural Continuing education opportunities for teachers teachers, of beginning and experienced teachers, of are also provided by the universities through a range of teachers in the classroom and teachers in management positions. The Curriculum Functions and Contracts Man- agement Division of the Ministry of Education has this 191n addition, the Ministry of Education contracts, year commissioned a research project through the through its Research Division, with an external evaluator to Research & Policy section to identify which groups of monitor specific teacher development programs. To date, teachers are, or are not, getting access to current pro- there have been eight such contracts, which have evaluated a total of 25 programs. A further evaluation of 10 programs is fessional development projects provided by the Ministry currently being monitored. of Education. 1S0 PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 174 TEACHER

TABLE 10.15 Participation in Ministry of Education Contracts

Participated in Ministry of Education Contract (%)

Type of School Yes No Total

Secondary 50 50 100 Full Primary 36 64 100 Contributing Primary 47 53 100 Intermediate 53 47 100 All schools 43 57 100

TABLE 10.16 Estimated Budgeted and Actual Teacher Development Expenditure, 1992and 1993

No. of 1992 1993 School Type schools Budgeted Actual Budgeted

Full primary 1169 NZ$3,556,036 NZ$3,626,732 NZ$3,645,324 Contributing Primary 928 4,127,899 4,253,207 4,455,193 Intermediate 147 1,017,374 1,141,397 1,149,224 Form 1 to 7* 78 822,635 825,809 875,479 Area 40 433,750 469,900 492,282 Form 3 to 7 241 3,456,334 3,455,636 3,907,654 Special** 50 199 709 234 459 172 696 TOTAL 2,653 13,613,737 13,997,140 14, 697,857

*Includes Forms 3 to 7 with Attached Intermediate schools. **Includes Primary and Composite Special schools.

Assessment and Financing of Professional course/seminar/conference fees (23 percent). Another Development Opportunities major area of expenditure was travel and accommodation (approximately 12 percent). For early childhood centers, there are two major sources Second, schools have the use of advisers. Funding of funding: (1) their own resources and (2) centrally for this teacher support service is NZ$16 million, which held funding, which is currently divided between two provides for a service available to all schools on request. national providers who provide both professional devel- Third, there is funding held centrally by the Min- opment (normally through seminars and courses) and istry of Education to support professional development advisory support (through work in centers). in national priority areasthat is, those that support Schools have three sources to draw on. First, the new curriculum developments and those that support schools themselves have a commitment to budget for schoolwide developments. professional development. In 1992, approximately A limited numberof study awards are available for NZ$14 million was spent by primary and secondary teachers seeking advanced qualifications in special edu- schools on professional development.20 The average cation. In some cases, school boards of trustees fund expenditure perfull. :ime equivalent teacher was teachers' participation or teachers pay their own costs. NZ$548 (NZ$616 full primary; NZ$335 secondary). The Table 10.16 lists estimated and actual expendi- majority (53 percent) of this funding was spent on tures, by school type, for teacher developmeht in 1992 teacher release and about one quarter was spent on and 1993. No research has been conducted in New Zealand as regards professional development for teachers and its relationship with factors like years of experience, level of 20Thismayunderstate thetotal expenditure onteacher responsibility, participation in professional development development. A school may draw on other funding sources to opportunities, salary, and career opportunities. In-service support teacher development, e.g., on a principal's discre- education is an expected activity for all teachers. tionary fund. 151 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 175

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR 1990 amendment to the Education Act. A recent amend- TEACHER PREPARATION AND ment to the Public Finance Act (in 1993) requires Crown PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Entities to be funded for specified outputs. The specification of the output for teacher education funding may There are both national and local policy issues and be a means to resolving this issue. problems with respect to teacher preparation and pro- The impact of the introduction of the National fessional development in New Zealand. Qualifications Framework on teacher education is still Following the reforms of educational administra- being discussed. The Ministry of Education's role as fun- tion, one noted tension exists in the extent of the auton- der and regulator of schools who employ the teachers omy of the colleges and other tertiary institutions in rela- needs further exploration. The tension between the need tion to government policy directions. Although the prime for some central specification of curriculum and the need function of colleges of education is to prepare teachers for local control in schools is mirrored in the relationship to work in New Zealand schools, there is no mechmism between government and providers of teacher education. for ensuring that they respond to changes in natienal The relationship of the National Qualifications policy that affect the school sector. Thus, there can be Framework to the wide .range of in-service opportuni- no certainty that newly trained teachers will be prepared ties available for teachers has yet to be considered. to meet nationally specified requirements, including cur- Other, more local policy issues and problems are riculum and assessment policies. A mechanism must be listed above under the section "Policies Guiding Pre- discovered that does not unduly restrict the institutions, service Teacher Education." nor contravene the autonomy they were granted in the Appendix 10.A Note:11 is possible to move between different types of institutions in each sector. University 678 Doctorate Masters SecondaryColleges of Diploma Education of Teaching NZPolytechnics Cert/ Adv Trade Cert/National Diploma 4 Honors23 Bachelors1 Degree Degree Primary/ECE Diploma of Teaching LocalNationalTrade CertificatesCertificate/Technician Certificate Certificate EstablishmentsTrainingPrivate withForm 3-7 schools Form 1.7 schools Community education provided by a broad range o groupsForm 3-7 schools Schools(Area)Composite SchoolsSpacial SchoolCorrespondence I 151617 attachedIntermediates SchoolsIntermediate SchoolsFull Primary 14111213 CompulsorySchooling Contributing Schools 10 67B9 Playcentres Kindergartens (RegularCentresChildcare Roil) (CasualCentresChildcare Roil) ChildcareServicesliomebased Te RaoKohanga LanguageIslandsPacific DevelopmentChildhoodEarly 4 123 S 3 The new structure of the New Zealand education system. FIGURE 10.A-1 Groups PlaygroupsUnit Funded Modal Aga 0 18,4 REST COPY AVAII_APlE 10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 177 Appendix 10.B

A SELECTION OF COLLEGE MISSION STATEMENTS Dunedin College of Education

Auckland College of Education The Mission of the Dunedin College of Education is to provide: Mission Leadership and quality professional services in To be at the forefront of educational development and learning, teaching, caring, as well as training in to provide excellence in education by preparing, devel- management oping, and supporting teachers, social service workers, Professional services and accreditation to peo- and educators. ple requiring qualifications in teaching Professional services to groups and individuals Continuing Goals seeking knowledge, skills, and support in teaching, learning, communicating, caring, training, Related to the Treaty of Waitangi, performance stan- educational management, and leadership dards, student rights and responsibilities, equity, good Access to the local, national, and international employer, staff expertise and development, environ- community tothe knowledge,skills,and ment, efficiency and effectiveness, communication, resources of the college research, in-service and postgraduate services, entre- Leadership in curriculum development and preneurship. research into teaching and learning

Christchurch College of Education Values

Purpose and Mission The college acknowledges and values:

The mission of the Christchurch College of Education is Active commitment to biculturalism to produce high-quality teachers and other graduates at Diversity and individual difference the tertiary level, and to assist and enable postgraduate Active commitment to the principles of equity students to acquire advanced knowledge and skills. The Supporting the welfare and development of chil- emphasis in the college is on excellence, measured in dren, clients, and all learners terms of the extent to which graduates are skilled com- Professional development and well-being of staff municators, able to establish and maintain positive rela- Excellence in leadership, teaching, and support tionships, confident in their knowledge skills and abili- Flexibility and critical thinking in planning, ty, competent in curriculum knowledge and teaching methodology, and curriculum skills, knowledgeable about humai. development and Accountability to the community it serves for the the learning process, enthusiastic and adaptable, and responsible and efficient use of resources able to show all students that they value them and Consultation and cooperation with the com- appreciate their differences. munity 11 APEC Report on Teacher Education and Professional Development: The Case of Singapore

Prepared by: Joy Oon Ai Chew and Ruth Yeang Lam Wong, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University

CONTEXT the recommendations of the 1991 report of the Review Committee, entitled "Improving Primary School Educa- Definitions tion." The report was an initiative by the Singapore government to restructure the existing educational system, Table 11.1 provides definitions of educational levels inwhich was based on the "Ministry of Education Report, Singapore. 1978." The Review Committee sought to address needs related to Singapore's economic growth in the 1990s Educational Systems and Student Population and beyond. Among these are the goals of providing all children with at least ten years of general education and In this APEC member report on Singapore, reference of maximizing the individual potential of each child. will be made to the new education structure for both Important features of the educational system primary and secondary levels of schooling that was include a policy of bilingual education, teaching a implemented in 1991. Statistical data on student enroll- course on civics and moral education as a compulsory ments, teachers, and school types are based on the most school subject, and the provision of a broad-based cur- recently available Ministry of Education annual reports riculum consisting of core and elective subjects. There (see References). is an emphasis on learning two languages and on math- The Singapore Education System, asithas ematics in primary school. The bilingual policy reflects evolved, today provides for six years of primary school- the multiracial, multilingual, and multireligious makeup ing and for four or five years of secondary schooling. of Singapore's population of 2.8 million (1992). All For students who are academically inclined, this leads schoolchildren are required to learn English as well as to a two-year, pre-university course at a junior college, their respective mother tongues. The latter are defined or to a three-year, pre-university course conducted in a as Chinese (with Mandarin as the spoken form) for the pre-university center or centralized institute.1 The pre- Chinese community, Malay for the Malay community, sent-day structure of Singapore education is based on and Tamil for the majority of Indians. As of 1994, there is a new provision to allow children from the North Indian ethnic communities to use their respective minor- 'There are four Centralized Institutes run by the Ministry of Education to cater to academically weaker secondary school ity languages as their mother tongues. These are Ben- graduates who aspire to pursue a pre-university course. gali, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, and Urdu.

179 186 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INAPEC MEMBERS 180

TABLE 11.1 Definitions of Educational Levels

Type/Level of Education for Teachers Definitions Grade/Level Age Range GCE "0" Level or less Preprimary schooling Kindergarten Yr 1 & Yr 2 4-5 years GCE "A" Level and Diploma in Education Primary schooling Primary One to Primary Six 6-12 years Pass or Honours Degree and Postgraduate Secondary schooling Secondary One to Four or Five* 13-17 years Diploma in Education Honours or Pass Degree and Post- Postsecondary schooling Pre-University Yr 1 to Yr 3 or 17-19 years Junior College Yr 1 to Yr 2 graduate Diploma in Education NA Preservice teacher Primary School; 19 and above 22 preparation Secondary School & and above Junior College Level

*Secondary school students are streamed into one of the following courses: afour-year Special course, a four-year Express course,or a five-year Normal course.

The Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore oper- similar to the ethnic composition of the population: 75.9 ates as the central governing institutionof the national percent Chinese, 15.9 percent Malay, 7.2 percentIndi- used to school system. Itis responsible for the formulation, an, and 1.3 percent "other" (a census category implementation, and coordination of educational policies refer to Singaporeans of other ethnic groups). At the at the primary, secondary, andpostsecondary levels. secondary level of schooling, the percentage distribu- School principals are expected to implement official guide- tion was slightly different: 83.4 percent Chinese, 10 per- "other." lines on the subject curriculum, semestral assessments and cent Malay, 5.7 percent Indian, and 0.9 percent examinations, and the streaming of students according to Of the three main ethnic categories in Singapore's pop- their academic performance in national examinations. The ulation, the pass rate at the Primary Six Leaving Exami- MOE is also responsible for recruiting, accrediting,and nation (PSLE) for children from the Indian and Malay deploying trained teachers at the school system level to communities has been much lower than for the Chinese ensure that schools are adequatelystaffed. It also has an community. For example, in 1990, 20 percent of Indian important part to play in coordinating the in-service train- students failed the PSLE, compared to 9 percent for Chi- ing and professional development of teachers. nese students. Similarly, the rate of access tojunior col- In 1992, the total student population was 451.249 lege education was smaller for the Indian candidates (or about 17 percent of the total Singapore population). than for the ethnic Chinese candidates: In 1990, 28 per- This number includes children from the "primary one" cent of Indian candidates secured places in juniorcol- (first-grade) level to those in the postsecondary level. leges compared with 40 percent of Chinese students. Of the total, 60 percent, or 270,754, were primary school students, and 40 percent, or 180,495, were secondary Matriculation Tracks and postsecondary level students. In terms of enrollment by gender at the primary level of schooling,there Streaming by academic ability is practiced at the primary were 104,974 female students(40.7 percent) and and secondary school levels. At the end of the first four 152,782 male students (59.3 percent). At the secondary years of primary education, "primary four"students (age level, the proportion of the total male-female students 9) sit for a streaming examination. On the basis of their was .almostequal:94,809 female (49.9 percent) and performance in English, in their mother tongue, and in 94,947 male students (50.1 percent), giving a total of mathematics, students are placed in one of three lan- 189,756 students in the year 1990. The completion rate guagestreams:(1) the English-Mother tongue One (EM1); for primary schooling was 86 percent in 1991.Inthe (2) English-Mother tongue Two (EM2); or English-Moth- same year, 65 percent of students whoproceeded to the er tongue Three (EM3) (see Appendix11-A). This new secondary level obtained "passes" in at least three subjects at the General Certificate Examination "Ordinary" 2A11 students sit the Cambridge GCE "0" Levelexami- Level (GCE "0" Level),2 taken at the end of four or five nation at the end of their secondary education. The results of years of secondary education. this examination determine whether they obtain a place at the The percentage distribution (1992) of students by junior colleges or at the centralized institutes that offer a three- ethnic group in Singapore primary schools is largely year, pre-university course. 187 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 181 school structure is an attempt to differentiate the curric- ondary schools, 14 junior colleges, and 4 centralized ular requirements of primary students at the upper pri- institutes (which offer a curriculum specializing in com- mary level. Those who are academically slower will be merce). Administratively, all schools come under the given more curricular time to learn mathematics and purview of the MOE. They receive their funding, stu- English, with less emphasis on the mother tongue. Other dents, teaching personnel, and other resources from the subjects taught at primary five and six are science, social MOE. Singapore schools are classified in three main studies, physical education, civics and moral education, types: (1) Government Schools (of which there are 145 music, arts and crafts, and health education. Primary six primary schools, 99 secondary schools, and 9 junior students sit the PSLE, which is a placement examination colleges); (2) Government-Aided Schools (42 primary designed to track students into three secondary courses: schools, 28 secondary schools, 5 full schools, and 5 the Special, Express, and Normal courses. junior colleges); and (3) Independent Schools (8 in Students in the top 10 percent of the PSLE cohort total). Starting in 1994, the MOE has also identified 6 can expect to enter the four-year Special course and sit schools that will enjoy the status of Autonomous the GCE "0" level examination (see Appendix 11-B). Schools. These schools will receive additional funds to They are required to pursue two first languages and allow them to develop more enrichment programs for seven other examination subjects. In 1992, about 54 per- their students. In terms of administrative and curricu- cent of students were enrolled in the four-year Express lum matters, they are similar to the other government course. They take their mother tongue as a second Ian- schools. gaage. Like the Special course students, they sit the GCE The Government-Aided Schools, which are man- "0" level examination at the end of four years and take aged as grant-in-aid establishments, comprise two cat- eight to nine examination subjects. Those who are aca- egories. The first category consists of the Christian Mis- demically inclined compete for pre-university places in sion Schools, founded before the 1940s. They are the 14 junior colleges. At this postsecondary level, they affiliated with denominations such as the Anglican or are required to take three to four "A" level subjects and the Methodist churches, or the Catholic orders, like the "General Paper" (which is a compulsory English-lan- Infant Jesus, the Canossian, and the De La Salle orders. guage mastery paper that is designed to test students' The second category of Government-Aided schools ability to express their opinions and maturity of thought began as Chinese clan-schools, founded and financed on current affairs). In addition, they are required to sit by Chinese clan associations. Today, they operate in Chinese/Malay/Tamil as a compulsory subject at the much the same way as do other schools in terms of Cambridge "A" level examination. their administrative and curricular structures. The eight The third track is the Normal course. It is further Independent Schools are a recent feature of the Singa- differentiated into Normal Academic and Normal Tech- pore school system, dating back only to 1989. Opera- nical courses. These aye five-year courses designed for tionally, they enjoy greater autonomy than do the other students who are academically weaker. Students sit the schools and receive bigger grants from the government GCE Normal-level examination in the fourth year and to develop school programs to cater to their more proceed to a fifth year for the GCE "0" level examina- selective student clientelestudents who are admitted tion if they do well. The Normal Technical course is a on the basis of their stronger academic results at the new feature of the secondary school system. Unlike the PSLE examination. Normal Academic course, which offers a similar range of academic subjects as those found in the Express course, the Normal Technical curriculum offers four core sub- BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE jects (English, mathematics, Chinese/Malay/Tamil, and computer application). Students in this track are not Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession required to take more than a total of seven core and elective subjects. About 15 percent of the PSLE. cohort is Out of the total of 19,842 teachers in Singapore in 1992, expected to enter this course, and the remaining 25 per- 69.2 percent were female. The numerical imbalance of cent enters the Normal Academic course. female to male teachers is pronounced at all levels of education: 74.7 percent at the primary, 62.8 percent at School Systems the secondary, and 63.8 percent at the postsecondary. The age profile of Singapore's teachers is bimodal in Given Singapore's compactness as a highly urbanized distribution, with teachers who are 45 years of age or and industrialized island (the total land area is 639.1 sq. older making up 44.2 percent of the teaching force, and km, inclusive of the smaller islands), there is no geo- those who are 32 years or younger accounting for 28.4 graphical variation in school type. In 1992, there were percent. Because the optional retirement age for many 345 schools, consisting of 187 primary schools, 139 sec- of the older teachers in Singapore is 55, there is clear- 1s TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIDNAL DEVELOPMENTIN APEC MEMBERS 182

ly a need to replenish the teaching force overthe next lines on the minimal educational qualifications are adhered to in the selection and employment of new five years. of In 1992, two-thirds of the teachers werenongrad- teachers. Each year, the MOE determines the number professional uates and one third were universitygraduates. Out of trainee teachers that will be recruited for the total primary teacher population of 10,629,61.2 per- training at the NIE. This is based on the annual man- cent had GCE "0" level qualification orits equivalent, power estimates for different categoriesof teachers. At while 34.6 percent had GCE "A" level qualification. Start- fixed times in the calendar year, the NIE advertises its ing in 1980, primary teachers in Singapore weredrawn different preservice training programs in the national applicants largely from the pool of GCE "A" level holders.This was newspapers (the Straits Times), and invites not the case in the 1960s and 1970s,when the minimal for primary and secondary school teaching. level of academic attainment required of primary teach- Admission into preservice training programs is ers was a GCE "0" level qualification. centrally administered and controlled by means of a Graduate teachers are deployed largely in sec- selection procedure involving the MOE, the ESC, and ondary and postsecondary schools. Among secondary the NIE. Applicants with GCE "A" level or degree qual- teachers, 61 percent had a "pass" or an "honors" degree. ifications who are shortlisted (based on a set of criteria Of the 1,625 junior college teachers in 1992, 95 percent developed by the three agencies) are subsequently had at least a pass degree, if not an honors or master's interviewed. The interview panel is made up of repre- degree. Starting in 1990, there was a significant change sentatives from the MOE, the ESC, and the NIE. Itstask in the policy of recruiting and training primaryteachers is to decide on the suitability of potential teacher in the interest of raising the quality of primaryeduca- recruits for employment as education officers. Success- tion and the status of the teaching profession. Forthe ful applicants undergo a full-time training program held first time, university graduates were recruited and at the ME and enjoy teaching bursaries orscholarships trained for primary school teaching. This resulted in4.1 for the duration of their training. On completion of pre- percent of primary level teachers beinggraduate teach- service training, they will be employed to teach in ers in 1992, a number that will increase inthe coming schools. years. The commencement of a newfour-year degree The Public Service Commission has played an course for the training of primaryschool teachers in important role in the recruitment of potential graduate 1991 provides yet another source of graduate teachers teachers. It has a scheme of selecting and awarding especially for primary schools. overseas merit scholarships for teaching to Teachers in Singapore can be categorized in two qualified GCE "A" level students in Singapore. On com- ways: according to their academicqualification (gradu- pleting their university education in prestigious univer- ate or nongraduate teachers), and according totheir sities in the United Kingdom, for example, theseschol- deployment by school level and subject specialization. ars are required to undergo a year'sPostgraduate Primary teachers are trained as generalist teachers and Diploma in Education course at the NIE before they are expected to teach moresubjects than secondary or teach in secondary schools or junior colleges. junior college teachers. The latter are recruitedand trained as subject specialists. There is subject special- Characteristics of Teaching Employment ization in the primary school with regard to the teaching of the mother tongue and to the civics and moral Teachers who are appointed to the Government Edu- education course. Both graduate and nongraduate cation Service are deployed to teach mainly in govern- teachers who have been identified to teach Chinese, ment schools and are considered civil servants.Those Malay, or Tamil as subjects are trained to handle all lev- who are appointed by the Government-Aided Schools els of the primary school mother tongue program. There and Independent Schools are considered Aided School is also provision for the training of specialist art, music, and Independent School employees, respectively. Like and home economics teachers for secondary schools. other government employees, teachers who joined the However, to increase their deployability, they are Civil Service before 1973 enjoy service conditions per- trained to teach a second subject as well. taining to holidays, leave schemes, and medical bene- The MOE, through its Establishment, Recruitment, fits. Most teachers who joined teaching before 1980 are and Training Branch, is actively involved in the recruit- on the government's PensionScheme. They can work ment and employment of new teachers.This is carried out jointly with two other agencies: theEducation Ser- vice Commission (ESC)3 and the National Institute of 3The Education Service Commission (ESC) is a branch Education (N1E). The ESC has the function of appoint- of the Public Service Commission (PSC). The latter is a gov- ing and confirming teachers and the promotionof ernment body that handles the appointment of teachersand teachers in the education sector. It ensures that guide- the awarding of scholarships and harsaries. 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 183

up to 60 years of age. Teachers who have completed up junior colleges, and heads of departments of junior col- to 331/3 years of service are entitled to a gratuity and a leges, are eligible for promoti xi to the SEO I (for GEO I monthly pension on their retirement. officers) or SEO II scales (for CEO II officers) if they have Teachers are entitled to vacation leave during the completed ten years of service (the equivalent being six school vacation periods. This totals 12 calendar weeks years for honors-degree graduate officers) and if they per year. In practice, however, most teachers do not have a consistently good performance record. Principals enjoy this full length of vacation leave each year. Prin- who are on the SEO I or SEO II grades for at least two cipals, or the MOE, may require them to report for work years can be considered for promotion to the higher SEO during the vacation periods. This could take the form of IA or SEO IIA grades, respectively. invigilation in national examinations, participation in The salary scale4 of teachers as of January 1, 1994, professional development workshops in schools, or is shown in Table 11.2. courses conducted externally during the school vaca- All new appointees to the education service are a tion. Besides this standard vacation leave, teachers are part of the Central Provident Fund scheme, which is a entitled to a maximum of 10 days leave for "urgent per- social security saving scheme set up by the government sonal affairs." Education officers under the 1973 and in 1955. Both the employer (the MOE) and the teacher 1979 Leave Schemes are eligible for 30 days of ordinary employee contribute a percentage of the employee's sick leave in a calendar year and an additional 30 days salary total to the fund each month. if they are hospitalized. If a teacher has used up the In Singapore, the teacher unions (e.g., the Singa- additional leave, he or she may be granted "special sick pore Teachers Union and the Singapore Chinese Middle leave," equal to one-sixth of the total school holidays in School Teachers Union) and professional associations do a calendar year. Married female teachers in Singapore not have any role to play in determining the salaries and enjoy 56 days of full-pay maternity leave, but this pro- professional conditions of teachers. As described above, vision will not apply for the third child (see Appendix these are worked out by the Civil Service. 11-C for further details on the Leave Schemes). Teachers are covered by a Medical Benefit Enti- Patterns of Supply and Demand for tlement Scheme, which offers up to 80 percent cover- Teaching Positions age of ward charges incurred for medical treatment and hospitalization. Male teachers are entitled to medical Over the last nine years, the percentage of new recruits benefits for their immediate family members, such as into teaching at the primary school level has hovered parents, spouse, and children below the age of 18. On between 2.54 percent and 4.51 percent, with more new retirement, pensioned officers continue to enjoy the medical benefit entitlements. There are other types of benefits that apply to TABLE 11.2 teachers, such as full-pay unrecorded leave (for atten- Salary Scale of Teachers in Singapore, Ian. 1, 1994 dance at overseas conferences, seminars, or international sports meets), no-pay leave (for study or childcare Grade Salary Scales purposes, or on grounds of compassion). A teacher can NONGRADUATE also apply for no-pay or half-pay study leave in order to GEO* II $850x70-920/1010x70-1360/1475x90-1835/ pursue a basic or postgraduate degree course after com- 2020x120-3100/3240x120-3840 pleting 5 years of service with the MOE. There is also a GEO IIA $1850x150-2600/2800x150-4000 provision of half-pay leave for teachers who are on edu- SEO** II $2800x150-4450 cational tours. Muslim teachers are eligible for pilgrim- SEO IIA $4100x210-4940:520:5450 age leave if they have taught for 15 continuous years. Teachers' salary scales, determined by the Civil Ser- GRADUATE GEO I $1680x160-3920/4105x185-5030 vice, are computed on two grades: the Non-Graduate and GEO IA $3190x190-5280 Graduate scales. Salary scales for teachers are revised $4145x230-4835/5065x285-5920 from time to time to ensure that they are attractive SEO I SEO IA $5355x285-6210:6495:6785 enough to retain teachers in the education service. In the last six years, there have been two revisions to narrow *GEO: General Education Officer the gap in the salaries of teachers compared with those **SEO: Senior Education Officer of employees in nongovernment sectors. Teachers who are recruited into the education service are placed on either the GEO I (for graduates with a basic or honors 4All references to financial matters in this report are degree) or GEO II (for nongraduates) scale. Principals cited in Singapore dollars. At the time of this writing. 11S$1.00 and vice-principals of primary and secondary schools and equaled S$1.60. 184 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

teachers being employed from ' "90 to 1993. The MOE's teacher shortage problem. The Cadet Graduate Teacher annual target was to hire at lea .,c 450 teachers to replace Scheme refers to the NIE students who are offered a the older teachers who were due to retire from the teaching stint in schools prior to their admission to the teaching service, or those who had resigned. At the sec- ME for their professional training program. The Provi- ondary and postsecondary levels, the actual number of sional Graduate Teacher Scheme is targeted at untrained new recruits has increased slightly from year to year, but candidates who are offered a one-year temporary con- the biggest annual recruiting target was in 1993, when tract with the MOE. They are paid a basic monthly 645 new graduate teachers were employed. However, salary that is pegged according of their highest acade- the overall recruitment pattern must be seen in relation mic qualification (either a pass or an honors degree). to the annual turnover rate of teachers in the education The MOE also recruits teachers from overseas for service (see Appendix 11-D for annual turnover and particular subjects in the secondary level. In 1993, it con- recruitment statistics). The total attrition rate and the cor- ducted efforts in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New responding number of teachers each year have been ris- Zealand to recruit English language and English literature ing: from 2.24 percent in 1984 to 3.02 percent in 1990 teachers. The MOE has also begun to recruit mathemat- and 4.51 percent in 1993. Two interrelated phenomena ics teachers from India. These foreign-trained teachers have been observed at the secondary school level: a will be selected based on criteria set by the MOE, such continuing drive to recruit more and better qualified as their university qualifications in the subjects that they people to join teaching and an ongoing attempt to specialize in and their teaching experience. attract and retain teachers in the education service. A third and more visible strategy is that of pro- In terms of the patterns of surplus or shortage in moting the teaching profession by means of annual teaching, it is useful to describe the primary and sec- advertising campaigns through television, press, and ondary levels separately. At the primary school level, radio media, and through poster advertisments in pub- there has been a surplus of Chinese, English, and Malay lic places and direct marketing packages. These adver- teachers in 1993. As for Tamil, there was a slight short- tising campaigns and media blitzes are appropriately age in the same year. This situation of teacher surplus timed to coincide with the NIE's annual recruitment is a consequence of structural changes in the education efforts for graduate and nongraduate trainee teachers. system implemented in 1991. For example, there are The MOE also employs the expertise of an advertising now six years of primary schooling for all students agency to project the teaching profession to undergrad- (compared with the 1980s, when there were two extra uates and junior college school leavers. It participates in years for students in the monolingual and extended career seminars at the tertiary institutions for freshmen streams). When the Preparatory Year project (prior to and final-year students, and at annual career exhibitions pr: -nary one) was scrapped in 1993, the primary school and recruitment fairs. system had a surplus of teachers. The secondary school system faces a reverse situation: There has always been a general shortage of CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF teachers for English language, history, geography, math- TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS ematics, physics, chemistry, biology, home economics, music, physical education, and the Malay and Tamil Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions qr.art, languages. With the implementation of the revised secondary school system in 1994, there is now a pro- The NIE is the sole teacher training institute in Singapore, nounced shortage of teachers for most subjects. Approx- and is responsible for all levels of teacher education. It imately 15,000 students joined the secondary one school was established and constituted as part of the Nanyang population beginning in 1994, and it has been particu- Technological University (NTU) on July 1, 1991. lady urgent for the MOE to recruit more new teachers The NIE is headed by a director and has four divi- over the next few years to replace those who are retir- sions: School of Arts, School of Education, School of ing or leaving the service for other employment. Physical Education, and School of Science. Each school is headed by a dean. In addition, there is the Centre for Strategies to Recruit Teachers in Areas or Applied Research in Education (CARE), which coordi- nates and promotes education research. Fields of Shortage The institute is governed by the ME Council. The The MOE has embarked on a number of programs and council is chaired by the President of the NTU, with the worked out strategies to make teaching more attractive Director of Education as Deputy Chairman and the as a career for potential recruits. Some of the strategies Director of the NIE as a member. The other members are to address the shortage of teachers in the secondary include university academics, some school principals, schools. The Cadet and the Provisional Graduate and some top administrators in the public and private Teacher schemes are two such schemes to alleviate the sectors.

151 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 185

The institute offers a variety of programs leading In-service Programs to a range of qualifications, from diplomas to bachelor degrees to postgraduate degrees. The ME also conducts formal professional programs for practicing teachers, Polytechnic lecturers, and Universi- ty lecturers. These include the Diploma in Educational Preservice Programs Administration (designed to prepare teachers to func- All preservice programs are conducted on a full-time tion as effective principals and vice-principals of basis at the institute. No student may pursue concur- schools); Further Professional Diploma in Education rently any course of study at another institution of (which provides training for teachers to function as learning while enrolled as a full-time student at the effective Heads of Departments in their schools); and NIE. the Postgraduate Diploma of Teaching in Higher Edu- The four-year bachelor's degree program aims to cation (which is designed for the teaching staff of poly- produce graduates with the skills to teach in both pri- technics and universities). mary and secondary schools. The program leads to the award of the following degrees: Postgraduate and Other Specialized Programs

Bachelor of Arts with Diploma in Education In addition, the institute offers postgraduate programs Bachelor of Science with Diploma in Education that lead to the award of higher degrees in education, Bachelor of Arts with Diploma in Education physical education, and arts and science. Other special- (Physical Education) ized programs include the training of teachers for schools Bachelor o Science with Diploma in Education that specialize in the teaching of mentally and physically (Physical Education) handicapped children and of staff for institutes of higher learning. The ME also trains preschool and kindergarten The Postgraduate Diploma in Education program teachers under a special consultancy program. seeks to train university graduates to become teachers. Teacher trainees who are in this program are allocat- Enrollment ed to specialize in one of the following: (1) primary school teaching; (2) secondary school teaching; or (3) Table 11.3, Table 11.4, and Table 11.5 show the num- the teaching of Physical Education (PE) in primary ber of applicants and enrollment in the various teacher schools, secondary schools, and junior colleges. The training programs from 1991 to 1993. PE specializations are taught in a two-year, full-time program. The rest are taught in a one-year, full-time Policy Guidance program. GCE "A" level holders and Polytechnic Diploma For Singapore, which has no natural resources to boast holders are eligible to apply for the two-year Diploma of, the importance of investing in human resource in Education and Diploma in Physical Education pro- development cannot be overemphasized. Education grams. For the former program, teacher trainees can plays a pivotal role in the task of building Singapore and apply to be trained as generalists for primary school in making it a vibrant and competitive market in the teaching or as specialists in the teaching of art, music, world economy. Therefore, it receives high priority, and or home economics at the secondary school level. Stu- comes second (after defense) in the annual budget allo- dent teachers in the Diploma in Physical Education pro- cation. gram can be trained to teach at either the primary or the The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the Singapore secondary school levels. Education System entering a phase of development that Teacher education in Singapore is financed and aimed at identifying and rectifying deficiencies and funded by the government. The budget for teacher edu- problems inherent in the system. Educational policies cation (as a percentage of the total expenditure for edu- were geared toward better meeting national goals and cation) from 1991 to 1993 is as follows (Ministry of the varied individual needs of students within the sys- Finance, 1993): tem. Since the mid-1980s, the trend is toward decentralization in school management and 1:pgrading the 1991: 1.00 percent national work force in response to the national call for 1992: 1.45 percent excellence, both in schools and in the Singapore soci- 1993: 1.31 percent e ty at large. Mr. Goh Chok Tong, Prime Minister of Sin- & apore, pointed out unequivocably in his Green Paper The nature and content of the preservice teacher to Parliament in 1988 (when he was then Deputy Prime preparation curriculum is described further on in this Minister) that "excellence in education is our goal. The chapter. government aims to raise the standard of all schools in 1 188 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 11.3 Number of Applicants and Enrollment for the Degree Programs From 1991 to 1993

1991 1992 1993

Joint Joint Joint Program/Year Application*Enrollment Application Enrollment Application Enrollment

Bacheor of Arts with Dip Ed 2637 74 2689 164 2529 150 Bachelor of Science with Dip Ed 24 23 28 Bachelor of Arts with Dip PE 12 17 14 Bachelor of Science with Dip PE 6 16 17

*The term "joint application" in Tables 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 indicates that the applicants for those programs filled in forms for all the programs. Based on the admission criteria and the needs of the economy, the selection board decided which program the applicants should be enrolled in.

TABLE 11.4. Number of Applicants and Enrollment for the Postgraduate Diploma Programs From 1991 to 1993

1991 1992 1993

Joint Joint Joint Program/Year Application*Enrollment Application Enrollment Application Enrollment

Postgraduate Diploma in 1250 480 1223 437 2210 703 Education Postgraduate Diploma in 16 17 31* Physical Education

TABLE 11.5 Number of Applicants and Enrollment for the Diploma Programs From 1991 to 1993

1991 1992 1993

Joint Joint Joint Program/Year Application*Enrollment Application Enrollment Application Enrollment

Diploma in Education 1251 438 1014 304 1018 346 Diploma in Physical Education 41 47 36

Singapore ... tonurture inquiring minds, and to create ly establish a tertiary status for itself and for its degree a lively intellectual environment which will ultimately programs in arts and sciences. Thus, the former Institute spread throughout Singapore society." of Education and the College of Physical Education Toward this end, a committee was set up in 1989 were amalgamated to become the National Institute of to look into the upgrading of teacher education in Sin- Education, which in turn became part of the Nanyang gapore. This committee was headed by Dr. Seet Ai Mee, Technological University on July 1, 1991. the then Minister of State for Education. The report (the In terms of teacher recruitment, the report noted Seet Ai Mee Report, 1990) made several observations that the recruitment of primary teachers will have to and recommendations. double in the 1990sto about 650 per year. The "A" It observed, for example, that many good teacher level candidature, which is the traditional pool for pri- colleges overseas have come or are coming under the mary teachers, is projected to fall from 15,000 in 1990 ambit of universities in order to enhance their standing to 11,000 from the mid- to late-1990s. Improved acade- and that of their degrees. Following this trend, the com- mic results and rising affluence will deplete the "A" level mittee recommended that the NIE become part of the pool further, as more and more students pursue a Nanyang Technological University (NTU) so as to clear- degree locally or overseas. Many countries have estab-

1,93 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 187

lished degree programs for primary teacher education by these M.Ed. graduates, and by a smaller number of in recognition of the importance and increasing com- doctoral students, provides invaluable insights into plexity and demands of primary teaching in a fast- improving teacher training. paced, technological society. These reasons are just as Another way of enhancing its standing as a tertiary pertinent in Singapore and they argue for the upgrad- institution is for the NIE to place significant emphasis ing of primary teacher education here. Considering both on developing strong research programs. There is much the recruitment and training viewpoints, the committee scope for studies on educational matters in Singapore recommended the introduction of a degree program for and in the region that need to be validated locally, the training of primary school teachers. This degree pro- rather than being based on Western norms. gram was introduced in the NIE in 1991. To further increase the pool of primary school Accreditation/Approval teachers, a one-year Postgraduate Diploma in Education (Primary) program was launched in 1990. For the first All NIE programs are overseen by external examiners. time in the history of education in Singapore, graduates These examiners check on the quality and rigor of the who prefer teaching at the primary level, and who are various programs, assess the level of classroom teach- deemed suitable by the ESC, the MOE, and the NIE, can ing of trainee teachers, of examination papers, and of apply and be admitted to this program. examination scripts, and moderate the general level of As stated earlier, the NIE is the only teacher train- academic standards. ing institute in Singapore. Thus, the courses it offers At present, the external examiners appointed to are different from those offered by Singapore's other the various programs are: university, the National University of Singapore. In addition to offering courses with a pedagogical slant, Diploma in Education: Prof. Maurice Galton, it also offers new programs, such as sports science and University of Leicester, UK sports studies; fine arts, music, dance, and drama and B.A/B.Sc. with Dip. Ed./Dip. Ed. (PE): Prof. performance. In-service teacher training, training of Richard Pring, (Education component) Universi- staff for special schools, for kindergarten, and for ty of Oxford, UK child-care centers are also planned, in tandem with the PGDE (Primary & Secondary): Prof. Ivan Reid. aims of the Ministry of Education and with the needs Loughborough University, UK of industry. Diploma in PE; PGDE (PE): Prof. Graham Fish- "Sports for all" will continue to be one of Singa- burne, University of Alberta, Canada pore's policies.Physical education programs and B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed. (PE): Prof. Neil Arm- extracurricular activities in schools have been revised to strong, University of Exeter, UK give greater emphasis to the acquisition of sports skills MastersinEducation:Prof. John Keeves, and to a lifetime enjoyment of sports. All Singaporeans Flinders University of South Australia, Australia will have more opportunities and facilities to take part in physical activity to keep them fit and robust. Toward this end, programs are being planned to train fitness and NATURE AND CONTENT OF physical instructors to cater to the needs of the leisure TEACHER PREPARATION and fitness industries, of the armed forces, and of statutory boards. Discussions are currently being held Goals of the Teacher Preparation System between the School of Physical Education at the NIE and the Ministry of Defense, the Singapore Police Force, The National Institute of Education's mission is to and the Singapore Sports Council to mutually strength- upgrade the quality of teacher education in Singapore. en training and research programs between these insti- As part of the Nanyang Technological University, the tutions and the School of Physical Education. The aim NIE strives for academic and pedagogical excellence. is to promote a healthy life-style and to make sports a The institute constantly reviews and improves the way of life for all Singaporeans. preservice teacher training programs to ensure that the In the area of higher education, the NIE strives to graduates are well prepared for the education system of develop a strong postgraduate degree program to the 1990s and beyond. It aims to produce graduates enhance its standing as a tertiary institution. It is work- who are imbued with the vision to improve the quality ing toward initially achieving a level of 1 to 2 percent of teaching at all levels and to promote professionalism of its student population in possession of postgraduate in the service. degrees. Since the postgraduate degree program was The NIE is also responsible for the upgrading of reconceptualized in the mid 1980s, 124 students gradu- the further professional development programs for ated with Masters in Education. The research carried out schoolteachers, heads of departments, vice-principals, 154 1 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INAPEC MEMBERS 188 and principals. It equips the officers with advanced ped- Nature and Content of agogical and managerial skills chat will meet the Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula demands of future schools. The preservice teacher preparation curriculum in the NIE aims to train and produce teachers who arewell- Academic Preparation Prior to informed, competent, and reflective professionals. Such Preservice Teacher Education teachers will have an understanding of the key concepts be Candidates applying for all the preservice programs and principles of teaching and learning and should able to implement, analyze, and theorize about key must possess at least a "grade 4" in English intheir GCE instructional processes. They will be able to competent- "0" Level Examination or else are required to sitand ly discharge their teaching responsibilities in a varietyof pass the NIE's English Proficiency Testbefore they can classroom and school contexts in a professional and com- be admitted into their respective programs. Admission mitted manner. Those specializing in Physical Education requirements of specific degree and diploma programs will be provided with an in-depth understanding of the are as follows: scientific, psychological, sociological, and philosophical principles, which form the basis of Physical Education. 1. For admission to the Bachelor of Arts/Science, with Diploma in Education/Physical Education (B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed.; B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Content Courses Ed. (PE] programs), candidates must have favor- able GCE "A" level results in the relevant sub- The academic curriculum emphasizes fundamental con- jects. Details of these requirements can be found cepts and principles as well as comprehensive coverage in Appendix 11-E. of the core knowledge of each subject. At the same cul- 2.For admission to the Postgraduate Diploma in time, it focuses on areas of study with major social, Education (PGDE) program, candidates for tural, economic, or industrial relevance. should have at least a degree from the Nanyang These kinds of courses, called "content courses," Technological University, the National Univer- are offered only to teacher trainees inthe B.A./B.Sc. and sity of Singapore, or other universities whose Dip. Ed. programs. Those who are in the Postgraduate degrees are acceptable to the Education Service Diploma in Education programs would already have Commission of Singapore. For specialization in graduated in their content courses in their respective teaching general subjects at the primary school universities before entering the NIE. level, candidates must possess GCE "0" level All students are required to take two academic passes in mathematics and in any sciencesub- subjects. The length of the various academic subjects ject. For specialization in teaching specialized ranges from 40 hours (in Year 1) to 250hours (in Years subjects at the secondary school level, candi- 3 and 4). dates must possess acceptable results in those The availability and options of the various cours- subjects at the university level. Additional es vary from program to program. Apartfrom the more details on requirements for admission to post- conservative courses, such as Englisn language, Eng- graduate diploma programs can be found in lish/Chinese literature, history, geography, mathematics, Appendix 11-F. biology, and physics, students in the B.A. program can 3.For admission to the Diploma in Education (Dip. also opt to study drama and performance, art, or music. Ed.) program, candidates must possess a GCE A special feature of the curriculum for the B.A./ "A" level examination certificate, or its equiva- B.Sc. program is its provision for multilateral develop- lent, with at least two advanced level passes and ment, which allows a student to combine disciplines two ordinary level passes; and passes in at least across divisions or across schools to form innovative five subjects obtained at the GCE "0" level programs integrating music, art, and drama, for exam- exar ination. Additional details forspecializa- ple, or music and physics, or geography and biology. tions in different subjects as requirements for admission to Diploma of Education programs Pedagogical Courses can be fc and in Appendix 11-G. 4.For admit ,ion to Diploma in Physical Education The "curriculum studies" subjects are those courses programs, candidates, in addition to the require- designed to equip teacher trainees with teaching skills ments for the Diploma in Education program, for the Singapore classroom. Modules in each curricu- also need to demonstrate an interest and ability lum studies subject deal with the content, methods, and in Physical Education and Sports, as well as techniques of teaching the respective subjects in the undergo a series of physical proficiency tests. Singapore classroom. 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 189

At the primary level, teacher trainees are required the first two years of the course. If they are awarded the to take two compulsory pedagogical courses: (1) the bursary, their tuition fees for this period will also be teaching of English; and (2) the teaching of mathemat- paid for by government. Those who have exceptional- ics. In addition, teacher trainees are required to select a ly good "A" level examination results are eligible for a third methodology course from the following: scholarship (in place of the bursary). If awarded the scholarship, they will receive an allowance of S$3,200 The Teaching of Art per annum for the first three years of the course. Inthe The Teaching of Chinese fourth year, they will receive $2,400 (a prorated amount The Teaching of Music because the fourth year will be completed in nine The Teaching of Science months). The tuition fees for all four years of the course The Teaching of Social Studies will be paid for by the government. Candidates initially awarded the bursary may be eligible for the scholarship At the secondary level, teacher trainees are in Years 3 and 4 if they perform exceptionally well in equipped with the methodology of teaching the two Years 1 and 2 of the degree program. "content" subjects they graduated in from their respec- The bursaries awarded to the teacher trainees for tive universities. all preservice programs are shown in Table 11.6 On completion of their preservice training, all teachers are bonded to serve the government of Singa- Education Studies pore for three years. Those who are awarded scholar- Under the general heading "Education Studies," teacher ships in the degree programs are bonded for five years. trainees take courses that acquaint them with the key concepts and principles in education that are necessary Differences in the Nature and Content of for effective instruction and reflective practice in Teacher Preparation Programs schools. The courses deal with pupil development and the social context within which schooling operates, the Because theNIEis the only teacher training institute in application of psychology in teaching and learning, and Singapore, the above is not applicable fcr the Singapore instructional technology. context.

Practicum Linkages Between Curricular Standards for Teacher Education and The practicum of teaching practice is an important com- Curricular Standards for Students ponent of teacher education. Its principal function is to provide teacher trainees with the opportunity to devel- There is a strong link between teacher education cur- op teaching competencies in a variety of instructional ricula and the national curricular standards for schools contexts, and at different levels, under the guidance and and students in Singapore. This is manifested in the supervision of cooperating teachers and of the NIE lec- selection of teacher trainees and in the range of subjects turers. In this way, schools are actively involved in offered in the institute. For example, graduates apply- teacht.education in Singapore. ing for the Postgraduate Diploma in Education programs In the practicum, teacher trainees will be able to will be accepted into the programs only if they have use knowledge and skills introduced in the cont-mt graduated in content subjects that are currently taught courses, the curriculum studies, and the education stud- in Singapore schools. ies, and attempt an integration of theory and practice. The content courses that are offered to teacher Th. luration of the practicum varies from pro- trainees in the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science gram to program: or Diploma in Education programs are all subjects currently being taught in Singapore schools. B.A./B.Sc.-25 weeks (over 4 years) PGDE-9 weeks (over 1 year) Dip. Ed.-15 weeks (over 2 years) QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Initial Requirements Teaching Bursaries and Scholarships Teacher trainees in all the preservice programs are Teachers are required to obtain their training qualifica- awarded teaching bursaries. Those in the degree pro- tion (e.g., Diploma in Education, or Diploma in Physi- gram (B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed., B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed. cal Education, or Postgraduate Diploma in Education) (PE]) are eligible for a bursary of S$3,200 per annum for in order to be granted the authority to teach in the Edu- APEC MEMBERS 190 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN

TABLE 11.6 Teaching Bursaries for All Preservice Programs

Program Teaching Bursary Per Month

BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION S$266* BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH DIPLOMA INPE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH DIPLOMA IN PE

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION Honors Degree holders S$1,300 Pass Degree holders S$1,045

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMAINPHYSICAL EDUCATION Honors Degree holders: 1st year S$1,300 2nd year 5$ 1,360 Pass Degree holders: 1st year S$ 1,045 2nd year 5$ 1,105

DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION GCE "A" level holders: 1st year S$700 2nd year S$750 Polytechnic Diploma holders: 1st year S$800 2nd year S$850

DIPLOMA IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION GCE "A" level holders: 1st year S$700 2nd year S$750 Polytechnic Diploma holders: 1st year S$800 2nd year S$850

*This figure is arrived at after deducting the tuition fees paid by the government forthe teacher trainees. The tuition fees for those in the B.A. program are S$3,750 per annum, and those for theB.Sc. program are S$4,550 per annum. Teacher trainees in the other programs have to pay their own tuitionfees, which are as follows: PGDES$1,080 per annum; PGDE (PE)S$540 per annum;Dip Ed/Dip PES$540 per annum.

cationService. On successful completion of their pre- do not possess these qualifications are regarded as service training program at the NIE, beginning teachers untrained and temporary, and are referred to as "relief are given Letters of Appointment as EducationOfficers teachers." by the MOE, and are posted to teach in schools where there are vacant positions. Foreign-trained teachers must Exceptions to the Rule have relevant teaching subjects and recognized teaching qualifications if they are to be admitted intothe ser- Please see the section above on strategies to recruit can- vice. The MOE assesses the suitability of their foreign didates in cases of shortage. Preservice teacher training university qualifications. Singaporeans who resign from is waived for those who are offered temporary employ- the teaching service and who reapply to teaci arfain will ment as Cadet Graduate and Provisional Graduate not be requires. to tain retraining unless they are Teachers by the MOE. crossing the primary/secondary school divider. Teach- ers who are redeployed from the primary tothe secondary school level or vice versa would be required to ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT attend appropriate in-service training. This would be determined by the Staff Recruitment Branch of the MOE. Induction or Transition Processes There is no formal induction phase for beginning teach- Qualification Reauthorization ers when they enter the teaching service in Singapore. While there are no requirements for licensure in Singa-Apart from the two-year probationary period, beginning pore, all trained teachers with either a Diploma (forthe teachers are expected to assume a full teaching load and nongraduates) or a Postgraduate Diploma (for the grad- other duties in the schools where they have been post- uates) in Education are certified to teach. Teachers who ed by the MOE. The normal workload of a teacher is33

lc; 191 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE the NIE have periods of classroom teaching per week, inaddition to Since the mid-1980s, the MOE and extracurricular activity duties. reconceptualized in-service teacher education using a some administrative and being part of Singapore does not have the luxury ofhaving teacher's framework that sees in-service training as involved in a continuum coveringdifferent stages of a teacher's aides in the classroom. Neither are parents into account both the pro- the academic or curriculum program.Some schools career. The framework takes teachers, but fessional life-cycle of teachers and their careerpath in have a policy of inducting newly arrived the existing infra- the transition phase tends to be short. Theschool prin- the education service. It builds on education programs that cipal may delegate this task of inducting newteachers structure for in-service teacher concerned or to the vice- are offered by the NIE, the MOE'sCurriculum Planning to the head of department Institute of principal. This will almost always entail someform of Division, and the Curriculum Development Branch classroom observation of the new teacher'slessons. A Singapore (CDIS). Each year, the MOE's Training available teacher who is less experienced in classroom manage- sends out to schools a prospectus on all the to get some in-service education programs that would be runby the ment and pedagogical skills could expect the CDIS. For feedback and advice from the more experiencedhead NIE, the Curriculum Planning Division, or of 148 of department. Sometimes, the principal mayassign a example, the 1994 Prospectus contains a listing work closely with the courses, many of which aim toequip primary and sec- more experienced teacher to know-how or teacher who is lacking in certain teachingskills and ondary teachers with new pedagogical the implementation of know-how. content knowledge required for preservice syllabus changes in different subjects. The CDIS con- In the practicum arrangements for teachers teachers who undergo training at the NIE,there is a ducts a large variety of workshops for subject deliberate attempt to invite schools to identify "cooper- on a zonal basis. Suchworkshops are specifically relat- materials ating teachers" to help in the professionaldevelopment ed to tile implementation of new curriculum the MOE or to computer technologyintroduced to schools. of new teachers. The NIE works closely with teachers for Schools Division to secure the assistance ofprincipals In-service training is also offered to guid- in identifying experienced teachers to serve asmentors specialized areas, such as pastoral care and career pupils with learning dif- to the trainee teachers. Cooperatingteachers are given ance, and learning support for teacher ficulties. For example, the in-service diploma inthe pas- guidelines on how to mentor the trainee eight assigned to them during the period of teaching practice. toral care and career guidance program comprises These teachers receive no additional compensation,and modules, or units of course work, that are organized at take on this responsibility as one that is over andabove two levels of training. The firstlevel is for classroom their daily teaching duties. Together withthe NIE teachers who wish to be equipped with the knowledge play an and skills to play the role of pastoral caregivers intheir practicum supervisor, cooperating teachers for important role in the professional growthof beginning schools. Course work at the second level is designed advanced teachers. This model of on-the-job training initiatedby pastoral leaders in schools, and provides in pas- the ME is gaining acceptance by the MOEand by training and in-depth treatment of selected topics skills toral care and career guidance. These courseslead to an schools as a means of enhancing the supervisory the of experienced teachers. in-service diploma for teachers who have completed set of eight modules. Teachers are encouraged to attend in-service Professional Development Opportunities courses, particularly those that areperceived to enhance problem The MOE and the ME are jointly responsiblefor pro- their pedagogical knowledge in areas such as labo- viding formal in-service training programs for practicing solving, science process skills, the use of science teachers in Singapore. The NIE has beeninvolved in ratories and the management of computerclasses. These cours- running two types of in-service courses:full-time in-ser- Course attendance is on a voluntary basis. vice programs that lead to awards andqualifications, es vary in duration: from 20 hours to over300 hours. An full-time and shorter in-service courses or workshops thatdo not example of a longer in-service course is the earn credits. Such in-service trainingopportunities are 530-hour Diploma in Physical Education program. profes- centrally directed by the MOE and are designed to meet Support for teachers' initiatives to attend two needs: the upgrading ofknowledge and skills sional development courses comes in severalforms. As required for education officers who have beenidenti- the application for and attendance at courses are cen- their fied for positions of responsibility in schools (e.g,.head trally coordinated by the MOE, teachers can expect of department and principal), and updat ng teachers on attendance and completion of courses to beupdated in teachers.A educational changes and curricular innovations.Schools the MOE's computerized records for provide on-site, in-service training, such asworkshops teacher's promotion and recommendation for career for specific subjects or special school-based projects. upgrading is related to his or her interest in seeking pro- 1S8 192 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS fessional updating, among other performance indica- prospective principals, the MOE is the sponsoring insti- tors. There is no monetary incentive for in-service tution and pays for each participant's fees. Part-time in course attendance but school principals make adjust- service programs conducted by the NIE are financially ments in the teaching timetable to allow staff to attend supported by the MOE. This is done by converting the courses conducted away from the school. estimated training cost into the additional number of academic and nonacademic staff needed by the NIE to Career-Path Participation in Professional run the in-service programs. Development Opportunities

In the career path for Singapore teachers (see the Career POUCY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR Advancement Chart in Appendix 11-H), an education TEACHER PREPARATION AND officer who has proven capability as a classroom PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT teacher, and who shows leadership potential, is selected by the MOE for further professional development Present Concerns for Change and Improvement before he or she is finally appointed as a principal. The school hierarchy consists of a principal, a vice-principal, As described in the earlier section on supply and heads of department (HODs), and teachers. This hier- demand for teaching positions, one of the most impor- archy defines the career progression path of teachers in tant policy issues relates to the recruitment and reten- the school system and determines the number of avail- tion of a sizable number of new teachers for the school able school leadership positions. Each primary school system in Singapore in the 1990s. There is a recognition has up to five HODs, while each secondary school has of the need to make teaching more attractive as a career up to eight HOD positions. choice for the younger generation of Singaporeans Teachers with at least three years of service and about to enter the work force. The problem is multifac- good job performance are nominated by their principals eted in the case of teaching in Singapore. Over the past for appointment, first as HODs. If selected by the MOE decade, the economy has enjoyed high annual growth interview panel, they are required to attend the full-time rates. Today, there is a more diversified economy, with Further Professional Diploma in Education (FPDE) pro- enlarged growth sectors in manufacturing, services, gram offered at the NIE. The FPDE program, which is finance and banking, and trade. The teaching service job-focused for department headship, runs over one has not been able to attract and retain most of the academic year. It leads to the award of a professional younger and bettc, qualified teachers because employ- diploma. Teachers who are sponsored by the MOE for ment opportunities in the nongovernment sectors offer this career upgrading program are given study leave better remunerations and conditions of work. during the training period. Second, and related to the earlier point, the teach- HODs would normally serve a minimum of three ing profession has not enjoyed a positive image since years to enable their performance in that position to be the 1970s. Teaching is perceived as a job option better assessed by their principal and the MOE so they can be suited to women than to men because of the longer hol- considered for vice-principal appointment. Similarly, idays and the imagined half-day nature of a teacher's outstanding education officers who aiattached to the work; perceptions are less often concentrated on the MOE headquarters and who have been promoted to the professional ideals of contributing to the education of Senior Education Service are selected for appointment the younger generation of Singaporeans. This more fre- as vice-principals. They would normally serve at least quent perception has inevitably led to an acute short- two years in this position before they can be considered age of male teachers. 'The gender imbalance in teaching for appointment as principals. A selection panel con- has yet to be corrected. It is toward this end that the sisting of senior MOE officials interviews and decides MOE has sought to promote the image of teaching as a on the suitability of individual vice-principals to be pro- profession for both male and female university gradu- moted to principal. The Diploma in Educational Admin- ates by emphasizing the intrinsic rewards and chal- istration is a full-time in-service training program that is lenges of becoming a good teacher. designed for the development of potential principals Among the younger, nongraduate teachers who are who are currently serving as vice-principals of schools. deployed in primary schools, there is a growing demand They are sponsored by the MOE and granted a year's for university education. The salary disparity between study leave while undergoing training. graduate and nongraduate education officers working in Training opportunities that are initiated by the the primary and secondary schools serves as a goal to MOE and conducted by the NIE are financed by the obtaining a university degree. It has resulted in some MOE in two ways. In the case of the full-time in-service younger, nongraduate teachers leaving the education ser- programs for the training of heads of department and vice prematurely to pursue an overseas university course.

I(: 4 -a 193 11 I TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE

Both the phenomenon of the high attrition rate in 1994 offers yet another avenue for nongraduareteach- the education service over the past decade (due to res- ers to upgrade themselves. sig- ignations or retirement of teachers in theirfifties) and Teacher education in the 1990s has undergone offers a the difficulty of recruiting enough new teachersfor nificant changes in other ways. The ME today present-day school needshave contributed to yet broader range of specialization programs for preservice another problem. Teachers and school administrators and in-service teacher training. Creative arts(such as have remarked often on the increased workloadof drama and performance), art and music education,and teachers in Singapore schools today. Moreover,teach- physical education are the newer disciplines for prospec- offered ers are required to participate inschool-based or exter- tive primary and secondary teachers. These are nal in-service courses in order to keep up with struc- at the degree and diploma levels. A newspecialization tural and curricular changes in the education system. program offering a Diploma inart/music/home eco- under- The goal of providing for the professionaldevelopment nomics is also being planned for 1994. In the the of teachers through continuing in-service trainingwill graduate programs offered for preservice teachers at be difficult to attain if the teacher shortageproblem ME, there is an initiative to train a "totalteacher." This remains. The MOE has had to consider adesired bal- means an attempt to train a preserviceteacher to be able ance between meeting systemicneeds, on the one to teach competently at both the primaryand secondary hand, and the individual professional development school levels. The ME has been working on other in- needs of teachers on the other. service programs to meet the aspirations ofeducation The teacher-shortage problem has important con- officers intending to pursue postgraduate qualifications educational man- sequences for the continued growthof Singapore in the in areas of specializations, such as in global economy in the 21st century. In 1991, the Singa- agement, applied educational psychology,and the tra- pore government embarked on itsStrategic Economic ditional disciplines (e.g., English language, science, art, Plan to work toward the goal of Singapore's becoming and music). a developed nation by the year 2030.This set in motion the corresponding policy decision to restructurethe education system to provide at least ten years of gener- CONCLUSION al education for all children. It has become a priorityfor the MOE to address the problems stated above. This report has encapsulated the following pertinent points of teacher education and professionaldevelopment in Singapore: Present and Long-range Plans for Improvement The MOE has responded in creative ways to try to meet Shortage and retention of teachers the shortfall in the annual recruitment targets ofteach- Strategies to recruit teachers in areas of shortage ers. Among these is the policyof redeploying selected Rigor and relevance of teacher training courses primary school teachers to the secondaryschool level. Continuing education/professional develop- For such teachers, in-service training is a requirement ment. in the subject content and pedagogical areas. The recent efforts to reconceptualize in-service teacher education Education plays a key role in making Singapore a (see above section under Qualification Reauthorization) vibrant and competitive market in the world economy. is preparation for a policy move to address theprofes- The various new programs and policies described in sional development needs of teachers in the 1990s. The this report are geared toward meeting Singapore's goals MOE has continued to emphasize the importanceof and the varied individual needs of students in afast- professional upgrading and updating among teachers. paced, technological society. Developments signal a It has designed new incentives to encourageteachers to time to review the basics and reorient thinking to meet take up formal in-service training and tertiary education. these changes. The teaching professionals in Singapore There are better promotion prospects and salaries for will find themselves spearheading and meeting these new entrants into the teaching service. Inaddition, the challenges in the 1990s and beyond. setting up of the Open University Degree Program in 194 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 11-A

PROGRESSION PATHS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS

Special/Express/ Special/Express/ Normal(Aeadornte)/NormaKAeademleW NormaMeademle)/ NormalMochnled Nerenalfrechnieeg *melt Technical)

P1 - - Lateral trifler

I Pupils in the EM 1 stream will sit the PSLE in four subjectsEnglish, Chinese/Malay/Tamil, Maths, and Science. They may offer an optional Higher Chinese/Malay/Tamil paper.

II Pupils in the EM2 stream will sit the PSLE in four subjectsEnglish, Chinese/Malay/Tamil, Maths, and Science.

IIIPupils in the EM3 stream will sit the PSLE in three subjectsEnglish, Basic Chinese/Malay/Tamil, and Maths. IV Within the EM2 stream are two substreamsEM2(E), EM2(C/M/T). VRetention will not be generally practised, but in exceptional circumstances, a pupil may be allowed to repeat a year. In particular, P5 pupils in the EM3 stream who perform extremely well may repeat P5 in the EM2 stream the following year. VI An alternative to the EM3 stream (the ME3 stream) Is also available. Children identified for the EM3 stream may opt for the ME3 stream. 195 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT INSINGAPORE Appendix 11-B

EDUCATION SYSTEM

UNIVERSITY IJNNERSITIES EDUCATION

/1!'"..

INSTITUTES Of TECHNICAL 18 POST CENTRALISED POLYTECHNICS4- EDUCATION SECONDARY / JUNIOR 17 EDUCATION PRE-U CENTRESCOLLEGES 10

SN (A) i SN (1)

10 NORMAL (ACADEMIC) / 15 SPECIAL /EXPRESS SECONDARY NORMAL (TECHNICAL) 14 n COURSE COURSE EDUCATION 13 4 YEARS 4 YEARS 12

ORIENTATION STAGE PS. PS 11 WITH 3 LANGUAGE STREAMS (EMI, EM2, EM) 10 PRIMARY EDUCATION

FOUNDATION STAGE P1 P4

02 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 196 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 11-C

The following excerpts from the Ministry of Education's (F215) The types of leave all officers are eligible for are Principal's Handbook (1993) provide further informa- as follows: tion on the government's Leave Schemes. (a) Medical leave (b) Maternity leave Forfeit of Vacation Leave (c)Full-pay unrecorded leave (205) Vacation leave due to an officer will be forfeited if: (d) UPA leave, i.e., leave on urgent private affairs (for teachers only) (a) He gives less than the minimum notice to resign; (e) No-pay leave (b) He has not given the minimum notice but has (f) Study leave (for teachers only) paid: (i) money instead of notice; or (ii) an (g) Half-pay leave (for teachers only) amount which is equal to the total wage for the (h) Pilgrimage leave (for Muslim officers only) period short of notice; or (iii) his normal period of notice has been waived. (Paragraphs F216. to F220 not used.)

Resignation Vacation Leave For Principals and Vice-Principals

(F206)An officer who is indebted/obligated to the Gov- (F221)In accordance with the revised Education ernment at the time of resignation, is required to settle Scheme of Service Agreement dated 30 June 1979, Prin- all liabilities (outstanding loan, or liquidated damages in cipals and Vice-Principals will be eligible for vacation respect of the unserved bond) before he leaves the ser- leave as follows: vice. F207The notice of resignation is to be submitted (a)Under 10 years' service-33 days per calendar to the Establishment, Recruitment & Placement Branch year of this Ministry together with the Appendix A (see FF3) (b) Ten years' service or more-39 days per calen- without any delay. In addition, a leave statement dar year (Appendix Bsee FF4) which is only applicable to officers eligible for vacation leave, is to be attached. (F222)Leave eligibility for the year is calculated For details refer to: Paragraphs H65, H66, P10 and at the commencement of each calendar year, or on the P16 of IM No. 2 date of assumption of duty as Principal or Vice-Princi- (Paragraphs F208 to F210 not used.) pal. Where, during the course of a calendar year, an officer: Leave (Government and Government-Aided Staff) (a) Assumes duty as Principal or Vice-Principal (b) Relinquishes duty as Principal or Vice-Principal (F211)All officers, whether they are non-teaching staff (c) Retires from the service (NTS), Principals, Vice-Principals, teachers or expatriates (d) Is absent for any period on half-pay, no-pay or on contract are eligible for leave benefits. pilgrimage leave or is absent for more than 3 (F212)The NTS, Principals and Vice-Principals enjoy months on scholarship, fellowship or training vacation leave. The teaching staff, consisting of expatri- courses, the period for which is not deemed to ates on contract and teachers appointed on the perma- be service qualifying for vacation leave, or nent establishment, are eligible for school holidays. (e) Completes 10 years' service to qualify for the (F213) NTS who are appointed on a temporary basis higher rate of vacation leave are not eligible for vacation leave during the first 6 months of their temporary service.Principals should his vacation leave eligibility for that year will be calcu- not approve their application for vacation leave during lated on a pro-rated basis, rounded up to a whole day. this period. Examples of how leave eligibility is calculated can be (F214)The leave eligibility of expatriates are specified found in Ministry of Education Notification PA/23/79, clearly in their contract. dated 3 Aug 79.

ti:u3e) 197 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN SINGAPORE

(F223) Principals and Vice-Principals must apply allowed to accumulate up to 2. years' vacation leave for for leave on Form G68. The application of the Vice-Prin- the purpose of pilgrimage to Mecca. cipal must be submitted to the Principal who will decide (F227) When Principal proceeds on leave, the on the leave. The applicationof the Principal (in dupli- Vice-Principal will perform the duties of the Principal, cate) must be submitted to the respective Inspectorof in addition to his own. When the Vice-Principal pro- Schools, Schools Division of the Ministry, for a decision. ceeds on leave, the Principal will perform the Vice-Prin- A copy of the form will be retained in the Ministryand cipal's duties in addition to his own. The Principal and the other copy returned to the Principal for record. Vice-Principal should not proceed on leave at the same (F224) Principals and Vice-Principals will nor- time. In exceptional circumstances where boththe Prin- mally be required to expend their vacation leave during cipal and Vice-Principal have to be away on leave school holidays. together, their leave applications should be submitted to the Schools Division for a decision. (b) (a) Where needed, Principals and Vice-Principals For details refer to: (a) Appendix H8 of IM No. 2: may be allowed to utilize up to 12days of their MOE Notification PA/7/92. vacation leave eligibility during term time sub- (Paragraphs F228 to F230 not used.) ject to the exigencies of service without having to cite urgency as a reason if the leave does not Medical Leave exceed 2 days per occasion. (b) However, any application for leave which (F231) All officers who are under the 1973 and 1979 exceeds 2 days per occasion during term time or Leave Schemes and education officers who are under is to be spent outside the Republic (other than the 1973 and 1979 Education Leave Schemes are eligi- within the Johore Bahru town limit) will be ble for 30 days' ordinary sick leave in a calendar year approved only on urgent grounds. and an additional 30 days if they are hospitalized in a (c)Where there are valid reasons, Principals and Government or private hospital. Vice-Principals may also be allowed to apply for (F232) Officers under the 1951 leave Scheme are more than 12 days of their vacationleave eligi- eligible for 90 days sick leave in a year, which includes bility during term time or overlap their vacation hospitalization and maternity leave. leave during the school holidays. Such applica- (F233) To qualify for full-pay medical leave, an tions will be considered on a case-by-case basis. officer must obtain a medical certificate either from a government or a private doctor. The MC obtained must (F225) Principals and Vice-Principals may be show clearly the period during which the officer is unfit allowed to take half-day leave to attend to urgent perfor duty. sonal matters for a continuous period of 4 hours sub- (F234) In the event that an officer has taken all ject to exigencies of the service. The granting of half-day his full-pay sick leave eligibility and is still medically cer- leave v ill be governed by the following rules: tified unfit for duty, he will be given extended sick leave, according to the officer's Leave Scheme. The (a) Such leave will be debited against an officer's number of days of extended sick leave an officer is eli- vacation leave eligibility on the basis of two gible for will depend on the number of years of service periods of half-day leave, equal to one day's he has put in. vacation leave. (F235) If a teacher has used up the extended sick (b) An officer taking half-day leave must work at leave, he may be granted special sick leave on full-pay least 3 hours for that day (exclusive of lunch equal to one sixth of the total school holidays in a cal- break). endar year. (c) Half-day leave cannot be taken on Saturdays or (F236) If the offi,-er has used up his full-pay sick eves of Public Holidays, which arehalf working leave (viz ordinary sick ;T.ave, extended sick leave and days. special sick leave) and 1. recommended further sick W) The total half-day and full-day leave accumulat- leave by a Government Medical Board, he may be ed during term time should comply with para. granted further extended sick leave on full-pay. Such F224 above. extended sick leave shall be limited to one-twenty- fourth of each month of completed past service (e.g., an (F226) Principals and Vice-Principals are required officer who has completed two years of service will be to expend their vacation leave within thecalendar year eligible for one month of further extended sick leave). and may be allowed to carry forward only 3 days of (F237) Principals must report to the Ministry those their unexpended vacation leave to the following year. officers who have taken sick leave in excess of their However, Muslim Principals and Vice-Principals may be annual sick leave eligibility.

204 198 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

For details refer to: (a) Para. H190-200 of IM No. the support of the Singapore National Olympics 2; (b) Appendix H6 of IM No. 2; (c) Finance (PSD) Cir- Council (SNOC) or the Singapore Sports Coun- cular No. 4/88; (d) MOE Notification PA/2/90; (e) cil (SSC), listed in Annex F2. Finance (PSD) Circular Ne. 18/90. (Paragraphs F238 to (d) If he is nominated by a recognized organisation F240 not used.) listed in Annex F3 to attend volunteer camps, field operations and other exercises conducted Maternity Leave by the organisation. (e) To attend approved conferences, seminars or (F241) A married female officer is eligible for 56 days' trade union courses. full-pay m aternity leave, 28 days (4 weeks) immediately before and 28 days (4 weeks) immediately after the (F252) Full-pay unrecorded leave may also be granted date of delivery if she is certified unfit and provided she to a female officer to look after her sick child if the child has not .nore than 2 living children (excluding legally is below 6 years of age. Such leave is limited to 5 days adopted ones and step children) at the time she applies per child and subject to a maximum of 15 days per year. for the leave. However, if she uses less than 4 weeks' A certified true copy of the child's birth certificate and leave before she gives birth, the remainder can be MCs issued must be submitted when such an applica- added to her 4 weeks' leave after her confinement. tion is made. Application for such leave should be made (F242) A married female officer who had a twin on FF6. For details refer to: (a) Para H115-135 of IM No. pregnancy in her first childbirth would still be eligible 2; (b) Ministry's Notification No. PA/4/87. (Paragraphs for full-pay maternity leave for her second childbirth. F253 to F260 not used.) (F243) A married female officer on temporary appointment will be eligible for maternity leave after Urgent Private Affairs (UPA) Leave completion of six months continuous service. Otherwise the maternity leave will be treated as no-pay leave. (F261)Principals may grant full-pay leave to teachers on (F244) A married female officer giving birth to her the ground of urgent private affairs up to a maximum of third child will not be eligible for full-pay maternity 10 working days in a year. Applications for leave on leave. Medical leave granted to her for the period 28 urgent private affairs should be made on the appropriate days immediately before and 28 days immediately after form, FF7. Guidelines on UPA leave are set out in MOE delivery will be treated as no-pay maternity leave. How- Notifications PA/6/83 dated 23 Mar. 1983, PA/4/89 dated ever, if the officer undergoes ligation she will be grant- 18 Jan. 1989 and PA/10/90 dated 28 Jul. 1990. Temporary ed 7 days ordinary sick leave, subject to eligibility, from, officers, including re-employed teachers with less than the date of ligation, and the balance will be treated as six months' service, are not eligible for the leave. no-pay leave. (F262) Principals should only approve UPA leave (F245) A married female officer who takes mater- within the guidelines set out in FF7. Any request beyond nity leave is required to fill up Form P10 (see FF5) and or outside the guidelines should be referred to the Min- the Principal has to forward this form to POE5, togeth- istry of Education for consideration. er will-, all medical certificates issued to her during the (F263)For other reasons which are not covered year. under the categories for full-pay UPA leave, Principals For details refer to: (a) Appendix H2 to 114 of IM are delegated the authority to grant up to five working No.2:(b) Finance (PSI)) Circular No. 19/86 days no-pay leave in a year in accordance with MOE's (Paragraphs F246 to F250 not used.) Notification PA/14/87 dated 6 Oct. 1987. Applications for no-pay leave for 1 to 5 days should be made on Full-Pay Unrecorded Leave form S2-7A (see FF8). For details refer to: (a) PA/6/83 dated 23.3.83; (b) PA/4/89 dated 18.1.89; (c) PA/14/87 (F251)Subject to the exigencies of the service, an offi- dated 6.10.87; (d) PA/10/90 dated 28.7.90. (Paragraphs cer may he granted full-pay unrecorded leave for any of F264 to F270 not used.) the following reasons: No-Pay Leave (a)To represent Singapore in international games (i.e., Olympic Games, Asian Games, etc.). (F271)No-pay leave may be granted to officers on the (b) 'ro represent Singapore in regional games (i.e., following grounds: SEA Games, etc.) in any of the sporting activities listed in Annex F2. (a) For study purposesAn officer may be granted (c) To represent Singaporeinfriendly games no-pay leave for study purposes if the course he between nations and where such games have intends to pursue is relevant to the service and 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 199

is an area of shortage. Applications will only be (F273) All applications for no-pay leave must be considered if the officer meets all the require- sent through the Principals, who would indicate their ments governing study leave. comments on the applications before submission to the (b) For childcareA married female officer is eligi- Ministry. ble to apply for no-pay leave for childcare for (F274) No-pay leave of one month or more, one year at a time up to a maximum offour except for no-pay leave to accompany spouse overseas years, subject to the exigencies of the service. sent on duty by the Government or Statutory Board, will Such leave should be taken within 4 years after not count as service for granting salary increments. Peri- the birth of her child. od exceeding a month will affect an officer's incremen- (c) To accompany spouseAn officer may be tal month as well as her school holidays, which will be granted no-pay leave to accompany his/her pro-rated accordingly. For details refer to: (a) Para spouse overseas when the latter has been sent H180-184 of IM No. 2; (b) MOE Notification PA/4/87 on a training course or duty by the Government and PA/14/87;(c)Finance (PSD)CircularNo. or Statutory Board. An officer whose spouse is 15/85.(Paragraphs F275 to F280 not used.) sent by a local-based private company for a training course or on overseas posting can also No-Pay/Half-Pay Study Leave be considered for no-pay leave if: (i) the Princi- pal is prepared to release the officer; and (ii) (F281) An education officer may be granted study leave there is documentary evidence from the compa- on half-pay or no-pay for the purpose of pursuing a ny to indicate the duration and nature of the basic or post-graduate degree course if he meets all the training course/posting. requirements governing study leave at the point of (d) On compassionate groundsAn officer may be application. The guidelines or the grant of study leave grantedno-payleaveoncompassionate are shown in Annex F4 grounds, such as to look after seriously ill imme- (F282) The half-pay study leave is calculated diate family members, to attend son's/daughter's based on one-half of the officer's length of service, i.e., convocation overseas and for domestic reasons. if he has served 5 years, he will be eligible for 5 months Application for no-pay leave must be accompa- half-pay leave. A bond of up to 8 years is imposed on nied with relevant documentary evidence. the officer if he is given 2 months or more of half-pay (e) For short duration of 1 to 5 daysWith effect leave. from 1 Jan. 1988, Principals are delegated the Officers who meet the criteria for the grant of authority to approve no-pay leave for short study leave may be interviewed by a Selection Com- duration of 1 to 5 working days if he deems the mittee. reason given by the officer as acceptable. Sun- (F283) The Ministry will issue two circulars each days or public holiday falling in-between the year in February and August inviting officers to submit period of no-pay leave will be counted as no- their applications for study leave. Only applications pay leave. (Please refer to para. 263.) Any appli- received in response to the circular will be processed. cation exceeding 5 working days must be Ad hoc applications for study leave will not be accept- referred to the Ministry for consideration. If such ed. Officers who wish to pursue a degree course over- an application has been rejected by the Ministry, seas are strongly advised not to seek admission into a Principals should not grant the officer leave foreign university until they have been successful in unless he is very certain that the officer can obtaining study leave. This is to reduce the possibility return within the approved period. of incurring unnecessary expenditure, time and effort if (f) To Teach In Independent SchoolsAn officer their study leave is not approved. For details refer to: may be granted no-pay leave to teach in an (a) Paras H170 and 180 of IM No. 2; (b) MOE Notifica- independent school if a replacement can be tion No. GA/25/93. (Paragraphs F284 to F290 not used.) given to the donor school. Such applications will only be considered during the annual Oct./Nov. Half-Pay Leave Posting Exercise. (F291) Apart from half-pay study leave, an officer is (F272) An application for no-pay leave for child- also eligible for half-pay leave for educational tours. care and to accompany spouse should be made at least (F292) Such educational tours will only be con- 3 months before the proposed leave commences. How- sidered if: ever, applications for no-pay leave for childcare should, preferably, be made in response to the Ministry's Noti- (a) The tour has been assessed to be relevant to the fication, issued twice a year in January and July. service.

206 200 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

(b) The duration is less than 1 term, i.e,m 3 months. No. 2; (b) MOE Notification PA/12/89. (Paragraph F305 (c) The officer is attached to an institution for 2 to F310 not used.) months out of the 3 months. (d) He can provide a detailed itinerary of his attach- Permission to Leave the Republic ment. (e)The Principal is prepared to release the officer. (P31)Principals have been delegated the authority to For details refer to: Pam 13 of Appendix H5 of allow teachers to leave the Republic during weekends, IM No. 2 (Paragraphs F293 to F300 not used.) school holidays and public holidays. However, Princi- pals must ensure that the applicant: Pilgrimage Leave (a) Is not required for duty during the school holi- (F301) AMuslim teacher is eligible for the grant of pil- days; grimage leave once only in his service provided he: (b) Is not facing any disciplinary acticn, or under notice of termination or resignation; and (a) Is a Singapore Citizen or a Permanent Resident (c) Inform the school of his forwarding address. of Singapore; (b) Has completed 15 years continuous service; (F312) Principals' applications for permission to (c) Has not taken half-pay leave other than on med- leave the Republic must be submitted to the Ministry of ical grounds during the 15 years' continuous Education for approval. service; and (d) Has registered with the Majlis Ugama Islam Sin- Absence Without Leave gapura (MUIS) or any other competent authority appointed by the MUIS. (F313) An officer who is absent from duty without leave or reasonable cause for a continuous period of (F302)Other Muslim officers, including Principals more than 7 days (including Sundays and Public Holi- and Vice-Principals, are eligible for pilgrimage leave if, days) may be held to have vacated his office. in addition to the above conditions, they have saved 2 (F314) On his second day of absence without calendar years' vacation leave. leave, the Principal must write to the officer to request (F303)Applications must be made in writing him to report back for duty immediately and to explain through the Principals to the Ministry together with: his absence. A copy of the letter to the officer is to be extended to the Establishment, Recruitment & Place- (a)A photostat copy of the registration letter from ment Branch of this Ministry. MUIS; (F315) If the Officer fails to report for duty after (b) A statement from MUIS showing the exact dates 7 continuous days, the Principal should notify the Min- of departure and return to Singapore. istry, who will take follow-up action to vacate him from office. (F304)An officer who arrives late because of a (F316) Should the officer, on receipt of the warn- delay in flight schedule, may be granted an additional ing letter, resume duty, the Principal must obtain from day of pilgrimage leave. However, if he is found to be him a written explanation and forward it with his (Prin- deliberate in not reporting for work, the pilgrimage cipal) comments to the Ministry. For details refer to: leave will be converted to no-pay leave with a possi- Paras P50-54 of Section P of IM No. 2. (Paragraphs F317 bility of a letter of advice or warning issued to him. For to F320 not used.) details refer to: (a) Paras 4 and 5 of Appendix H5 of IM

207 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 201 Appendix 11-D

TABLE D-1 Annual Turnover Rate of Teachers in the Education Service (1984-1993)

Year Total Attrition Teacher Stock Attrition Rate

1984 460 20519 2.24% 1985 547 20591 2.66% 1986 562 20627 2.72% 1987 605 20768 2.91% 1988 618 21020 2.94% 1989 635 21002 3.02% 1990 745 20997 3.55% 1991 882 20938 4.21% 1992 846 20938 4.04% 1993 956 21177 4.51%

TABLE D-2 Annual Recruitment of Teachers (1985-1993)

Primary Level SEC/JC/CI Level

New Teacher % of New Teacher % of Year Recruits Stock New Recruits Recruits Stock New Recruits

1985 273 10746 2.54 451 9845 4.58 1986 424 10600 4.00 357 10027 3.56 1987 288 10560 2.73 384 10208 3.76 1988 238 10662 2.23 304 10358 2.93 1989 349 10640 3.28 436 10362 4.21 1990 552 10553 5.23 286 10444 2.74 1991 723 10611 6.81 290 10327 2.81 1992 454 10780 4.21 379 10158 3.73 1993 492 10911 4.51 645 10266 6.28

Note: 1994 data are not available.

208 202 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS Appendix 11-E

The following provides details on admission to the For admission to the course leading to the degree Bachelor of Arts/Sciences program, with a Diploma in of Bachelor of Science with Diploma in Education, can- Education/Physical Education (B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed.; didates should include, among their advanced level sub- B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed. WED. jects, at least a pass in two of the following:

Bachelor of Arts/Bachelor of Science (a) Mathematics (Syllabus C) or Further Mathematics (b) Biology Candidates offering the Singapore-Cambridge GCE (c) Chemistry Advanced Level Examination or Higher School Certifi- (d) Physics cate Examination must have obtained: (e) Physical Science

(a) passes in at least 2 subjects at "A" level and two Candidates offering commercial subjects in the subjects at "AO" level, including a pass in Gen- Singapore-Cambridge GCE Advanced Level Examination eral Paper (English) taken at one and the same or equivalent examination must meet the requirements examination; stipulated in paragraph B1 above. However, (b) a minimum grade of C in at least five subjects, including English as a first language, taken at the (a) office administration and principles and practice GCE "0" Level Examination; of office administration are not subjects accept- (c) a minimum grade of D7 in a second language able for admission to the university; and (ML2/CL2/TL2) taken at the GCE "A" Level (b) office administration and stenography, short- Examination, or a minimum grade of D7 in a hand and typing, and office administration and first language (ML1/CL1/TL1) taken at the GCE shorthand/typwriting duties are counted as "0" Level Examination; and subjects at ordinary level irrespective of the (d) a pass in Mathematics, either at the GCE "0" level in which the candidate has passed the Level Examination, or at least at "AO" level in examination. the GCE "A" Level Examination.

2 5 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 203 Appendix 11-F

The following provides additional details on require- "0" level passes in mathematics and any science subject. ments for admission to postgraduate diploma programs. For specialization in teaching physical education, To be considered for admission, candidates should applicants will need to demonstrate an interest and abil- have at least a degree from the Nanyang Technological ity in Physical Education and Sports, as well as under- University, the National University of Singapore, or go a series of physical proficiency tests. other universities whose degrees are acceptable to the For specialization in teaching music at the sec- Education Service Commission of Singapore. ondary school level, applicants who are shortlisted will For specialization in teaching Design and Tech- be required to give a rive-minute audition prior to the nology at secondary school level, the degree must be in interview. The audition will include at least one of the Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electri- following: prepared pieces on first and/or second cal Engineering, or Civil Engineering. instruments; sight read on first instrument; sight sing; For specialization in teaching general subjects at harmonize simple melody on piano; or improvise a the primary school level, applicants must possess GCE simple piece.

210 MEMBERS 204 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC Appendix 11-G

The following provides additional details for specializa- or Chinese/Malay/Tamil as a Second Language tions in differen'. subjects as requirements for admission at advanced level or a pass at least at Grade A2 to Diploma of Education programs. in Chinese/Malay/Tamil as a Second Language To be considered for admission, candidates must at "AO" Level, which need not be obtained at possess: the same sitting of the GCE Advanced Level Examination for requirements B1 (a). (a)a Singapore-Cambridge GCE AdvancedLevel (c) For Specialization in teaching Music, applicants Examination Certificate or its equivalent, with at must also possess a pass in Mathematics at least least two advanced level passes and two ordi- at the GCE Ordinary Level Examination, as well nary level passes, including a pass in General as at least ABRSM Grade 7 (Practical) andGrade Paper (English) obtained at one and the same 6 (Theory). Applicants who are shortlisted for examination; and this specialization will be required to give a 5- (b) passes in at least five subjects obtained at the minute audition prior to the interview. The audi- Singapore-Cambridge GCE OrdinaryLevel tion will include at least one of the following: viz Examination. perform. prepared pieces on first and/or second instruments; sight read on first instrument; sight In addition to the requirements stipulated above, the sing; harmonize simple .melody on piano; or following requirements must also be met for the spe- improvise a simple piece. cializations indicated: (d) For Specialization in teaching Art, applicants must also possess a pass in Mathematics, at least (a) For Specialization in teaching at primary school at the GCE Ordinary Level Examination, as well level, applicants must also possess a pass in as a pass at least at Grade C in Art at the GCE Mathematics at least at the GCE Ordinary Level Advanced Level Examination. Applicants who Examination. are shortlisted for this specialization will be (b) For Specialization in teaching Chinese/Malay/ required to bring for assessment, prior to the Tamil, applicants must satisfy the requirements interview, a portfolio of their selected works at B1 (a) above, except that the pass in Gen- which has been authenticated by their school/ eral Paper (English) need not be obtained from college as being their own unaided work. the same sitting of the GCE Advanced Level (e)For Specialization in teaching Home Economics, Examination. In addition, applicants must pos- applicants must also possess a pass in Mathe- sess: a pass at least at Grade B3 in Chinese matics and either Food and Nutrition or Fashion Language (CL1)/Malay Language (ML1)/Tamil and Fabrics, at least at the GCE Ordinary Level Language (TL1) at the GCE Ordinary Level Examination. Examination; or a pass in Chinese/Malay/Tamil

211 11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 205 Appendix 11-H

JOB- LEVEL HQ POSTS SCHOOLS

1 Director of Education

Director

2 I [DeputyDirector

Senior Principal Assistant Inspectors of 3 Director (IC) 9i Schools S

Princ pal +/ 4 Vice-Principal (JC) Senior Specialist simorimm.>11 Officer

5 Vice-Principal +/ Head of Department QC) SES"

GB** Head of 6 Specialist Officer Department + 111 7 Teacher

Key + Excluding Junior Colleges (JC). * This path should be the exception rather than the rule. ++ Senior Education Service. ** General Education Service. Source: Ministry of Education, Singapore.

212 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN APEC MEMBERS 206

K., and Sim, W. K. (1990). Evolution of education- REFERENCES Yip, J.S. al excellence: 25 years of education in the Republicof Singapore. Singapore: Longman. Goh Chok Tong. (1988). Agenda for action: Goals andchal- lenges. Paper presented to Parliament by the First Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence. Government of Singapore. (1991). The next lap. Singapore: LIST OF ACRONYMS USED IN THIS REPORT Times Editions Pte Ltd. Ministry of Education. (1979). 'Ministry of Education report B.A. Bachelor of Arts 1978. Singapore: Author. B.Sc.Bachelor of Science Ministry of Education. (1991). Improving primary school edu- CARE Centre for Applied Research in Education cation. Singapore: Author. CDIS Curriculum Development Institute of Sin- Ministry of Education. (1992). Education Statistics Digest. gapore Singapore: Author. ESC Education Service Commission Ministry of Education. (1993). Principal's handbook. Singa- FPDE Further Professional Diploma in Educa- pore: Author. Ministry of Finance. (1993). The budget for the financial year tion 1993/1994. Singapore: Author. HOD Head of Department Ministry of Trade and Industry. (1991). The strategic econom- MOE Ministry of Education ic plan: Towards a developed nation.. Singapore: Author. NIE National Institute of Education Seet Ai Mee. (1990). Teacher training in the 1990s: Issuesand NTU Nanyang Technological University strategies. Singapore: Ministry of Education. PE Physical Education Sharpe, L., and Gopinathan, S. (1993). Universitisation and PGDE Postgraduate Diploma in Education the reform of teacher education: The case of Britain and PSLEPrimary Six Leaving Examination Singapore. Research in Education, No. 50, pp. 5-16.

2:1 3 12 Tea- .ther Training in Chinese Taipei

Submitted by: Dr. Kuo-shib Yang, Department of Higher Education, Minisity of Education Prepared by: Bib-jen Fwu, Department of Secondary Education, Ministry of Education

CONTEXT schools, three-year skills-oriented senior vocational schools, or five-year skills-oriented junior colleges. By Definitions the second year of senior high school, college-bound students are funneled into one of two programs: liber- For the purpose of easily understanding the education-al arts or mathematics and sciences. Vocational schools al system in Chinese Taipei, the terms used in this paper cover business, agriculture, industry, home economics, are first defined in Table 12.1. marine products, nursing and midwifery, and opera and There is no age limit at post-secondary schools. arts. Students learn skills that prepare them to enter the The educational requirements for instructors at each job market after graduation. level of education have been upgraded over the past Graduates of senior secondary schools must pass few decades. Currently, graduates of teacher training nationwide entrance examinations to qualify to enter institutions (with a bachelor's degree) are the main sup- any of the postsecondary schools. This includes four- ply of pre-primary and secondary school teachers, year undergraduate schools and two- or three-year whereas doctoral degrees are gradually becoming a nec- junior colleges. 'While a bachelor's degree is awarded to essary requirement for instructors in postsecondary four-year college graduates, an associate degree is con- schools. ferred on junior college graduates. In general, students prefer four-year colleges and universities to junior col- Educational Systems and Student Population leges. Postgraduate programs are offered in most four- year colleges and universities. This section briefly introduces the educational system of The four-year college or university to which a stu- Chinese Taipei: its schools, student population, and the dent is admitted is determined by: (1) his or her test educational administration. scores; (2) his or her choice of department and college A graphic illustration of the educational system is or university; and (3) minimum test requirements for the displayed in Figure 12.1. While pre-primary schooling particular department and college or university. Colleges is optional and must be paid for by parents, primary and and universities may place greater weight on the sub- junior high education is compulsory and free of charge. jects they want to emphasize to select students with the After nine years of compulsory education, students must highest potential. pass provincial/municipal entrance examinations to Table 12.2 reports school distribution in Chinese enter either three-year college-preparatory senior high Taipei. Of the 6,819 schools, 2,420 are pre-primary,

207 214 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 208

TABLE 12.1 Definitions of Terms

Grade/Levels Age Range Type of Education Required to Teach 4-6 Teacher training at Teachers' Colleges PRE-PRIMARY Kindergarten 6-12 Teacher training at Teachers' Colleges PRIMARY 1-6 1-3 12-15 1) Teacher training at NormalUniversities SECONDARY Junior High Senior High College-preparatory 1-3 15-18 2) Four-year undergraduate education Vocational 1-3 15-18 1-5 15-20 Master's & Doctoral degrees POSTSECONDARY JUNIOR 5-year 1-3 18-21 COLLEGE 3-year 2-year 1-2 18-20 18-22 UNDERGRADUATE 1-4 22- MASTER'S 2 24- DOCTORAL 2 18-23 Master's & Doctoral Degrees PRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION 1 E

tends to decline at higher levels ofeducation. Of 2,509are primary, 709 are juniorhigh, 397 are senior secondary 4,994,959 students, 231,124 are in pre-primary,2,200,968 secondary, and 124 are postsecondary. Senior 730,597 in senior schools include 186 college-preparatoryhigh schools in primary, 1,179,028 in junior high, secondary, and 653,062 in postsecondary.There are and 211 skills-oriented vocational schools. postsec- in vocational ondary institutions consist of 74 juniorcolleges and 50 2.18 times as many students enrolled high schools. four-year colleges and universities. schools as there are in college-preparatory The proportion of public and privateschools There are about 76,000 more students injunior colleges varies according to levels of education.Seventy percent than there are at four-year colleges or universities. homogeneous; of pre-primary schools are run by the private sector;99 The student population is nearly institutions are oper- almost all are ethnic Chinese, and most ofthe remain- percent of compulsory education der are aborigines concentrated in the eastei n partof ated by the public sector, either city/county ormunici- pal/provincial governments. For the college-hound stu- Chinese Taipei. According to available data, 1.19 per- schools, and 0.63 dent, there are more private high schools (10additional cent of students enrolled in primary aborigines. ones) than there are public ones, and there arealso 21 percent in junior high schools, are additional private skills-oriented vocationalschools. Males are slightly more numerous (51-54 percent) exception is senior voca- Junior colleges are predominantly private;there are six at most levels of education. The than there are private tional schools, where males comprise only46 percent of more public four-year colleges by education- ones. Even though some orivateschools are church- the student body. The percentage of males pre-primary chil- affiliated (Christian or Buddhist), the separationof al level is as follows: about 52 percent of of junior church and education precludes the practiceof religion dren, 52 percent of primary children, 51 percent high school in school. The law regulating schoolsmandates that pri- high students, 53 percent of college-bound vate schools may not forcestudents to take courses in students, and 54 percent of postsecondary students. institutions religion or to participate in religious activities onschool A comparison of private versus public pri- by educational level shows that privatekindergartens grounds. (Statistics on the percentage of church-run do vate schools in Chinese Taipei are notavailable.) accommodate almost four times as many children- as The geographic distribution of schoolsreflects public kindergartens, but 97 percent ofall students Interest- population density. In the more populousurban areas attend public primary and junior high schools. schools in the north and south, there is alsothe highest concen- ingly,thoughpubliccollege-preparatory high schools, they tration of schools of all educational levels.There is also account for less than half of all senior significant cluster of schools near serve 71 percent of the students.Slightly more than half a less numerous but they accom- the provincial government in the central partof Chinese of the vocational schools are private, and postsecondary Taipei. The mountainous eastern region ishome to less modate 63 percent of students. At the levels. level, 83 percent of students study at private juniorcol- than 10 percent of schools at all educational four- Table 12.3 shows the distribution of thestudent leges, and 58 percent of students attend pr.vate population in Chinese Taipei. The number ofstudents year colleges or universities. 21 12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 209

0 0 31.200 rn mM r THE CURRENT SCHOOL SYSTEM 25 30 24 29 23 28 22 27 21 -co 0 26 0 ie.g. -o FA X- - -1 20 I DOCTORAL PROGRAM 25 74 G) ` -n 1- "''''' - " i r-- 19 zo I 1 I 24 mm L. ....-I "0 I- ... - J 18 e5 71 23 001 MASTER PROGRAM 2M I 17 F"-`11 .^-T-1 2,4 22 IT E SO 16 TECHNICAL 21 COLLEGE CI 15 JUNIOR 20 COLLEGE 14 UNIVERSITY 19 Jul 13 $ COLLEGE COLEGE 18 (3YRS) S. 12 5YRS. 17 (SENIOR) SENIOR 11 16 COLLEGE- VOCATIONAL PREPARATORY 10 SCHOOL 15 9 14 8 13 JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 7 12 6 11 5 10 4 9 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 3 8 2 7

1 6 gn 5 KINDERGARTEN .14 FIGURE 12.1 Current school system (Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993.)

TABLE 12.2 School Distrily Ition at All Levels

Pre- Junior College- Junior College & Primary Primary High Bound Vocational College University

TOTAL 2,420 2,509 709 186 211 74 50

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE Public 716 2,487 700 88 95 14 28 Private 1,704 22 9 98 116 60 22 LOCATION (%) North 43.91 28.73 35.77 41.85 35.71 44.59 56 South 31.07 31.63 30.90 32.07 34.76 31.08 20 Central 21.56 31.35 27.18 21.74 24.76 20.27 20 East 3.46 8.29 6.15 4.35 4.76 4.05 4

Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993, p.4; Education Statistical Indicators in the Republic of China, 1993, p.8. 216 BEST COPY AVAILABLE TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 210

TABLE 12.3 Student Distribution at All Levels

JC UG GR PRE PR 1H CP VO 229,876 500,721 348,803 273,088 31,271 TOTAL 231,124 2,200,968 1,179,028 NA NA NA NA NA ABORIGINES (%) NA 1.19 0.63 GENDER (%) 53.08 46.39 50.44 55.08 75.06 Male 52.18 51.58 51.31 46.92 53.61 49.56 44.92 24.94 Female 47.82 48.42 48.69 PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE (%) 71.35 37.42 17.12 42.42 76.43 Public 21.00 98.84 94.0E 28.65 62.58 82.88 57.58 23.57 Private 79 0.16 5.92 VO = vocational; JC = junior college; UG =undergraduate; GR = Note: PRE =pre-primary;PR = primary; kl= junior high; CP = college preparatory; graduate school. Supply and Demand for Primary and Junior High SchoolTeachers in Abo- Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993;An Estimationof riginal Regions, Ministry of Education, 1992.

Because primary and junior high educationis Both the DOE and BOE can tailor the MOE'spolicies conditions of dif- compulsory for all 6- to 15-year-old children, the com- to fit the educational preferences and pletion rates at these two levels of education arealmost ferent areas. If the policies of the DOE and BOE con- author- 100 percent. In 1992, 88 percent of juniorhigh school flict with those of the MOE, the administrative graduates pursued the next highest levels ofeducation, ities involved negotiate a resolution of thoseconflicts. such as college-prep high schools, skills-oriented vocational schools, or skills-oriented junior colleges.About 60 percent of high school graduates and 15 percentof BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE vocational school graduates continue postsecondary schooling.1 Students cherish the opportunity tolearn, For a bird's-eye view of the teaching force inChinese of the because they must pass competitive entrance examina- Taipei, this section describes the characteristics when they teaching profession, the characteristics ofteaching tions to receive postcompulsory education and complete junior high school. However, somestudents employment, and the patterns of teacher supply quit the school they have been admitted to inorder to demand. study at an independent cram school, and prepare to retake the examination in hopes of admission to abet- Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession ter school. of edu- The educational administrative authority isdivid- The distribution of teachers is presented by level length of ed into three levels: the Ministry of Education(MOE) at cation, gender, public vs. private schools, age, the central government, the Department of Education service, educational background, qualification,and loca- (DOE) at the provincial/municipal level of government, tion in Table 12.4. In the 1992 school year, 85.7 percent kinder- and the Bureau of Education (BOE) at thecounty/city of the 219,280 full-time teachers taught in the level of government. Although the MOE is the major garten through grade 12 (up tosecondary senior high determinant of school policies for all levels ofeduca- school), levels, or "K-12." Of these 187,850 K-12 school- tion, it can also delegate administrativeresponsibility teachers, 7.8 percent were pre-primary; 44.7 percent secondary. About to the provincial/municipal governments,which in turn were primary; and 47.5 percent were can distribute their power tocity/county governments. 60 percent of secondary schoolteachers taught at junior Based on the control of revenue and budget, the power high schools, while the remaining 40 percent taught at of senior to establish or close schools, andthe supervision of senior secondary schools. The percentages schools, the real power of postsecondary educationlies secondary school teachers working at college-prep high in the MOE, that of senior secondaryeducation in the schools and at skills-oriented vocational schools were DOE, and that of compulsory education inthe BOE. about even (49 percent versus 51 percent, respectively). At K-12 levels, school teachers are predominantly women (59.8 percent), but thenumerical superiority of lEclucationStatistics of the Republic of China, 1993, female teachers lessens as the level of education rises. p.29. Female teachers comprise about 98 percent of the pre-

2.1 7 12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 211

TABLE 12.4 Teacher Distributions at K-12 Levels

Pre - Primary Primary Junior High College-Bound Vocational

TOTAL 14,727 84,052 53,212 17,527 18,332 GENDER (%) Male 2.27 39.51 41.41 52.85 57.78 Female 97.73 60.49 58.59 47.15 42.22

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE (%) Public 19.64 99.02 99.38 53.80 59.72 Private 80.36 0.98 0.62 46.20 40.28

AGE DISTRIBUTION (%) Below 25 NA 10.60 6.10 4 4.90 25-45 NA 57.70 64.80 70 72.60 Above 45 NA 31.80 29.10 25.90 22.50

TEACHING EXPERIENCE (YEARS) (%) Below 10 NA 38.80 33.90 45 49.90 10-20 NA 23.20 34.30 30.90 32.50 20-30 NA 18.40 27.30 19.70 14.70 Above 30 NA 19.60 4.40 4.40 3 EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND (%) Teacher training NA 81.50 50.50 40.40 33.70 Non-teacher training NA 18.50 49.50 59.60 66.30 Bachelor or higher NA 39.10 84.50 88.60 79.80 Below Bachelor NA 60.90 15.50 11.40 20.20 QUALIFICATION (%) Certified NA 95.60 95.70 80.60 78.90

Probationary NA 0.04 1 12 10 Certifying NA 0.60 1.40 3.40 3.40 Non-certified NA 3.80 1.90 3.90 7.70 LOCATION (%) Aboriginal Areas NA 2.89 0.87 NA NA

Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993.

primary teaching force, 60 percent of primary teachers, that, although there are more private senior secondary and 52 percent of secondary teachers. This trend is mir- schools than public ones, more teachers are employed rored within secondary schoollevels; 58percent of by public high schools (54 percent) and public voca- junior high school teachers are female; in contrast, 55 tional schools (60 percent). percent of senior high school teachers are male. Voca- The majority of primary and secondary school tional schools have more male teachers than do college- teachers (62.7 percent) range in age between 25 and 45, preparatory high schools (58 percent vs. 53 percent). but the age distribution varies with levels of education. On the whole, 85 percent of K-12 schoolteachers Approximately 10.6 percent of teachers at primary work for public schools. Pre-primary schoolteachers schools, 6.1 percent at junior high schools, and 4.5 per- work predominantly for private kindergartens (80 percent at senior secondary schools are younger than 25: cent); primary and junior high school teachers work while 31.8 percent at primary schools, 29.1 percent at predominantly at public institutions. This result is con- junior high schools, and 24.1 percent at senior high sistent with the fact mentioned in the previous section- schools are above age 45. On the other hand, 57.7 per- that pre-primary schools are mainly operated by the pri- cent of teachers at primary schools, 64.8 percent at vate sector, while compulsory education is provided by junior high schools, and 71.4 percent at senior high the government (99 percent). It is interesting to note schools are between ages 25 and 45. 218 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS 212

Turning our attention to the distributionof teach- Characteristics of Teaching Employment teachers have fewer ing experience, a large majority of characteristics of the by those with After the above description of the than 10 years of experience, followed be turned to the Interest- teaching profession, attention will now 10-20 years, 20-30 years, and above 30 years. teachers are ingly, 39 percent of both primary andsecondary school characteristics of their employment. School but the not considered civil servants inChinese Taipei. There- teachers have fewer than 10 years of experience, professions is teachers with over 30 fore, a comparison between these two percentage of primary school regarded as three times higher than that of provided below. Civil servants have been years of experience is highly com- 4.1 percent). rather prestigious because they must pass secondary school teachers (19.6 percent vs. pass). Yet, in a com- in secondary petitive exams (only 2-10 percent The trend toward inexperienced teachers receive higher schools is shown by the fact that more than45 percent parison with civil servants, teachers have fewer than financial rewards and are more respected. of teachers at senior secondary schools Teachers are much better paid than arecivil ser- 10 years' experience. and sec- vants. Though the basic payscale for public school teach- The educational background of primary those for civil service ondary school teachers is analyzed from twoangles: (1) ers reflects the same standards as employees, teachers are also paid a researchallowance. graduation from teacher training institutionsand (2) This means that their monthly earnings areslightly high- possession of bachelor's degrees. While81.5 percent of training er than those of civil serviceemployees. Moreover, school teachers at primary schools are from teacher receiving 13.5 institutions, only 45.1 percent of teachers atthe sec- teachers also have the advantage of monthly payments, even though they don'twork during ondary leve' are from these institutions.Teacher train- of teachers at summer and winter holidaysessions, whereas civil ser- ing institutions produce 50.5 percent Finally, primary and junior junior high schools, 40.4 percent athigh schools, and vants must work year-round. high school teachers earn tax-free income as areward for 33.7 percent at vocational schools. Because primary school teachers at one time were teaching in compulsory education levels. (which admitted Pay schedules are identical at allpublic schools, trained either by "normal" schools depending on their three-year teacher but those of private schools vary, junior high school graduates into large, private training programs, after which theyreceived the equiv- individual financial conditions. By and schools attempt to follow the pay schedules setby the alent of a high school diploma), or by juniorteachers' colleges (graduates received the equivalentof an Asso- public schools. Teachers who take more administrative responsi- ciate of Art, or AA), only 39.1 percentof them have a of bilities, who instruct mentally retarded students, orwho bachelor's degree. On the other hand, 84.3 percent other teach- secondary school teachers possess at least abachelor's work in remote areas are paid more than teachers at ers. This extra compensationrepresents a reward for degree; looking further, 84.5 percent of the additional time junior high scnools, 88.6 percent athigh schools, and accepting a more difficult job and for 79.8 percent at vocational schoolshave bachelor's and energy devoted to it. Public school teachers, like civil servants,enjoy degrees. such benefits as subsidies for short study toursabroad In terms of qualification, teachers areeither certi- certified, or and for scholarly publications, housing,children's edu- fied,2 probationary, in the process of being They also receive noncertified. About 96 percent of teachers in nine-year cation, and emergencies or calamities. 80 per- free medical treatment and cash payments. Freemed- compulsory education are certified, while only insured or high schools and ical treatment includes maternity care for the cent of teachers at college-preparatory checkups, med- vocational schools are certified. This is mainlybecause the spouse of the insured, and health teachers are ical treatment, and hospitalization carefor the insured 10-12 percent of senior secondary school disabilities probationary, 3.4 percent are in the process ofbeing only. Cash payments refer to payments for caused during the execution of official duties, toold age certified, and 4-8 percent are noncertified. and to funeral payments on On'y a small number of teachers work inaborigi- or senior citizen payments, primary level the death of the insured or of his or herdependents. Pri- nal area, including 2,431 teachers at the of their salary in and 463 at the junior high school level.The number of vate school teachers pay a portion senior secondary school teachers workingin aboriginal insurance premiums for medical treatment. Teachers may voluntarily retire after 25 yearsof areas is not available. teaching, but retirement is compulsory at age65. Retire- ment income may be paid in onelump sum or in monthly installments. Calculation of the one-lump-sum 2Student teachers from teacher training institutions are monthly salary they retirement depends on three factors: (1) included in the definition of certified teachers because monthly food allowance at are guaranteed certification after one yearof internship. at the time of retirement; (2) 215 12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 213 the time of retirement, calculated by the number of ply are: (1) graduates of teacher training institutions, dependents; and (3) length of service. These are all including teachers' colleges, normal universities, and a taken into account and then transformed into basic pay single department of education at one regular universi- units. Schoolteachers earn a maximum of 81 units (20 ty,5 and (2) graduates of non-teacher training institutions units more than the maximum for civil servants). Teach- (regular four-year colleges or universities). The first ers' monthly installment retirement pay is equivalent to source is the mainstream of teacher supply because approximately 75 to 95 percent of their regular month- these graduates have an obligation to serve as teachers ly pay at the time of retirement.3 for four years after their graduation. This compensation is an indication of the high A teacher shortage occurs when the mainstream regard in which teachers are held in Chinese Taipei. A teacher supply cannot meet teacher demand, while a survey done by the MOE in 1992 reports that among 40 teacher surplus occurs when the mainstream teacher occupations, secondary and primary school teachers are supply surpasses teacher demand. This imbalance can ranked 13th and 15th; middle-ranked civil servants are occur because of shortages in both quantity and quali- ranked 26th.4 ty. While quantity refers to a teacher shortage or a The public derives its respect for schoolteachers teacher surplus, quality means a mismatch between from a traditional respect for Confucius as a teacher. He what students major in at college and what they teach. has been regarded as the greatest teacher in Chinese The educational authorities have made tremen- history. He not only treated students without discrimi- dous effort in recent decades to balance the supply and nation, but also taught students according to their abil- demand for teachers. However, they have frequently ity and individual differences. failed, due to unpredictable events and to a rigid teacher Teachers' rights are also well protected. If teach- training system. A few years ago, a combination of fac- ers feel that their rights have been violated by the school torsChinese Taipei's prosperity, a new government or by the educational authorities, they can seek help policy allowing retired teachers to visit their relatives on from profe-.sional groups, such as the Association of mainland China, and the ample availability of funds for Teachers' Rights or the National Education Association. teacher retirementsuddenly caused a serious teacher When disputes over teachers' rights arise, these associ- shortage. More recently, successful family planning has ations bargain with the schools or the educational been reducing the pool of school-age children, thereby authorities. These organizations, however, are rarely creating a teacher surplus. involved in disputes over wage increases; the educa- The current teacher training system cannot tional authorities increase teachers' salaries yearly, Chi- respond to the . ripredictable job market on a short-term nese Taipei's financial situation permitting. basis. Each year, teacher training institutions admit a Because schoolteachers are well paid and highly fixed number of entrants. Also, it takes four years to pre- respected, and have high job security, teaching tends to pare a teacher, creating a time lag between market sup- be their profession for life. However, the fact that about plies and demands. 40 percent of primary and secondary school teachers At the middle of the school year, educational have fewer than ten years of teaching experience (men- authorities investigate teacher supply and current tioned previously) is primarily due to: (1) the fact that a vacancies in subject areas at all levels of education. If large number of teachers have been voluntarily retired; there is a serious teacher shortage at primary or sec- and (2) the fact that many new teachers have entered the ondary schools, local governments usually hold screen- teaching profession during the last decade. The turn-over ing tests to recruit graduates of regular four-year col- rate of private school teachers is higher because of lower leges and universities to the teaching profession. pay and poorer job security. Given the opportunity, However, some of the recruited teachers lack profes- teachers at private schools try to move to public schools. sional teacher training, because regular colleges or universities do not offer these courses. Others lack the abil- Patterns of Supply and Demand for ity to teach multiple subjects at primary schools because Teaching Positions they usually major in one discipline at college. Temporary teacher shortages occur when qualified Following is a discussion of the teachers' job market in female teachers take six-week pregnancy leaves, when terms of the sources of teacher supply, the reasons for teacher shortages or surpluses, and the current solutions to these problems. Two possible sources of teacher sup- 5Chinese Taipei has only one department of education in a regular university. This department was originally set up to prepare educational administrators. For the past few ;Education in Chinese Taipei, 1993. decades, it has also produced teachers, who acquire the same 4Occupational Prestige and Professional Image of qualifications as those teachers produced at teacher training Teachers in Chinese Taipei, 1992. institutions. 2Z0 MEMBERS 214 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC qualified male teachers fulfill their two-year army oblig- mary school teachers had been normalschools, which ation, or when teachers take long sick leaves. Substitute admitted junior high school graduates into three-year teachers, who meet lower requirements than do regular programs. On completion they receivedhigh school teachers, are then hired. These substitute teachers are diplomas. Beginning in 1971, however, normal schools not guaranteed continuing employment pastthe dura- were transformed into normal juniorcolleges, enrolling tion of the events causing these temporary shortages. junior high school graduates into five-year programs. During periods of serious teacher surplus in pri- Graduates earned a degree equivalent to an AA. In mary schools, student/teacher ratios arereduced to 1987, junior teachers' colleges were again upgraded to absorb the oversupplied teachers. When there is a teachers' colleges, accepting high school graduates into teacher surplus in subject areas at secondary schools, four-year programs. Graduates of these programs earn graduates of teacher training institutions may be bachelor's degrees. assigned to teach subjects that do not match their col- Secondary school teachers had been trained in lege majors. teachers' colleges, which were later transformed into normal universities. Both types of institutions admit high school graduates into four-year programs, culminating CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF in a bachelor's degree. They differ in that teachers'col- TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS leges mainly prepare teachers majoring in liberal arts and sciences, but normal universities, which include at Characteristics of least three colleges, produce teachers specializing in lib- ',bather Preparation Institutions eral arts, science, and vocational areas, such as business and industry. Chinese Taipei has 13 teacher preparation institutions: 9 teachers' colleges, 3 normal universities, and one depart- Policy Guidance ment of education in a regular university. Whileteachers' colleges produce primary school teachers, normal uni- Three government levels have jurisdiction over teacher versities and the department of education prepare sec- education. Teacher training institutions are under the ondary school teachers. Annually, primary school teacher control of the central government because they are traininginstitutionsenroll about 2,200-3,600 new postsecondary.Thus,theMinistryof Education entrants; secondary school teacher training institutions approves establishment of new departments atteacher admit 'about 2,000 students (see Table 12.5). training institutions (or a new teachers' college or nor- Teacher training institutions also have extension mal university). It also controls admission to these insti- divisions. These provide advanced specialty training and tutions (through nationwide college and university professional training for aspiring teachers, probationary entrance examinations), and determines required cours- teachers, and in-service teachers. These extension divi- es and graduation requirements. sions, which do not enjoy official sanction, have no fac- Under the current system, provincial/municipal ulty and staff of their own, but depend on those from governments have jurisdiction over senior secondary associated undergraduate and graduate divisions. More- education, and municipal and county/city governments over, without financial support from the government, have jurisdiction over compulsory education. As a these divisions must be self-supporting. result, the recruitment, certification, on-the-job training, Since 1949, the quality of teachers has been and retirement of schoolteachers are in the hands of upgraded continuously. The institutions that trained pri- local governments, the DOEs and BOEs.

TABLE 12.5 Enrollments of Teacher Training Institutions (TTI)

1990 1991 1992 1993

Primary School TTI 2,210 2,520 3,074 3,612 Secondary School TTI 2,194 1,929 2,307 2,582 Free Education 1,958 1,689 2,071 2,258

Note: While all students of primary school teacher training institutions enjoy free education, somefrom secondary school teacher training institutions do not. Thus, for secondary school teacher training institutions, the upper figures indicate the enrollments and the bottom figures presentthe number of students receiving free education. Source: Survey done by the Department of Secondary Education, Ministry of Education,1993. 221 12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 215

Teacher education accounts for an increasing per- Fifth, on completion of the one-year teaching centage of the educational expenditure by the MOE. In practicum, graduates are obliged to teach for four years 1993, the expenditure for teacher education at nine at primary or secondary schools as full-time teachers. teachers' colleges and three normal universities account- This requirement serves to ensure them employment, as ed for 7 percent of the educational expenditure by the well as to supply qualified teachers to schools. MOE, which is 20-25 percent of the expenditure for Sixth, primary and secondary school teachers are public, four-year college and university education. To trained at different institutions. Teachers' colleges pro- put this in perspective, students in teacher training insti- duce primary school teachers. Primary teachers teach tutions account for only 18 percent of all the public the entire range of subjects to the same students. Among four-year college students.6 these subjects are Chinese, mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences, music, crafts, and fine arts. Normal uni- Accreditation/Approval versities and the one university department of education prepare secondary school teachers specializing mainly There are several characteristics that distinguish teacher in a single-subject area. training institutions and their graduates from regular col- Seventh, teachers' colleges and normal universi- leges and universities.? First, all 13 teacher training insti- ties are the only institutions providing teacher training. tutions are established and funded by the government. Regular college graduates who intend to become teach- The private sector may not set up teacher training insti- ers, and probationary and noncertified teachers who tutions. This is the case because, first of all, teacher edu- are recruited during teacher shortages, must earn up to cation in Chinese Taipei is regarded as an aspect of 20 credits in professional courses at teacher training national defense policies and thus falls under the aus- institutions. pices of the government. Chinese Taipei has been under Finally, only teacher training institutions have affil- the threat of invasion and teachers are responsible for iated K-12 experimental schools. These schools are pri- producing citizens who are educated about and sup- marily set up to provide the teaching practicum for the portive of military defense. Second, such control over fifth-year students. They also allow demonstration of, teacher training institutions allows the government to and experimentation with, new teaching theories, mate- balance teacher supply and demand. rials, and methods. At each teacher training institution, Third, all full-time undergraduate students of most there is a Council on Teaching Practicum, which is in teacher training institutions, half of the students in one charge of the fifth-year internship. These councils work normal university, and half of the students at the depart- closely with the affiliated schools on matters concern- ment of education in the regular university are given ing student teaching. free education, free textbooks, uniforms, and room and board throughout their four-year programs. These incentives have been useful in attracting talented stu- NATURE AND CONTENT OF dents into the teaching profession. TEACHER PREPARATION Fourth, on completion of four-year programs of study,those undergraduate students who have Goals of the Teacher Preparation System received a free education must spend the fifth year teachingat either primary or secondary schoolsas The goal of teacher education is to equip teachers with a requirement for the bachelor's degree. This teaching broad backgrounds, solid academic specializations, and practicum assists student teachers in putting pedagog- effective teaching skills. Specifically, teachers' colleges ical theories into practice. It also functions as a means train primary school teachers as generalists, who stay of aiding undergraduates in their transition from the with students the whole day and cover all subjects. Nor- role of being a student to that of being a teacher. Dur- mal universities and the one university department of ing their internship, student teachers are paid as prac- education produce secondary school teachers who ticing teachers. teach in one subject area.

Academic Preparation Prior to 61t is difficult to compare per-student expenditure in Preservice Teacher Education teacher training institutions with that of regular four-year colleges and universities because the percentages of expenditure As previously noted, high school graduates are admit- in the latter include both undergraduate and graduate educated to colleges or universities after passing nationwide tion, while the percentage of students in the former only takes undergraduate students into account. Joint College Entrance Examinations administered by ?The characteristics are based on the current Law of the Ministry of Education. They are evaluated based on: Teacher Education, which has been implemented since 1979. (1) their test scores; (2) the minimum test scores 222 216 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS required by the departments at teacher training institu- primaryschoolteachertraininginstitutionshas tions; and (3) the student's choice of school and depart- remained at approximately 2,400, whereas that of sec- ment. These factors determine if and where a student is ondary school teacher training institutions has remained admitted. at approximately 1,900. A large number of talented but poor students once chose teacher training institutions as their top priority Nature and Content of because teacher education was free, because jobs were Preservice Teacher Preparation Curricula guaranteed, and because the teaching profession was highly respected. Although aspiring teachers are still tal- Teacher education requires four years of academic study ented individuals, the majority of them no longer come on campus and one year of teaching practicum ateither from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This is due to primary or secondary schools. During their four-year the overall improvement in living standards in Chinese academic studies, students are required to take 148 Taipei. credits, 20 credits more than those in other universities Based on their competitive test scores on the or colleges. The course of study covers generaleduca- entrance examinations, high school graduates in the lib- tion, professional training, and academic specializations. eral arts still view teaching as a desirable career. Thus, While both primary and secondary school teacher train- only those liberal arts students who score highest on the ing institutions provide the same general education, the tests, and who set teaching as their top priority, are professional training and academic specialization pro- admitted to teachers' colleges or normal universities. On grams differ for these two types of training institutions. the other hand, those students talented in math and nat- General education provides college students ural sciences tend not to set teaching as their top prior- majoring in different fields with a common core of edu- ity, due to the availability of more desirable career cation. It consists of 28 credits of required courses for choices. Consequently, when liberal arts and math and all college students, including Chinese language, foreign science students of the teacher training institutions are languages, contemporary Chinese history, studies in the compared, the ability level of the former appears to be constitution of Chinese Taipei and in the thought of Dr. higher than that of the latter.8 Sun Yat-sen, and various other liberal arts courses. In addition to the different test scores of students The purpose of 20 required credits of profession- from different subject areas, there is also a difference al training is to assist teachers in teaching more effec- between teachers' colleges and normal universities. tively. For primary school teachers, professional train- Even though primary and secondary school teachers ing includes courses in primary education; educational with the same qualifications earn the same pay, sec- psychology; teaching principles; types of teaching mate- ondary school teachers usually have higher social sta- rials and methods in language arts, social studies, math- tus than do primary school teachers. Therefore, the test ematics, natural sciences, music, fine arts, and crafts; scores for normal universities are higher than those for and teaching practice.10 For secondary school teachers, teachers colleges.9 professional training includes 16 credits of required There is one exception for admission to teacher courses, such as the introduction of education, sec- training institutions: Native students from rural areas and ondary education, educational psychology, teaching "overseas Chinese" may take a smaller-scale examina- principles, teaching method and teaching practicum, tion. This exception to the normal requirements is a and four credits of elective courses, chosen from edu- result of attempts to deal with the problem of recruiting cational philosophy, educational sociology, vocational teachers for rural and underpopulated areas. Teacher guidance, audiovisual education, and moral principles.'' training institutions set quotas for students from these Academic specializations are defined as the sub- areas. Under the quotas, students compete for entrance ject areas that students will teach in the future. Hence, only with students from their own areas. On completion "specialization" has a different meaning for primary and of their education, these students are then required to secondary school teacher training institutions. BeCause return to their hometowns to teach. primary school teachers have to teach all subjects, pri- The number of new entrants to teachers' colleges mary school training institutions require a broad array and normal universities is fixed by the government, and of subject lreas, such as language arts, social sciences, therefore is not responsive to the market demand for mathematics, natural sciences, music, fine arts, and teachers. Since 1990, the number of yearly graduates of crafts. Although they are trained as generalists, students

"Minimum test scores in each department of each col- '°Curriculum Guidance for Teachers Colleges, 1993. lege and university are available from the Committee of Joint "The 20 credits of professional training are cited from College Entrance Examinations. Regulations for School Teachers to Register, which have been 9lbid. implemented since 1987. 223 12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 217 are also required to specialize in one subject area. On the MOE. The credits of professional training come from the other hand, students of secondary school training required courses for secondary school teachers. institutions major in one subject area. Nevertheless, stu- College graduates with a major specialization (or dents have been encouraged to take a minor because studies in a field related to a major specialization), a of the recent problems in matching students' majors minor specialization, or at least 20 credits of other acad- with available teaching positions. emic specialization meet the specialization requirement, The content of teacher education is designed so but lack professional training. Because regular four-year that teachers may teach in generic, not particular, areas. colleges and universities are not allowed to provide pro- The courses offered in teacher training institutions are fessional teacher training courses, their students must similar to those in regular colleges and universities, and pass exams to return to teacher training institutions for therefore are not quite linked to the curriculum at pri- one-year, postbachelor's educational programs. mary and secondary schools. Teachers have to apply When the demand for teachers in certain subject what they learn and tailor the teaching materials to meet areas outstrips the supply of teachers from teacher individual needs. After four years of academic studies training institutions, graduates of non-teacher-training on campus, students from teachers' colleges work as institutions who have majored in those subject areas, student teachers at primary schools. Students from nor- as well as completed professional training at post- mal universities and the one university department of bachelor's educational programs, are recruited to teach education teach at secondary schools for one year. Prac- through screening tests held by local governments. ticing teachers at their secondary practicum school, and The screening tests usually include written tests, oral the professors from college, help them through the tran- exams, and tes thing tests. Those who pass the screen- sition from student to teacher. ing tests and are employed by schools are ready for registration. Sometimes, the shortage in certain vocational subject areas is so serious that probationary CERTIFICATION teachers, who fulfill academic specialization requirements but who have not yet taken professional train- In Chinese Taipei, teachers must register with the edu- ing classes, are also recruited. They are required to cational authorities to become qualified. Graduates of make up professional training in five y.tars, and then teacher training institutions need only register as certi- are eligible for registration. fied teachers. Conversely, graduates of non-teacher-train- Registration is a necessary process for all teachers ing institutions must complete any professional training to become certified (qualified). Most primary school they have missed, pass screening tests of teacher recruit- teachers are registered as generalists; a few are regis- ment, and then register as certified teachers. tered as specialists in music, crafts, fine arts, and phys- Graduates who enjoy free, four-year undergradu- ical education. On the other hand, all secondary school ate education from the 13 teacher training institutions teachers are registered as specialists. Some secondary are assigned to teach at either primary or secondary school teachers teach only their major subject area. schools after they complete their education. When they However, secondary school teachers are often required are employed by school principals, schools will do the to teach other subjects, due to difficulties in complete- paperwork to get their teachers registered with the DOE ly matching their college major with what they teach in at provincial/municipal government levels. secondary schools. Teachers can register as certified teachers only in subjects comprising over half of their Status of Qualifying Conditions teaching hours each semester. At most, a teacher can register in three subject areas during his or her entire Teacher training institutions supply more than 80 per- teaching career. Teachers try to register in more than cent of primary school teachers, but produce only 45 one subject, in case there are not enough classes to percent of secondary school teachers. As a result, a large teach in a particular subject area. number of secondary school teachers are provided by non-teacher-training institutions. The graduates of non- Certification Reauthorization teacher-training institutions have to satisfy two prerequisite conditions to become secondary school teachers: If a certified teacher leaves the teaching profession for (1) obtain at least 20 credits in an academic specializa- more than ten years, re-registration is necessary. Proba- tion in the subject area a teacher intends to teach; and tionary teachers are temporarily employed; they have to (2) obtain at least 10 credits for master's degree holders, complete their professional training in five years. On or 20 credits for college graduates of professional teacher completion, they then qualify to register as certified training. The 20 credits of academic specialization are teachers. Otherwise, they become uncertified and have usually accredited by experts in the field, on request of to leave their teaching jobs. 224 MEMBERS 218 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT sions or in one year of evening sessions. On completion, they earn a certificate of teacher training, which quali- Various types of on-the-job training have been offered fies probationary teachers and helps aspiring teachers to upgrade teacher quality. Training can beeither satisfy prerequisite requirements as teacher candidates. degree-oriented or non-degree-oriented. Non-degree- Recently, because of the mismatch between what oriented training may or may not be taken for credit. teachers major in at college and what they teach at The following section discusses major types of on-theschool, teachers have been encouraged to study in job training provided, the institutions offering training, minor subject areas. Once they accumulate 20 credits of the incentives, and the expense of training.12 an academic specialization, they canbe registered as certified teachers in that subject area in the future. Under the current circumstances, an added specializa- Professional Development Opportunities tion improves teachers' chances of employment. Along with the upgrading of teacher training institutions, Various noncredit programs are also offered to provision has been made for existing teachers with enhance in-service teachers' knowledge and to enablr... degree-oriented programs to improve their academic them to adapt to innovative educational materials and qualifications. For example, pre-primary school teachers methods. The length of programs varies, lasting from with high school diplomas are encouraged to pursue one day to several weeks. The programs areheld in the associate degrees through summer school or night school form of workshops, seminars, or symposia. courses. K12 schoolteachers already possessingassociate All of the above professional programs are offered degrees are also encouraged to earn bachelor's degrees. by 13 teacher training institutions and by four teacher Many teachers have benefited from these programs training centers. Discipline-based academic courses are because pay scales are related to level of education. provided by both regular colleges and universities and Credit-oriented training includes 40-credit gradu- by teacher training institutions. ate programs, postbachelor's teacher training programs, The fees for degree-oriented programs and 40- and academic specialization programs. Secondary credit graduate programs are shared by the education- school teachers with bachelor's degrees may apply for al authorities and the beneficiary. In some counties/ 40-credit graduate programs. The courses are offered cities, the expense of postbachelor teacher training pro- in summer, on weekends, and at night. On completion grams for probationary teachers is sharedby local gov- of 40 credits, teachers acquire certificates of credit ernments and probationary teachers; in other counties/ instead of master's degrees because they have entered cities, fws are paid solely by the teachers. Prospective graduate schools without passing entrance examina- teachers attending postbachelor's professional training tions. Those who complete the program: (1) have their have to pay their own expenses. Non-credit programs salaries increased by four levels; (2) improve their are usually supported financially by theeducational chances of promotion; (3) waive as many as half of the authorities. required credits if they pass the entrance exams and can enter graduate schools. Moreover,during their studies, they pay half of the expenses and the educa- POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FOR tional authorities provide the rest in financial support. TEACHER PREPARATION AND All of these strong incentives entice in-service sec- PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ondary school teachers into on-the-job training. In the tough competition for in-service training opportunities, Although current teacher education has made a great teachers with more seniority, more publications, and contribution to Chinese Taipei, the dramatic social and degrees from teacher training institutions have the best political changes brought about by the lifting of Martial chance of being successful. Law in 1987 have pushed the government to reconsider Postbachelor's teacher training programs are the future course of teacher education. This section dis- offered to probationary teachers and college graduates cusses the issues and challenges Chinese Taipei isfacing who intend to become teachers but who lack the and how the government plans to solve the problems. required professional training. They must pass screening tests to enter the programs, where they can earn the Present Concerns for Change and Improvement required 20 credits of professional courses in education. Students can complete this program in two summer ses- The first challenge regards the government monopoly on teacher training institutions. The currentlaws mandate that nine teachers' colleges, three normal universi- 12A Comparison Study of Teacher Education in Major ties, and the one university department of education are Countries, 1992. the only institutions responsible for preparing K-12

2 12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 219 school teachers.13 Ironically, these institutions fail to fact that graduates of teacher training institutions are supply enough teachers for skills-oriented senior voca- entitled to teach without licensure probably detracts tional schools. Consequently, regular four-year college from their professional standing. graduates majoring in vocational subjects are employed Another criticism of the present system is that stu- as probationary teachers. Lacking 20 credits in profes- dents at teachers' colleges have trouble identifying sional courses, these probationary teachers must spend with, or easily accepting, their role as students of pri- another year in postbachelor's professional programs at mary school teaching preparation. More than half of teacher training institutions at the same time they are primary schools are small in size, and thus have fewer teaching school. Limited opportunities for probationary than 12 classes. This means that there are two classes teachers have caused numerous complaints. Moreover, per grade for each of the six grades. Each class is current teacher training policy precludes other college assigned only 1.5 teachers. This situation requires pri- graduates with solid academic backgrounds and strong mar school teachers to teach many more subjects than enthusiasm from becoming teachers. All of these prob- do secondary school teachers. Thus, primary school lems put pressure on the government to review the pol- teachers must teachand therefore learn to teach icy on teacher education. Chinese, mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences, The frequent imbalance of teacher supply and fine arts, crafts, and music. Studying this range of sub- demand is a recurring problem. One of the govern- jects allows only a superficial mastery of any one par- ment's justifications for retaining the exclusive right to ticular subject. establish and fund teacher training institutions is the Students at teachers' colleges tend to identify need to control the balance of teacher supply and themselves instead with other college students who demand. However, the rigidity of the teacher training major in more in-depth, traditional disciplines, like Chi- system and the difficulty of reliable prediction inhibit nese literature, physics, history, and so forth. This results the government's efforts in this regard. Those receiving in a lack of enthusiasm on the part of students, some of free teacher education are obliged to teach at primary whom drop out of school to retake the college entrance or secondary schools. This obligates the government to examinations. find them teaching posts. Fixing the number of new stu- Faculty and staff at teacher training institutions dents annually recruited by these teacher training insti- complain of their heavy workload. Because extension tutions makes it impossible to respond to the varying divisions are not mandated under current law, faculty demand for teachers. Furthermore, the time lag between and staff .must provide preservice training and in-ser- admitting students and graduating teachers makes pre- vice training on their own time. This leaves little time diction of supply and demand inaccurate. Accordingly, to do research, and leads to general exhaustion. The it is not surprising to see teacher shortages at one time extension divisions' dependence on undergraduate and oversupply at another. and graduate divisions for faculty limits their ability to In addition, the quality of graduates from teacher make systematic, long-term plansforin-service training institutions frequently has been questioned. The teacher training. current law requires that students who enjoy four years The final problem is that teachers are entitled to of free education must serve as schoolteachers for four teach throughout their entire careers without participat- years in return, after their graduation. In other words, ing in on-the-job training. Current in-service training regardless of their academic performance, once students policy encourages teachers to improve themselves enter teacher training institutions, they are guaranteed through positive incentives, rather than through penal- teaching jobs and will become certified teachers. Under ties. Therefore, teachers who are not interested in on- this law, inept teachers may be protected if they attend- the-job training are protected. In fact, it is unrealistic to ed a teacher training institution. require all teachers to receive timely in-service training Many teachers complain that, although respected because the 13 teacher training institutions cannot pro- in society, they have not received the same kind of fair vide enough opportunities for the approximately treatment enjoyed by professionals such as doctors, 187,000 school teachers. accountants, and lawyers. The competitive licensing tests for graduates from medical, law, and business Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement schools bestows professional stature. In contrast, the Confronted with the above problems, the MOE has recently revised the law on teacher education. In response to the complaints about the monopoly on 13The current Law of Teacher Education has been implemented since 1979. The new law, called Law of Teacher teacher training institutions, the new law relaxes the Preparation (including preservice, internship and in-service restrictions on providing educational programs in regu- training), is under revision by the legislature. lar colleges and universities. In the near future, many 226 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN APEC MEMBERS 220 regular four-year colleges and universities are expected offering on-the-job teacher training. Extension divi- to apply to the MOE to establish newdepartments of sions will be able to have their own facultyand staff education, or to offer educational programs, thus reduc- and to make long-term plans for in-service training. ing the distinction between these universitiesand col- Moreover, because more institutions can provide on- leges and the teacher training institutions. Thiswill the-job training, teachers can no longer use insufficient expand the methods of training teachers. training opportunities as excuses to avoid training. Many educators are worried that the above liber- Thus, the ideal of requiring teachers to renew their al policy might cause a decline in teacher quality. In licenses every ten years based on in-service training order to assure teacher quality and to professionalize will become feasible. teaching, the new law requires that all new teachers be licensed like lawyers and doctors. First, a student must complete 20 credits of teacher training courses in addi- CONCLUDING REMARKS tion to the standard 128 credits for thebachelor's degree, thus meeting the requirements for becoming a During the past few years, Chinese Taipei has experi- student teacher. Then he or she has to find a school in enced significant political and social changes. Aligned which to do his or her internship for a year. On com- with these changes, there has been a growing consen- pleting the internship, he or she has to pass a licensing sus that teacher education needs tobe reformed. The test to become a licensed (qualified)teacher. Graduates recent dramatic revision of the law onteacher educa- of teacher training institutions are also subject to these tion is a result of great effort. As teacher education pro- requirements. Through the strict process of licensing, gresses into the next stageimplementingthe laws teacher quality is expected to be assured and teaching new types of problems will occurand the educational is expected to become professionalized. authorities will be ready for the new challenges. To avoid the imbalance of supply and demand for teachers, the new law makes the teacher training system so flexible that it can respond tothe market easi- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ly. Free teacher education will be limited to certain subject areas in which there is a serious teachershortage Bin-jen Fwu is a specialist in the Department of Secondary and is limited to geographic areas where teachers are Education in the Chinese Taipei Ministry of Education. difficult to recruit. In other words, students enrolled in Acknowledgments go to Dr. Ching-ji Wu, the Director teacher training programs must pay for their education General of the Department of Secondary Education, for themselves and the government will no longer have the his guidance and assistance. The views expressed here are burden of assigning them to jobs as was previously the those of the author and should not be attributed to the case. A neutral professional associationwill be set up Ministry of Education of Chinese Taipei. to provide information for aspiringteachers on the number of teachers available and the vacancies in each REFERENCES subject area at each school. The licensing system will be used to adjust the supply and demand for the teach- Ministry of Education. (1992).A comparison study of teacher ing force. training in major countries.Taipei, Author. The new policies may help students at teachers Ministry of Education. (1992).An estimation of supply and colleges better identify with future primary school demand for primary and junior high school teachers in teaching jobs covering many subjects areas. Current- aboriginal areas. Taipei,Author. ly, high school graduates must choose a major when Ministry of Education. (1992).Occupational prestige and pro- they take the entrance examination. In th:-. future, col- fessional image of school teachersinthe Republic of China.Taipei, Author. lege students will receive general education for the (1993). Curriculum guidance of teach- first two years and will not decide on their major until Ministry of Education. ers' colleges.Taipei, Author. the third year. This will encourage students of teach- Ministry of Education. (1993).Educationinthe Republic of ers' colleges to broaden their knowledge of subject China.Taipei, Author. areas. This will better prepare themfor jobs as pri- Ministry of Education. (1993).Educational statistics of the mary school teachers. Republic of China.Taipei, Author. The new law not only legitimizes extension divi- Ministry of Education. (1993).Education statistical indicators sions but also eases the limitations for institutions of the Republic of China.Taipei, Author. 13 The Teaching Profession and Teacher Education in the United States

Submitted by: Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education Prepared by: Linda Darling-Hammond and Velma L. Cobb, Teachers College, Columbia University

THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING remaining 19,000 are located in central cities. Private IN THE UNITED STATES schools are distributed more evenly, with slightly more located in central cities. Most private schools Wl'e reli- In 1990-1991 there were approximately 105,000 elemen- giously affiliated (about 20,000), with Catholic schools tary and secondary schools serving about 45 million stu- being the single largest group (about 9,000). The dents in the United States. Of these, about 80,000 were remainder are nonsectarian independent schools, many public schools and about 25,000 were private schools. of which have a particular educational focus or serve Nearly 90 percent of elementary and secondary students students requiring special education for students with attend public schools (National Center for Education Sta- disabilities (NCES, 1993d). tistics [NCES], 1993a). In both the public and private sec- Students ordinarily spend six years in the elemen- tors, about two-thirds of all schools are elementary tary grades, often preceded by one to three years in (NCES, 1993a). School size varies by level, sector, and preschool programs. Fifty-five percent of 3- to 5-year- type of community. Typically, for each type of commu- olds were enrolled in preprimary programs as of 1992 nity, elementary schools are smaller than secondary (NCES, 1993d). After elementary school, students gen- schools (500 students on average as compared with 1,100 erally spend six years in secondary school, through students). Public schools at each level are larger than pri- grade 12, usually finishing by about age 17 or 18. In vate schools. Urban schools tend to be larger than sub- 1990-1991, about 12 percent of 16- to 24-year-olds had urban or rural schools (NCES, 19936). Definitions of lev- failed to graduate from high school (NCES, 1993d). els of schooling are provided in Table 13.1. About 14 million students are enrolled in post- Approximately one-half (40,000) of public schools secondary education in two- to four-year colleges, are located in rural or small town communities, 21,000 including about 32 percent of 20- to 24-year-olds. are located in urban fringe areas or large towns, and the There are 3,600 such institutions in the United States. Some students enter technical or vocational schools after high school. There are over 6,000 such noncol- Support for this chapter was provided by the Office of legiate institutions offering postsecondary education the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education. The find- and training (NCES, 1993a). Overall, about 59 percent ings and conclusions presented herein do not necessarily rep- of twelfth graders apply to two- to four-year colleges resent the official positions or policies of the Department.

221 228 222 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 13.1 Definitions of Levels of Schooling

Age Range Type and Level of Education Levels of Schooling In Terms of Grade/Levels of Students Required to Teach at This Level

PREPRIMARY SCHOOLING Prekindergarten 2-5 years High school diploma or equivalent

PRIMARY SCHOOLING Primary grades: kindergarten & 5-11 years Bachelor's degree, including Elementary schools include grades 1-3; Middle or upper elementary education courses; "primary" grades and "upper elementary: grades 4-6 Master's degree in some states for elementary" grades permanent license

Bachelor's degree with a major in SECONDARY SCHOOLING Grades 7-12 12-18 years Middle or junior high schools: discipline to be taught; Master's grades 6-8/9; High schools: degree in some states grades 9-12

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION Bachelor's, Master's, & Doctoral 18/19 and older Doctorate levels

18-22 years and older Doctorate PRESERVICE TEACHER Bachelor's and/or Master's level PREPARATION

(53 percent in the public sector and 76 percent inthe students of color in colleges (two- and four-year insti- private sector). tutions) rose from 15.4 percent in 1976 to 17.9 percent Of students attending elementary and secondary in 1986. Much of the change can he attributed to the sig- schools in 1991, about 70 percent are classified as nificant increase in the number of Asian students. The white,' 15 percent as black, 11 percent as Hispanic,2 3 proportion of black students in college fell from 9.4 per- percent as Asian or Pacific Islander, and 1 percent as cent to 8.6 percent during this same period,due to the American Indian or Alaskan Native (NCES, 1993b). Stu- declining enrollment of black males. dents of color are more heavily concentrated in the pub- Overall, the racial-ethnic composition of the teach- lic sector than in private schools, and in central cities ing force does not match that of the students they teach. than in suburban or rural areas. Proportions of nonwhite In the public sector, only 8 percent of the teachers are students have been increasing steadily for two decades. black, non-Hispanic; 3 percent are Hispanic; and 1 per- In 1976, students of color (nonwhite students) account- cent are Asian (NCES, 1993b). Teachers workwith dif- ed for about 24 percent of public elementary/secondary ferent racial-ethnic mixes of students depending on the enrollment. By 1986, the percentage had increased to type of community in which their school islocated and 30 percent. By the year 2020, it is projected that as many whether they teach in the public or private sector. Pub- as 46 percent of all children inpublic elementary and lic schools are located in local school districts that, by secondary schools will be students of color (NCES, and large, reflect the surrounding community. In some 1991). districts, children are bused in from neighboring com- Dropout rates for black and Hispanic students munities in an effort to create a more di,vrse racial/eth- remain higher than those for white students, and matric- nic mix in the schools. ulation rates into higher education remain lower (NCES, The governance system for U.S. schools is extra- 1991). The 12 percent of 16- to 24-year-olds who had ordinarily complex and highly decentralized. The 80,000 dropped out in 1991 represented 9 percent of white public elementary and secondary schools are located in youth of that age, 14 percent of black youth, and 35 per- 15,000 local school districts that have substantial gover- cent of Hispanic youth (NCES, 1993d).Of high school nance authority. These districts arelocated within 50 graduates age 18 to 24, 41 percent of whites were states, which also have substantial governanceauthori- enrolled in college in 1992, compared with 28 percent ty and hold state constitutional authorityfor providing of blacks and 31 percent of Hispanics. The number of education. States have major regulatory responsibilities for defining educational programs, although some are more directive of local districts thanothers. Private schools are much less heavily regulated 'Thisfigure excludes persons of Hispanic origin. 2Hispanic origin citizens may be of any race. than public schools. State involvement in private 223 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES schools varies widely from state to state. For example, 1992). Teachers generally come from working-class some states require private schoolteachers to hold a backgrounds (60 percent) and are first-generation col- teaching license; others do not have to. In some states, lege graduates (about 80 percent) (NEA, 1981, 1987). priva:e schools must meet specific curriculum and test- Approximately 54 percent live and work in metropoli- ing requirements; in others they do not have to. Most tan areas (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984).Public states regulate health and safety matters in private as school teachers are an aging and highly experienced well as public schools. group; the median age has climbed from 33 in1976 to Given state constitutional authority for providing 42 in 1991 (NEA, 1992). Just over 50 percent have a education, much of the funding for education resides master's degree And more than 15 years of teaching with state authorities. On average, states provide about experience (NCES, 1991). Nearly 23 percent were over half of the revenues for public education, allocating 50 in 1991, and thus nearing retirement eligibility (NEA, funds to districts to augment locally raised revenues 1992). (most frequently raised by property taxes), usually in an Compared with the general college-educated "equalizing" fashion, to compensate for differentials in workforce, teachers are older, earn less, and are more local wealth. However, the proportion of state and local likely to be female (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984). funding varies tremendously between states. For exam- Teaching, like nursing, was traditionally a field open to ple, public education in Hawaii is virtually all state-sup- women and people of color in times whenfields like ported, whereas, in New Hampshire, funding for pub- medicine, law, engineering, and other professions were lic education comes largely from local funding. Within essentially closed to these populations. Throughout the states, substantial disparities in funding remain, with 1970s and 1980s, the proportion of college females and high-spending districts within any given state usually students of color going into teaching declined marked- spending two or three times more per pupil than low- ly as other career opportunit;es opened up (Darling- spending districts. The federal government has a small Hammond, 1990a). Overall, the number of bachelor's role with respect to the funding and governance of edu- degrees conferred in education declined by over 50 per- cation, providing only about 6 percent of the total funds cent between 1972-1973 and 1985-1986. In recent at the elementary and secondary levels, with most ear- years, some upswing in the number ofprospective marked for special purposes: for example, programs teachers has begun to occur with incentives, salary aimed at the education of handicapped, "limited Eng- hikes, and increased demand. lish proficient," or low-income students. Funding for special needs of students is partly pro- Characteristics of Teaching Employment. vided through federal or state "categorical" programs. Categorical programs are those financed through funds In 1991, American elementary school teachers worked set aside to address specific populations or areas of con- an average cf 45 hours per week andsecondary teach- cern. About 96 percent of all public schools offerfree ers spent an average of 50 hours per week onall or reduced-price lunches paid for withpublic funds. duties. U.S. teachers work an average of 185 days per Eighty-six percent of all public schools offer services for year (180 teaching days and 5 nonteachingdays), a handicapped students, 83 percent offer remedial pro- policy that has not changed over the past three grams, and 80 percent offer diagnostic and prescriptive decades (NEA, 1992). Class sizes average about 24 stu- services. Approximately 67 percent offer federally fund- dents in public schools and 20 in private schools ed services to address the special educational needs of (NCES, 1993b). In both the public and private sectors, economically disadvantaged students and 75 percent classes in the central cities are larger than those in offer gifted and talented programs. Bilingual education other community types. and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs are Teachers typically spend most of their time teach- also represented in a number of public schools (19 per- ing large groups of students. They typically have one cent and 41 percent respectively) (NCES, 1993b). "preparation period," a period of 30-50 minutes daily, in which to prepare for classes. In 1991, elementary school teachers were given approximately three hours A DESCRIPTION OF THE TEACHING FORCE per week to prepare for classes and secondaryschool teachers averaged about five hours per week for prepa- Characteristics of Teachers ration. However, 5 percent of secondary teachers and 10 percent of elementary teachers had no preparation In 1991, the U.S. teaching force was comprised primar- time at all in their weekly schedule (NEA, 1992). In most ily of women (72 percent of all teachers and 90 percent schools, teachers are not expected to meet jointly with of all elementary teachers), most of whom were white other teachers, to develop curriculum or assessments, (87 percent) (National Education Association [NEA], to observe or discuss each other's teaching, or to meet

250 224 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS individually with parents and students. In general, time sector, about 74 percent of schools offer medical insur- is not provided for these kinds of activities. ance, but fewer than half offer dental insurance (38 per- The average public school teacher with 15 years cent) or life insurance (46 percent). Two-thirds of pri- of experience earned a salary of $34,934 in 1992 (NCES, vate schools offer in-kind benefits such as those 1993d). Beginning teachers earned $23,054 on average. mentioned above and/6r tuition scholarships for teach- This was just slightly higher in real dollar terms than ers' children to attend the schools where they work salaries in 1972, before the decline in purchasing power (NCES, 1993a). that occurred during the 1970s and 1980s. In general, During the 1980s, 29 states introduced some kind teachers earn 20-30 percent less than professionals in of career ladder, merit pay, or incentive pay system for other occupations requiring similar educational prepa- teachers. These systems may be statewide or locally ration (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988; Gray et al., based. Such ladders were intended to raise salary levels 1993). Though some of the differential in compensation based on performance and make teaching more attrac- can be accounted for by the fact that most other pro- tive to talented teachers. However, most merit pay fessionals work more than 185 days per year, a sub- schemes have already been discontinued due to admin- stantial gap remains after this is taken into account. Pri- istrative and evaluation problems. A few career ladders vate school teachers generally earn less than their public continue to exist. Programs designating teachers as school counterparts (NCES, 1993c). "Master" or "mentor" teachers with special responsibili- Salaries are not governed by market conditions, ties continue in larger numbers; however, this practice but by state and local governmental budgetary actions is not common in most districts. These programs allow (Sykes, 1989). These depend in turn on local wealth, tax teachers to engage in work like curriculum develop- rates, and willingness to spend on education. Salary lev- ment or assistance to new teacherswork traditionally els vary greatly among local educational agencies with- reserved for administrators and supervisors (Darling- in states and among the states themselves. These varia- Hammond, 1990b; Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988). tions influence the teacher labor market, contributing to These initiatives are also an attempt to alter the "flat" surpluses of qualified teachers in some locationstyp- career structure of teaching. In the work environment, ically wealthy suburban districtsand shortages in oth- there is little differentiation between beginning and vet- ersgenerally central cities and poor rural areas. eran teachers and little variety at any career point in teach- Over most of the last 50 years, salary scales with- ers' responsibilities. U.S. teachers are expected to spend in districts have been on a fixed schedule that is uni- virtually all of their time instructing classes of students form for all teachers. The amount a teacher earns is (usually ranging in size from 20 to 30, depending largely based on his or her years of experience and level of on the wealth of the school district in which they work). education. Thirty states presently have mandated mini- Veteran and novice teachers usually have similar mum compensation levels for teachers statewide, and responsibilities. Because there are few rewards for 19 states have statewide salary schedules beyond the expertise or longevity in teaching, a seniority system has minimum, usually with a one-step increase in salary for emerged that often permits veterans to opt for "easier" each year of experience. In other states, salary sched- assignments. Novice teachers, having the least experi- ules are developed at the local district level, also fea- ence, are often assigned the least desirable tasks with- turing annual "steps" for experience and additional pay in a school, such as classes that serve the most educa- for additional education beyond the bachelor's degree. tionally needy children and duties like lunchroom, hall, Typically, schedules are flat and guarantee smaller and/or bathroom monitoring. New teachers are dispro- salary increases with increasing years of experience. portionately hired in the least economically advantaged Thus, there is not a wide range between the salaries of schools, which have the highest rates CI teacher beginning teachers and those of the most experienced turnover. Veteran teachers in large districts frequently in any given district. transfer to more desirable schools at their earliest oppor- Benefits (nonwage assistance for such things as tunity (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988; Wise, Darling- medical insurance and retirement)are an important Hammond, & Berry, 1987). part of a teacher's earnings or salary package. In the Teacher unions are powerful influences on public sector, retirement plans are almost universal. In teacher's work lives and school operations in most the private sector, retirement plans are less available, states.3 Two unions dominate collective bargaining in covering only 54 percent of private school teachers. teaching: the National Education Association (NEA) and Ninety-six percent of public schools offer medical insurance to teachers, and most also offer dental insurance (67 percent), life insurance (71 percent), and in-kind 3There are a few states that continue to bar collective benefits, like free or reduced lunch, or reimbursements bargaining. In these states, unions exist but they function only for tuition and course fees (70 percent). In the private as professional associations. They do not bargain. 2 225 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITEDSTATES the American Federation of Teachers (AFT). In 1991, tional education and serve a wide variety of special these organizations represented 66 percent and 12 per- populations of students, bilingual, vocational, and spe- cent of the teaching force, respectively (NEA,1992). cial education teachers are more in demand. Current Teachers are not required to become members of a reforms, however, are heightening demand for acade- union; however, most elect to do so. mic teachers in all communities, especially in mathe- Unions negotiate with local school boards to matics and science, where course-taking expectations establish a contract that defines salaries, benefits, due- are increasing (Akin, 1989; Associationfor School. Col- process procedures, and work rules that, in many ways, lege, and University Staffing, 1984; Darling-Hammond, set parameters for teachers' work. Though unions con- 1990a; Levin, 1985; National Science Board, 1985). tinue to function primarily as collective bargaining While demand is increasing, the supply of newly agent), there have been some recent changes inthe tra- prepared teachers is also beginning to increase once ditional roles unions have played. Increasingly, teacher again, after a dramatic decline from the early 1970s unions are involved in setting standards for teachers, through the mid-1980s. Between 1972 and 1987, the working on school reform, and initiating new educa- number of bachelor's degrees conferred in education tional programs (Kerchner & Koppich, 1993). plummeted by well over 50 percent, from 194,229 to 87,083 (American Council on Education [ACE], 1989; NCES, 1989). The declines were most pronounced for Supply and Demand candidates of color, plummeting by over 40 percent for Teacher demand has been increasing since the mid- Hispanic and Native American candidates between 1975 1980s as a function of increasing birth rates and immi- and 1987, and by two-thirds for African-American can- gration, declining pupil/teacher ratios, and increasing didates (ACE, 1989; NCES, 1989). By 1987, only 8,019 turnover of teachers due largely to retirement.The total candidates of color received bachelor's degrees in edu- number of full-time-equivalent teachers in public and cation, representing 9 percent of all education degrees, private schools increased from 2.5 million in 1980 to 2.8 a substantial drop from the 13 percentof a much larg- million in 1991, and is projected to reach 3.3 million by er number of degrees that had been awarded topeople the year 2002 (Gerald & Hussar, 1991). Between 1995 of color ten years earlier (ACE, 1989). and 2005, the demand for newly hired teachers is The decrease in education degrees earned by expected to reach about 250,000 annually, with a simi- women between 1975 and 1985 (from 30 to 13 percent lar rate of demand in the decade following (Darling- of all female college students) was matched by an Hammond, 1990a; NCES, 1991). increase in degrees in business (from 5 to 20 percent of Recurring shortages of teachers have characterized women college graduates) and other professionalfields, the U.S. labor market for most of the twentieth century, such as the sciences, along with preprofessional pro- with the exception of a brief period of declining student grams for fields such as law and medicine at the under- enrollments during the late 1970s and early 1980s (Sed- graduate level (Center for Education Statistics, 1986). lak & Schlossman, 1986). Currently, increases in demand Many of the same factors influenced enrollments of stu- and recent declines in supply have re-created shortages dents of color: Greater enrollment in fields like business in a number of areas and teaching fields. In the 1980s, and preprofessional fields drew students away from teacher shortages appeared in areas such as bilingual majors in education. As with women generally, these education, special education, physics, chemistry, math- shifts were most pronounced for African-American and ematics, and computer science. Recently, areas such as Hispanic women. biology, general science, industrial arts, foreign lan- Since the late 1980s, however, the total number of guages, gifted education (programs forexceptionally tal- bachelor's degrees in education has increased, reaching ented children), school psychologists, elementary guid- 111,000 in 1990-1991 (NCES, 1993e). This represents ance counselors, and librarians havejoined the list about three-fourths of all newly trained teachers each (Akin, 1989; Darling-Hammond, 1990a). Shortages are year. The remainder receive degrees in their disciplines most severe in central cities and in growing regionsof with a minor in education or receive master's degrees. In the country, such as the South and West. 1991, about 9 percent of entering teachers had earned a In addition to enrollments, other factors that influ- master's degree, nearly double the proportion since 1980 ence the demand for teachers are communitywealth (Gray et al., 1993; NCES, 1993a). This increase is proba- and goals for education. The types of teachers sought bly due to the recent introduction of policies in some by different communities also vary. Education in many states that now require master's degrees for teachers as a suburban communities has traditionally stressed an aca- condition of a full regular license and to the many mid- demic college preparatory curriculum, which requires career entrants who already have bachelor's degrees and more mathematics, science, art, andhumanities teach- are attracted by master's level teacher preparation pro- ers. In urban areas, which have stressed more voca- grams (Darling-Hammond, Hudson, & Kirby, 1989). 232 226 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

M current rates of increase, we might optimisti- want to teach in suburban schools that tend to have cally expect that the total number of new teachers who lower turnover and hire experience;' teachers rather are prepared in current programs could grow to about than new teachers. Others take time off to do something 150,000 annually over the next five years. This com- else (graduate school, travel, or homemaking) before pares with an estimated demand for newly hired teach- entering the field. Some of these individuals enter teachers of nearly 250,000 annually. Obviously, teaching ing later. Still others prepare to teach as a kind of insur- vacancies are being and will continue to be filled from ance, while pursuing other possible career opportuni- other sources, including the reserve pool of teachers ties. Some teachers decide not to enter the profession (those who previously taught and left temporarily or when they encounter difficulties in the cumbersome, who prepared to teach but did not enter immediately inefficient hiring processes that characterize many large after graduation). In recent years, a growing number of districts, when they experience unprofessional hiring individuals have entered teaching without preparation procedures, or when they find that their license is not for their jobs. In the future, a wide range of policy valid in a state to which they have moved after college choices yet unmade will determine the extent and (Wise, Darling-Hammond, & Berry, 1987). sources of teacher supply. Reasons for the undersupply of teachers in cer- In 1991. the total number of "newly qualified tain locations and teaching fields include salaries lower teachers" (who prepared to teach, were licensed, or had than those earned by similarly educated professionals, taught within a year of their graduation) was 140,000; a flat career structure, few opportunities for advance- of these 121,000 were eligible or licensed for teaching, ment, and relatively poor working conditions (Darling- while 19,000 taught without credentials. Not surprising- Hammond, 1990b). These problems are more severe in ly, those who were hired without a license were con- low-wealth districts, where shortages are also more centrated in shortage fields. One third or more of all severe. new teachers assigned to teach mathematics, science, Maintaining an adequate supply of well-prepared social studies, physical education, and special education recruits is even harder during times of substantial new were neither licensed nor eligible for licensure in those hiring. With heightened demand and greater hiring of fields (Gray et al., 1993). new teachers, annual attrition rates can be expected to As compared with other newly qualified teachers increase, since new teachers leave at much greater rates who received bachelor's degrees, those having taught than mid-career teachers (Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Hagg- without a license were younger, and they exhibited strom, Darling - Hammond, & Grissmer, 1988). In teach- lower levels of academic achievement: Most (57 per- ing, as in other professions, attrition follows a U-shaped cent) had grade point averages (GPA) below 3.25 (and curve, with high attrition in the early years, very low 20 percent had grade point averages below 2.25). Ia attrition during mid-career (15-20 years), and an contrast, most of those prepared for teaching (51 per- increasing attrition rate during retirement eligibility. cent) had grade point averages above 3.25. Highest attrition rates are among beginning teachers, Ironically, while shortages lead to the hiring of those typically having three or fewer years of experi- unqualified entrants, a great many newly qualified ence, particularly those who do not receive any men- teachers do not immediately enter the profession after toring or support during their first years of teaching. they complete their preparation. Of those who prepare Typically, 30-50 percent of beginning teachers leave to teach, only about 60-70 percent actually enter teach- teaching within the first five years (Darling-Hammond, ing the year after their graduation. and the proportion 1990a; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987). Teachers in urban areas is even lower for candidates of color (NCES, 1993a; Dar- and in shortage fields, such as the physical sciences, ling-Hammond, 1990a; Haggstrom, Darling-Hammond, tend to leave more quickly and at higher rates (Griss- & Grissmer, 1988). In 1985, about 74 percent of those mer & Kirby, 1987; Murnane & Olgen, 1988). newly qualified to teach applied for teaching jobs, and Some states have addressed shortages by increas- just under 50 percent ended up teaching full-time. Only ing salaries and providing scholarships for prospective 38 percent of the newly qualified candidates of color teachers. Some states provide forgivable student loans entered teaching full-time. Continuing the trend, only 76 (the repayment of these loans are prorated against percent of newly qualified teachers in 1990 applied for requirements for service) for those completing a mini- teaching jobs and only 58 percent were employed as mum number of years of service in teaching, particu- teachers in 1991 (NCES, 1993a; Gray et al., 1993). larly in high-need urban or rural areas. Incentives direct- Those who prepare to teach but never enter the ed at critical-need areas, such as mathematics or field do so for a number of reasons. Many have trouble science, are popular in many states. Presently, about 25 finding employment in areas where they live and want percent of all teacher education programs have some to work. Although most jobs for new teachers are in less kind of scholarship or loan program to recruit high aca- affluent central cities, most teacher education students demic achievers (Holmstrom, 1985). 2 3 227 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

States also influence the labor market by estab- tral region of the country, with the fewest located in the lishing requirements for licensure, establishing substan- western region. dard and/or temporary credentials, and/or lowering or The majority (approximately 65 percent) of higher raising cut-off scores on tests for licensure. These education institutions having teacher education pro- actions make it more or less difficult to secure a job as grams are private, but these produceonly 25 percent of a teacher (Cobb, 1993; Coley & Goetz, 1990;Darling- the new teachers. About one-third of all teacher-prepar- Hammond & Berry, 1988). In 1983, 46 of the 50 states ing institutions, most in large public universities, actual- allowed substandard, limited, or emergency licensure. ly produce 75 percent of all teachers. Many of these col- Twenty of these states granted licensure to teach to indi- leges began as state normal schools for teachers, and viduals without a bachelor's degree. In 1990-1991, 15 they continue to emphasize the preparation of teachers percent of newly hired teachers were not licensed4 to in their current broader role as liberal arts colleges. Some teach and another 12 percent held substandard licens- prepare as many as 1,000 teachers annually.Overall, es (temporary, provisional, or emergency)(National teacher candidates comprise about 10 percent of total Data Resource Center [NDRC1, 1993). college and university enrollments and about 13 percent At the local level, teacher shortages are addressed of undergraduate enrollments (American Association of by assigning teachers to work outside their field of Colleges for Teacher Education [AACTEI, 1987). licensure, by hiring untrained teachers or substitutes, by The number of programs offered by any single canceling courses, or by increasing class sizes (Hagg- SCDE varies widely. On average, a single SCDE offers strom, Darling-Hammond, & Grissmer, 1988). Overall, 8-12 distinct teacher education programs for different about 16 percent of all teachers teach some classes out- teaching fields (e.g. mathematics education, elementary side their field of licensure, and 9 percent spend most education, special education, etc.). In 1987, about one- of their time teaching in an area outside of their field of third of undergraduate SCDE students were enrolled in preparation. At the secondary level, 17 percent have less elementary education programs. Approximately18per- than a college minor in the field they most frequently cent were enrolled in secondary education programs teach (NEA, 1981; 1987). (about evenly divided among mathematics, English, social studies, and science candidates), 12 percent in special education, and 7 percent in early childhood edu- CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OF cation. Specialty areas such as physical education, read- TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS ing, bilingual education, and so on, comprised about 28 percent (AACTE, 1987). Characteristics of Institutions While national estimates of teacher education expenditures are not available, the relative claim on Teacher education in the United States takes place in a higher education dollars made by teacher education is wide range of higher education institutions. Among the clearly small relative to other fields. In comparison with 1,978 four-year colleges and universities in the United other university departments and programs, teacher States, approximately 1,279 have schools, colleges, or education programs bringinsubstantially more departments of education (SCDEs) engaged in teacher resources than they expend for services to their students education (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher (Sykes, 1985). One recent analysis of expenditures at six Education ENCATEL 1993; Sykes, 1985). These include research universities found that schools of education are large public institutions, private independent and reli- generally the lowest funded unit within the university giously affiliated liberal arts colleges, and private uni- and have lost ground over the last decade (Ebmeier, versities. The greatest number of SCDEs are in the cen- Twombly,&Teeter, 1990). On one common state index for allocating funds based on the relative cost of training in professional fields, education ranks lowest, with 4The term certification isgenerally used by states to an index of 1.04, in comparison with engineering at 2.07 describe their system for ensuring minimal qualifications of and nursing at 2.74 (Sykes, 1985). Support for teacher candidates allowed to practice. However, licensing is the more candidates in the way of state or federal tuition support, accurate term, analogous to this function performed by states for other occupations. Licensure means a candidate has legal or stipends, is limited. authority to practice, validated by a governmental body. Cer- tification is the recognition by the profession of a higher level Policy Guidance of competence and attainment. Certification carries professional rather than legal authority. Professional certification is Teacher preparation programs are governed by decisions just beginning to become available to U.S. teachers, through made within their institutions (at the institutional level as the auspices of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). The NBPTS is discussed in greater detail well as within the SCDE), by state requirements for pro- in the "Policy Issues and Trends" section. gram approval, andfor the 40 percent of programs that

234 228 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS are professionally accreditedby the standardsof the Unhappiness with the results of this approach led national accrediting agency, the National Council for to the enactment of tests for teacher licensing in most Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). NCATE is a states during the 1980s, providing an additional check private, nongovernment association representing teacher on the process. Now states are looking at a varietyof educators, teachers, state policy makers, and profession- new approaches to licensing and programapproval, al specialty groups (see "Accreditation/Approval- section including performance-based approaches that would below for additional information). Currently, about 27 rely more heavily on assessments of teacher knowledge states have partnership agreemenis with NCATE. These and skill conducted during and after teacher education partnership agreements provide for joint program review and induction. Testing for licensure is discussed in and may enable NCATE institutions to meet state program greater detail in the section on licensure below. approval standards by addressing NCATE standards. Accreditation is the assessment of an institution or Programs are also indirectly guided by the state's a program by voluntary, nongovernment associationsof licensing requirements for teachers, as these often educational institutions, professional practitioners, and describe the kinds of courses candidates must complete professional educators. according to established stan- in order to receive a license. Program-approval guide- dards. In the United States, there are two kinds of lines and licensing requirements vary from state to state. accreditation: regional or institutional accreditation and Generally, these are set by the state department of edu- professional or specialized accreditation. Whereas cation. Recently, however, 12 states have established regional or institutional accreditation assesses the ade- professional standards boards for teaching like those quacy of the mission, goals, and resources of an institu- that exist in other professions. In these states, the teach- tion as a degree-granting entity, professional or special- ers, other educators, and public members who sit onthe ized accreditation assesses a particular program against standards board have assumed responsibility for setting national standards established within the field (Cobb, standards for teacher education program approval and 1993). licensing. NCATE is the only accrediting agency recognized State legislatures and state boards of education by the U. S. Department of Education for the accredita- also sometimes exert authority over schools of education of teacher education. In most states, accreditation tionmuch more than any other schools or depart- is voluntary, and NCATE presently accredits 521, or 40.7 ments within universities. Because of the special state percent of the 1,279 higher education institutions hav- interest in education, legislatures have sometimes been ing teacher education programs (NCATE, 1993). How- active in mandating admissions and graduation require- ever, NCATE-accredited programs produce approxi- ments for schools of education, testing requirements, mately 80 percent of the nation's teachers. These and even specific course requirements. Legislatures programs are largely undergraduate programs in state have also been the source of many alternative licensing colleges and universities. In contrast with teaching, programs. where accreditation is voluntary, most other professions require graduation from an accredited professional pro- Accreditation or Approval of gram as a prerequisite for licensure. In the cases where Teacher Preparation Programs this is not required, candidates graduating from nonac- credited programs may experience some differentiation Within teacher education, there is a dual-track system in status and compensation, and/or restrictions in the for reviewing preparation programs for teachers: state authorization to practice. program approval and professional accreditation. NCATE's process of accreditation occurs in three In state program approval, states have typically stages. First, institutional eligibility is established if the approved teacher education programs based on the pro- professional education unit meets eight conditions that gram's abilities to prepare candidates to meet state define it as a professional preparation program. Second, licensing requirements. Until recently, most states the program completes a self-study and develops an licensed teachers by requiring them to complete an institutional report, which includes a review of program approved program of teacher education. State program content areas, a discussion of programs and the knowl- approval is typically coordinated by the state's depart- edge base undergirding instruction, and the compilation ment of education, under the auspices of a state board of institutional and unit data. Finally, a team of profes- of education or a professional teaching standards board. sional colleagues, representing teacher educators, prac- The approval process has traditionally assessed "the ticing teachers, and members of the public, conducts a types of learning situations to which an individual is visit on-site to verify the institutional report against the exposed and ... the time spent in these situations rather NCATE standards of professional practice, and issues a than what the individual actually learned" (Goertz, report of their findings. The Unit Accreditation Board of Ekstorm, & Coley, 1984). NCATE makes the final decision on accr«litation using 229 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES the information obtained from the program's institu- The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards tional report and the team's on-site report. Accreditation (NBPTS) has developed standards and assessments for is conducted on a five-year cycle. certifying accomplished practice. A companion effort by Other professionalassociationsrepresenting a group of more than 30 states is creatingboard-com- teachers of different subject areas (such as the National patible licensing standards through the Interstate New Council of Teachers of Mathematics) and groups of stu- Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). dents (such as the National Association for the Educa- Revisions of NCATE standards are, in turn, incorporat- tion of Young Children) also influence standards for ing the INTASC standards. All of these groups have teacher education through standards that they establish recen.ly articulated a view of teaching knowledge, skills, within their organizations. Twenty-one specialty orga- and ,.!.spositions that emphasizes: nizations are active members in NCATE. These associations have defined the knowledge base in their content Teachers' moral and professional commitment to area for what teachers need to know and be able todo. students, grounded in an understanding of As a part of the NCATE process, teacher education pro- learners, a commitment to equity, and a pledge gram content areas are reviewed against these standards to continually seek strategies that will produce as one of the prerequisites for accreditation review. success for each learner Many states also use professional association standards Teachers' understanding of subjects in ways that as guides when establishing licensing requirements. allow them to make core concepts and modes of inquiry accessible to diverse learners Teachers' understanding of learners and learn- NATURE AND CONTENT OF ing in ways that allow them to identify different TEACHER PREPARATION strengths, intelligences, and approaches to learning, as well as to facilitate development of the Goals of Teacher Education whole child Teachers' active involvement in assessing and A single version of the aims of teacher education is impos- supporting student learning by evaluating stu- sible to convey for the United States, given the diversity dent thinking and performance and adapting of practice at the state and local institutional levels. teaching to students' prior knowledge, interests, Presently, no single agency represents or enforces claims motivations, and learning of the profession regarding knowledge and standards of Teachers' capacities to reflect on their teaching practice. States' numerous licensing standards differ from and its consequences for learners, to revise one another and do not convey a clear, coherent vision their strategies as needed, and to collaborate of teaching and learning. The American Association of with others in creating conditions that support Colleges for Teacher Education (AAci E), a voluntary school improvement as well as individual stu- national nongovernment agency with 715 member insti- dent success tutions involved in preparing educators, helps to formulate and promote the development of a knowledge base Despite this emerging rhetorical consensus among for teacher education. NCATE provides further guidance professional associations, there is less commonality in by requiring institutions to identify and define the knowl- actual practice. This is because government policy tools, edge base that undergirds their coursework and clinical such as curriculum mandates and teacher evaluation preparation, but it has not identified a specific conception requirements, often conflict with these conceptions of of the knowledge base to be used. Finally, professional teaching, and because substantial unevenness in pro- specialty associations provide an additional source of gram quality results from unequal funding and lackof guidance regarding what teachers are expected to know universal quality controls. and be able to do in specific content areas. However, these associations are private, nongovernment bodies Academic Preparation Prior to Teacher Education whose visions of teaching and learning do not always concur with those embodied in state requirements. Virtually all candidates for teacher education have com- There are a number of important professional and pleted secondary education and most candidates have policy efforts presently taking place to identify a com- completed at least one or two years of general studies mon core of understandings and capacities that charac- in college before they enter the teacher education por- terize what all teachers need to know and be able to do tion of their coursework. Some enter programs after to address the needs of all children. A number of pro- already having acquired a bachelor's degree. fessional associations have initiatives that focus on- Admissions requirements to teacher preparation defining the common core of knowledge for teachers. programs are varied. Institutions traditionally set their

236 230 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS own requirements in terms of grade point averages, teacher candidates, child development. What was once interviews, and other application materials (essays, evi- a standard requirement for all teacher education stu- dence of work with children, etc.); however, states have dents, a course in educational history and philosophy, recently begun to set minimum admissions standards. is now taken by very few (Good lad, 1990). Education At least 22 states now require some form of testing for courses typically constitute only about one-fifth of the entry into teacher education and 15 states have set min- total program for secondary education majors (an aver- imum grade point averages for entry. Fifteen states age of 26 credit hours out of a total of 135), while can- require both tests and minimum GPAs (Coley & Goertz, didates in elementary education usually complete more 1990). At their own initiative or due to state mandate, at education courses (an average of 50 credit hours out of least 70 percent of teacher education programs now a total of 125). have minimum grade requirements that must be met Finally, there is a variety of field experiences for before a student is admitted. Half also require that stu- candidates. Candidates in most teacher education pro- dents pass a proficieacy test before completing the programs (about 86 percent) are required to undertake gram, a number that has doubled since 1980 (Holm- some field experiences prior to student teaching. Often strom, 1985). during the initial phases of the program, students spend There is no established number of entrants per one or two days per week observing or tutoring in year determined by the government. Program size has schools. In over two-thirds of the teacher education pro- tended to increase or decrease with the number of inter- grams, field experiences are also required in one or ested candidates who can meet the minimum entry more methods courses later in the program's sequence. requirements. "Traditionally, the number of participants Such experiences allow candidates to apply what they in a teacher preparation program is driven by the size are learning through classroom observations and work of the applicant pool" (Miller & Silvernail, 1994, p. 37). with students before entering an intensive student Because many preservice programs provide a source of teaching experience (AACrE, 1987). revenue to the university as a whole, some institutions Building on these field experiences, all candidates are reluctant to limit enrollment. As a consequence, the are involved in practice teaching (also called student number of applicants admitted to a program is often teaching), which takes place near the completion of a based on economic considerations rather than quality preparation program and occurs in elementary and sec- standards, such as faculty/student ratios or the number ondary schools under the supervision of a cooperating of high-quality field placements. There can be substan- teacher. Typically, student teaching has occupied an tial fluctuations in the number of individuals preparing average of 350 hours during one full 15 -week semester to teach from year to year. of the higher education institution, which is slightly less than a full school semester in an elementary or sec- The Preservice Teacher Preparation Curriculum ondary sch, A, due to differences in academic calendars (AACTE, 1987). Increasingly, however, student teaching Professional preparation generally takes place as part of is based on a school semester rather than on a college a four-year program leading to the baccalaureate or university semester, and the duration of student degree. Increasingly, however, programs are extending teaching is increasing. At some institutions, and in many into a fifth year, either as an extension of an under- master's degree programs, student teaching is a full two graduate program or as a separate master's degree pro- semesters, integrated with seminars and coursework. gram following completion of a discipline-based bach- Sometimes student teaching engages students in elor's degree. two different placements, so that they can experience Teacher preparation has three principal compo- varied classrooms. Typically, candidates in student nents. First, most coursework during the four or five teaching experiences are supervised by faculty from the years is in the liberal arts, with a major emphasis for sec- SCDEs as well as by their "cooperating teacher" in the ondary teachers on a single content area in which the school in which they are placed. College supervisors are candidate will be licensed, such as history, mathematics, typically doctoral students who have had teaching expe- or biology. Most elementary teachers have traditionally rience and supervisory training, teacher education fac- majored in elementary education, but increasingly they ulty, or other SCDE staff. College supervisors average attain a major in one of the liberal arts disciplines or a six or seven visits to a student teacher per semester field like psychology or human development. (AACI E, 1987). Second, the remaining coursework is in the study Given that the college supervisor spends a limited of education as a field of inquiry, including teaching amount of time with the student during the student methods. Typically these courses include an introduc- teaching experience, the cooperating teacher is very tion to education, educational psychology, general or influential in the student's practical or. clinical experi- specific methods courses, and, at least for elementary ence. This influence often proves to be differentially

2,37 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 231 beneficial depending on the skills and abilities of the Differences in Teacher Preparation Programs cooperating teacher. Programs do not always hand-pick the teachers they will work with. Principals may choose Because no universal standards for either licensing or cooperating teachers "based on administrative conve- accreditation are enforced, a wide range of teacher nience rather than educational value" or based on those preparation programs exists. Most of the reform efforts who volunteer (Darling-Hammond & Goodwin, 1993). aimed at teacher preparation in the last decade focus on Cooperating teachers may receive little or no training structuraldifferences. These structural differences for their roles and few rewards. They sometimes have include adding a fifth year, increasing (or, in a few little contact with the preparation program directly. states, limiting) the number of credit hours in profes- There are several junctures at which "loose link- sional education, increasing the amount of field-based ages" can occur among the three components of teacher experience, and creating alternative routes to teaching preparation programsliberal arts education, profes- (Feiman-Nemser, 1990). sional study, and practical experiences (Good lad, 1990; A five-year or fifth-year program involves com- Good lad, Soder, & Sirotnik, 1990; Schwartz, 1988; Zeich- pleting teacher preparation in a five-year extended ner, 1986). The fact that colleges have traditionally exert- bachelor's program or a fifth-year master's degree pro- ed little influence on the nature or quality of the gram following undergraduate school. A five-year pro- practicum or student teaching placements is but one gram is considered to provide greater flexibility for the example of this fragmentation. Other disjunctures can integration of theory and practice because the extend- reduce the connections made between subject-matter ed time allows greater opportunity for an in-depth, content, educational theory, and practical application. supervisedinternshipconnectedtocoursework. Such lack of connections may reinforce teachers' con- Though many of the reform reports of the last decade ceptions that content and theory have little utility in the have advocated this change in teacher preparation, four- "real world" of the classroom. year baccalaureate programs still predominate (Wong & To encourage greater continuity between theory Osguthorpe, 1993). and practice, a number of institutions have begun to cre- Preparation programs differ in other ways due to ate professional development schools (PDS) in close col- different conceptual orientations and different levels of laboration with nearby school districts. These are part- quality. In some, students learn a great deal about learn- nerships between schools of education and local schools ing and child development; in others they do not. In in which the school becomes a site for the clinical prepa- some, a subject-specific view of pedagogy is emphasized; ration of cohorts of prospective teachers. The PDS mod- in others, generic approaches to pedagogy are taught. In els state-of-the-art practice, involves school and univer- some, teachers learn about curriculum development and sity-based faculty in developing a program of learning student assessment; in most others, they do not. for beginning teachers, and frequently also provides a These differences are attributable t" ;everal dif- site for developing collegial research on teaching (Dar- ferent causes. State regulations governing licensing and ling-Hammond, 1994a). Based on surveys of teacher program approval are one source of variation. For preparation institutions, by 1994 more than 200 profes- example, when legislative edicts in New Jersey, Texas, sional development schools had been started across the and Virginia reduced the amount of professional edu- U.S. (Abdal-Haqq, 1992; Darling-Hammond, 1994a). cation coursework undergraduates could take to no Most faculty (70 percent) and students (69.7 per- more than 18 credits, most programs had to eliminate cent) view their preservice programs as good or out- or greatly reduce coursework in learning and child standing in preparing graduates as entry-level teachers development, and focus on generic rather than subject- (AACTE, 1988). The majority of the remaining faculty specific approaches to pedagogy. and students assess their preparation as adequate. One On the other hand, a number of states, such as area, however, stands out as in need of more attention New York, Connecticut, and Arizona, require at least a than others: When asked whether teacher education master's degree on top of a strong subject-matter degree graduates were prepared to teach in culturally diverse for full professional licensure; these requirements gen- settings or to teach academically "at-risk" students, a erally incorporate 40 credits of professional education substantial minority of faculty (29.7 percent) and stu- coursework and a lengthy supervised practicum or dents (28.6 percent) indicate that graduates are "less- internship, in addition to subject-matter preparation. than-adequately" prepared (AACTE, 1988). While a sim- Thus, the meaning of a teaching license, in terms of ilar percentage of each group reported that they were knowledge and skills represented, varies tremendously very well prepared or adequately prepared, this is clear- from state to state (Darling-Hammond, 1992). ly an area where changes in the conditions of school- Similarly,although teachersareincreasingly ing and in the expectations of teachers are propelling expected to major in a discipline while also preparing greater changes in schools of education as well. to teach, this also varies according to state licensing and

288 232 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

program approval requirements. By 1991, for example, cil of Teachers of Mathematics and the National Coun- about 63 percent of mathematics teachers had majored cil of Teachers of English, also influence national pro- in their field. However, this ranged from 25 percent in fessional accreditation for teacher education because Alaska to 87 percent in Maryland. The proportion of sci- they also serve as the subject-matter representatives in ence teachers who had majored in their fieldincreased assessing content areas in the NCATE process. Student from 64 percent in 1988 to 70 percent in 1991, ranging standards developed by professional organizations are from 41 percent in New Mexico to 85 percent in Con- also taken into account in the development of standards necticut (Blank & Gruebel, 1993). for advanced teacher certification through the National Because professional accreditation is not univer- Board for Professional Teaching Standards and the asso- sal, a great many programs operate without the core set ciated state licensing standards development efforts of of standards that guide those that are accredited. Addi- INTASC. (These are discussed more fully in the "Policy tional sources of variation in program content include Initiatives" section, below.) the conceptions of teaching and teacher knowledge underlying state program approval guidelines and assessments of beginning teachers (Darling-Hammond LICENSING REQUIREMENTS with Sclan, 1992), variations due to the recent prolifer- ation of state-approved "alternate routes" to licensure, Initial Licensing and variations due to the v.. of teaching adopted by individual institutions. Each of the 50 states currently has its own standards for licensure, which organize the labor market for the teaching profession to a great extent (Sykes, 1989). First, Links Between Teacher Education Curricula and licensing requirements constrain the supply of profes- Student Standards sionals in a given field by establishing minimum quali- In most states, higher education and K-12 education are fications for entry. Second, licensing determines the link regulated by separate state boards, and, in some cases, between qualifications and assignment. Unless there are they are administered by separate state agencies. As a no qualified candidates available, teachers are supposed consequence, there is usually little articulation between to be assigned to the field within which they have a the standards that govern teacher education and licen- license. Finally, because licensing defines the courses sure and state curriculum standards for elementary and and tests teachers must take to gain entry, it defines one secondary school students. In some cases, standards for aspect of the knowledge that guides practice. teachers and those for school students may even be in There are a great many licensing fields. States conflict with each other. Some states, such as Maine, grant licenses in over 50 fields, defined by subject area Minnesota, and Vermont, have identified expectations and level of schooling (e.g., secondary English, mathe- for elementary and secondary students, and have then matics, biology, elementary education, special educa- translated these into expectations for what teachers tion for handicapped students, bilingual education) and need to know and be able to do to help school students other functions such as educational administration and achieve those expectations. Performance-based stan- educational support personnel, such as teachers' aides. dards for both students and teachers are the result of Typically, local educational agencies recruit and hire all such efforts. education personnel. National voluntary standards-setting efforts by pro- During the 1980s, most states adopted changes in fessional associations do not have the force of law, but specific teacher licensing requirements that affected the are becoming more prominent in the discourse about content of teacher education in one way or another. In education. In fields ranging from mathematics and En- addition to requiring testing as a condition of licensure, glish language arts to science, social studies, and the the most notable changes by a number of states include arts, standards for curriculum, evaluation, and teaching increases in required hours of college credit in a subject are being developed by practitioners, content special- area for secondary teachers, evaluation of classroom ists, and scholars from schools, universities, and pro- performance for beginning teachers in their first year of fessional associations. These are intended to reflect high practice, and continuing education requirements for re- expectations that all students can meet rigorous learn- licensure. ing standards. Some argue that these standards could While most states increased the amount of also serve as a foundation for considering what all coursework teachers would need to undertake to teachers and teacher education programs should do to learn about teaching, a few actually reduced the guide that learning. amount of professional education coursework under- Professional teaching associations that are devel- graduates could take, leaving them with little prepa- oping standards for students, such as the National Coun- ration in child development or pedagogy before they 23J 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 233 are licensed. State requirements now vary so substan- Consortium are developing licensing standards and tially that a teacher licensed in one state frequently assessments for beginning teachers that are compatible does not meet the licensing requirements in another with those developed by NBPTS. Together, these stan- and is required to take additional coursework or meet dards establish a continuum of what teachers need to other state-specific requirements on moving from one know and be able to do, from entry into teaching through state to another. the development of highly accomplished practice. In addition, requirements for teaching in private schools sometimes differ from those in public schools. Continuing Requirements for Licensure Most states (about 30) require teachers in private schools to be licensed; however, others do not. In 1991, about Generally, the first three years of work are considered 60 percent of private school teachers held regular or provisional or nontenured employment. Teachers are advanced teaching licenses; another 20 percent held the usually evaluated annually, most often by the princi- provisional licenses that beginning teachers hold until pal, using a checklist type of instrument. In the first they have successfully completed an induction program year of teaching, a growing number of states are and/or final assessment for licensing (NCES, 1993a). requiring a state-mandated process for evaluation that Most states (47) now require some form of test- precedes the issuance of a continuing state license. ing for licensure. Of these states, 26 test for basic skills Thereafter, evaluation is the province of the local competency; 17 test for general knowledge; 27 test for school district, and procedures vary widely. Most professional knowledge; and 23 test for subject area teachers receive a successful evaluation and are content knowledge (Coley & Goertz, 1990). In contrast tenured at the end of this time period. Once teachers with licensing tests in most other professions, which are are tenured staff, termination of employment is con- developed and administered by members of the pro- siderably more difficult. fession, tests for teachers are developed by commercial Until recently, most states had few, if any, require- vendors or state agencies. About half of these states use ments for teachers to satisfy after they were initially all or parts of tests put out by commercial vendors, for licensed. However, states increasingly arc disallowing example, the National Teacher Examinations (NTE) the "lifetime" license and are requiring teachers to con- developed and administered by the Educational Test- tinuously renew their credentials with additional formal ing Service (ETS). The other half use tests developed college coursework or in-service training. At least 32 and administered by the state itself. states now have requirements for licensure renewal. On Many critics have charged that teacher licensing average, licensure renewal takes place every three to tests have tapped very little of what might be called a five years. Professional development activities used to knowledge base for teaching (Darling-Hammond, 1986; satisfy licensure renewal typically include additional MacMillan & Pendlebury, 1985; Shulman, 1987). Conse- coursework and attendance at professional conferences quently, efforts are under way in many states to develop or workshops. Some states are considering giving cred- new approaches to assessing teachers. In response to it for, teacher leadership activities and mentoring of concerns that the previous generation of teacher tests, beginning teachers. based largely on multiple-choice responses to brief, sim- Over the last few years, the trend has been to plified questions, failed to measure teaching knowledge enact more restrictive relicensing standards. In the past, and skill, test developers have also been redesigning their many states have not specified the quality or nature of assessments. For example, ETS has recently replaced the the additional courses required. More states are now NTE with a new testing series that aims for more perfor- requiring teachers to successfully complete courses in mance-based assessments of teaching knowledge. More content or pedagogical areas applicable to their teach- items in the paper-and-pencil component require essay ing. Additionally, many local school districts have responses by teachers, and a classroom observational requirements for the continuing education of teachers instrument has been added. Other changes are occurring through school- or district-sponsored professional in state-developed teacher assessments. development programs, courses, self-directed study, or The National Board for Professional Teaching Stan- some combination of these activities. dards (NBPTS) has gone many steps further in its new examinations for the advanced certification of highly Conditions Under Which Requirements for accomplished veteran teachers. For NBPTS certification, Licensure Are Waived or Altered the assessment is entirely performance-based, using an extensive portfolio assessment completed over several Traditionally, whenever shortages of teachers have months of classroom work augmented by complex per- occurred, states would issue emergency or temporary formance tasks completed in an assessment center. States licenses to underprepared candidates to fill vacancies. in the Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support This occurred in a large-scale fashion during the 1920s, 240 234 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS the 1950s and 1960s, and the late 1980s. Estimates sug- (Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1990; Grossman, 1988; Lenk, gest that over 50,000 candidates a year are now enter- 1989; Mitchell, 1987). ing teaching without full preparation for the fields they In comparison with beginners who have complet- are teaching (Feistritzer, 1988; NDRC,1993). These ed a teacher education program, those novices who teachers teach primarily in central cities and poor, rural enter without full preparation show more ignorance areas and are typically assigned to schools servinglow- about student needs and differences and about the income students and students of color, where teacher basics of teaching, are less sensitive to students, less able shortages are more prevalent. to plan and redirect instruction to meet students'needs During the 1980s, while there were efforts to raise (and less aware of the need to do so), and less skilled in salaries and standards to increase the quality of the implementing instruction (Bents & Bents, 1990, Bledsoe, teaching force, states also loosened standards to address Cox, & Burnham, 1967; Copley, 1974; Darling-Ham- shortages in the supply of teachers. In addition to allow- mond, 1994b; Gomez & Grobe, 1990; Grossman, 1988; ing emergency licenses, more than one-half of the states Rottenberg & Berliner, 1990). They are less able to antic- (39 as of 1991) implemented alternative routes to licen- ipate students' knowledge and potential difficulties and sure. Some states' alternative routes arerestricted to less likely to see it as their job to do so, often blaming areas of teacher shortages or to specificgeographic the students if their teaching is not successful. areas; others are not. Many programs target inner-city or rural school districts with serious shortages (Darling- Hammond, 1992). ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Most alternate routes to licensure are aimed at recruiting candidates with bachelor's degrees in other Induction Programs fields. These programs range from one- or two-year master's degree programs, structured to enable entry for mid- Teacher induction programs for new and beginning career changers, to short summer courses prior tohiring. teachers were launched in at least 25 states during the High-quality alternate routes that do not lower 1980s (Darling-Hammond, 1990b). In many cases, these standards for entry to teaching but provide intensive, programs were introduced to provide for a str te- targeted preparation and supervision in a master's required, on-the-job evaluation as a condition for a con- degree program have proven reasonably successful at tinuing license. In others, mentor teachers assist the recruiting and preparing mid-career recruits and other beginning teachers, but evaluation is not directly linked nontraditional entrants to teaching (Coley & Thorpe, to the mentoring process. 1985; Darling-Hammond, Hudson, & Kirby, 1989). In the beginning, in teacher evaluation programs However, the short-term alternate routes have launched by a number of states, teachers receive provi- proven less successful at preparing candidateswell or sional licenses, usually valid for up to three years, on retaining them in teaching. Unlike traditional entrants of completion of a teacher preparation program and other teacher education programs, candidates in the shorter- state requirements. While employed as full-time teach- term routes take little education coursework or student ers, they are evaluated formally on their teaching per- teaching prior to entering; they assume full-time teach- formance in order to receive a regular or continuing ing responsibilities following a brief orientation seminar, license. The performance assessments are conducted usually six to eight weeks. These candidates are sup- through a state-established system. Evaluators may posed to receive on-the-job supervision while taking the include a teacher, a principal, and district or state per- education courses that are required; however, this sonnel. Typically, the beginning teacher is observed and supervision often does not materialize (Darling-Ham- evaluated two or three times throughout the year, using mond, 1992). a state-developed instrument that covers classroom Research indicates that candidates having gone management, interpersonal skills, teaching methods, through full preparation programs are more highly rated and so on. and more successful with students than are teachers Evaluators can recommend that the teacher without full preparation (Ashton & Crocker, 1987; Evert- receive a regular license, be removed, or be asked to son, Hawley & 7lotnik, 1985; Greenberg, 1983;Haber- participate ;n an in-service training or development pro- man, 1984; Olsen, 1985; for a review, see Darling-Ham- gram and wen reevaluated (Coley & Goertz, 1990). mond, 1992). Studies of teachers admitted through These programs are largely state-funded, with some emergency licensing and quick-entry alternate routes local support; however, mentoring is rarely funded or frequently note that the candidates have difficulty with provided. Because many of these programs have curriculum development, pedagogical content knowl- emphasized evaluation rather than support, they have edge, attending to students' differing learning styles and often provided too little assistance to beginning teach- levels, classroom management, and student motivation ers and have not helped them improve their capacity to 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 235

address problems of practice (Borko, 1986; Fox & Sin- Individually guided professional development gletary, 1986; Hu ling-Austin & Murphy, 1987). emphasizes learning that is designed by the teacher. The Other models of support for beginning teachers are premise here is that individuals can best judge their emerging. States like New York, California, and Min- learning needs and are capable of self-directed and self- nesota have funded mentors for beginning teachers to initiated learning. Many districts offer courses from provide ongoing support for developing competence. which teachers can choose, or reimburse teachers for While there is currently no defined period of induction college courses they take. Often teachers receive cred- or transition following initial licensure, and no common- it on the salary scale for courses they take. Teachers typ- ly accepted model, the availability of induction programs ically choose these courses based on their own sense of is increasing. A 1991 survey found that 48 percent of what will benefit them and their teaching. teachers with three or fewer years of experience report- Observation/assessment models of professional ed that they had participated in some kind of formal development include such forms as clinical supervision, induction program during their first year of teaching peer coaching, and teacher evaluation. In most districts, (NCES, 1993b,c). relatively little time and attention are devoted to teacher evaluation or supervision. Virtually all of the responsi- Ongoing Professional Development bility resides with school principals, who may have supervisory responsibility for 100 or more teachers and There are at least five different approaches to profession- inadequate time, expertise, or resources for the task al development that function across various school set- (Wise, Darling-Hammond, McLaughlin, & Bernstein, tings: individually guided professional development, obser- 1985). Although peer coaching has gained greater atten- vation/assessment, development/improvement processes, tion in the last decade, this model of professional de',el- training, and inquiry (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990). opment is not yet used by many schools or teachers Traditionally, professional development activities for teach- (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990). ers have aimed to improve "job-related knowledge, skills, Initiatives to promote and enhance school improve- or attitudes" (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990, p. 234), and ment have provided the impetus for professional devel- they serve mainly as a "vehicle of organizational mainte- opment through a school development/ improvement nance" (Little, 1993, p. 146). process. In trying to address the various barriers to edu- Training is the most widely used form of profes- cational improvement, some states, districts, and schools sional development. Districts and schools establish have sought to effect whole-school change. As teachers objectives based on district or school goals. A deficit become agents of change, participating in school perspective frames many training activities, focusing on improvement activities, curriculum and assessment devel- what knowledge and skills teachers are lacking. Much opment, and shared decision-making structures, they district-based training is general in nature and is deliv- learn a great deal about curriculum and teaching issues, ered en masse to large groups of teachers on a specific often more deeply than through other, more traditional day set aside for the purpose. staff development activities (Little, 1993). Thus, these The typical format for training is a workshop ses- approaches to school improvement prove to be strategies sion presented by an "expert" who sets the content and for professional development as well. course of activities. Districts may offer a series of work- Recent reform efforts call for changes in teacher shops annually from which teachers may choose. Fre- practiceawayfromdidactic,teacher-centered quently, little or no follow-up and support are provided approaches to those that view the teacher as a guide or to enable teachers to practice or incorporate the knowl- facilitator of students' active learning. In order for edge and/or skills presented in the workshop into their teachers to teach with their students' needs in mind, particular classroom setting. A training model of profes- they have to inquire both into students' thinking and sional development is often fragmented, relying on a col- learning, and into the effects of their teaching. This lection of workshops and/or course offerings, as opposed view of teaching is most closely related to an inquiry to a continuous and ongoing program of professional model of staff development, in which teachers them- development for teachers (Miller, Lord, & Dorney, 1994). selves formulate the questions about teaching and Recent critics of traditional staff development learning that can hest facilitate the growth of their prac- strategies have argued that, frequently, the implemen- tice. The inquiry model of professional development tation of district policies takes precedence over teacher may include such activities as teacher study groups, learning guided by investigations into concrete prob- teacher research, or teacher collaboratives/networks. lems of practice (Miller, Lord, & Dorney, 1994). Such Some recent research suggests that this type of profes- staff development does not address teachers' various sional development is more meaningful for teachers expertise and contexts, or encourage diverse areas of and has greater impact on teaching practice (Little, professional inquiry. 1993; Miller, Lord, & Dorney, 1994). Though these 2 4 2 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN APEC MEMBERS 236 (Dar- kinds of professional development opportunities are by businesses to employee training and education increasing, they are not the norm. ling-Hammond, 1994a). In times of budget cuts, profes- When professional development seeks merely to sional development is usually the first itemeliminated. train teachers for compliance with state ordistrict Although professional development activities have requirements, teacher reflection on concreteproblems traditionally been implemented from a district level, of practice and integration of knowledge andpractice some recent decentralization ofthese activities, shifting rarely occur. Developmental and inquiry modelsof pro- their control to the.school level, has occurred. Decen- fessional development are beginning to create new tralization has sometimes, but not always, translated into kinds of opportunities that enable study,reflection, greater teacher input in and engagementwith profes- insuffi- problem solving, and collegial learning. sional development. Inadequate resources and cient technical assistance have hindered someschool efforts (Miller, Lord, & Domey, 1994, p. 126). Participation and Incentives The configuration of professional development of staff Teachers are most likely to participate indistrict-spon- activities has direct implications for "the nature sored workshops during the school year (74percent), development work, teachers' perspectives, and funding followed by committees dealing with subjects otherthan patterns" (Miller, Lord, & Domey, 1994, p. 121). Recent- time curriculum (46 percent), curriculum committees(36 per- ly, in recognition that school reform efforts require cent), professional growth activities sponsoredby pro- for teacher learning, some states have begun to add fessional associations (35 percent), and workshops days to the school year that are state-fundedand sponsored by the school system during the summer(24 reserved for the professional development of teachers. percent). In 1991, half of all teachers reported earning A few schools that are restructuring havealso found schedules, which some college credit in the previousthree years. Younger ways to rearrange the normal school teachers were more likely than their older counterparts typically allocate almost no time for joint planning or to have participated indistrict-sponsored programs or consultation, in ways that allow for greater teacher col- to have earned college credit inthe last three years laboration and professional learning. (NEA, 1992). Teacher participation in professional association- sponsored professional growth activities increased from POLICYISSUES AND TRENDS 25 percent in 1971 to 35 percent in 1991.This increase may reflect the growth inmembership in subject-matter Current Policy Issues and Problems or professional special-interestassociations, from 38 Professional asso- In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence inEdu- percent in 1981 to 48 percent in 1991. which ciations' increasing involvement in articulatingsubject cation issued a report called A Nation at Risk, curriculum and assessment standards in the last decade brought to the forefront issues and concerns regarding the nation's educational system. This report and a bar- is perhaps another influence promoting greaterteacher focused on percep- participation (Little, 1993). rage of other reports that followed Incentives to participate in professional develop- tions of declining student achievement in an era requir- ment opportunities are usually salary-based. Inaddition ing greater levels of educational success for all students. to cost-of-living raises, teachers receivesalary increases Educational reforms over the next several years were when they obtain a certain number of college/universi- characterized by greater state control in determining ty or district in-service credits and astheir years of expe- educational processes and outcomes through mandates rience in teaching rise. For example, a teacher withfive for higher educational standards. years' experience and a bachelor's degree isplaced on In 1986, a "second wave" of educational reform followed, with reports from the National Governor's a specific salary-scale step.This teacher would move up steps on the salary scale by increasing his orher years Association, the Education Commission of the States, of experience and by obtaining college/university or the Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, district in-service credits. Other professionaldevelop- the Holmes Group, and others. These reports affirmed ment opportunities sometimes come underthe auspices the need to improve education by emphasizing the of the local union contract and sometimes are atthe dis- need to professionalize teaching (Darling-Hammond & cretion of school or district administrators. Berry, 1988). Recruitment, preparation, licensure, and Funding for ongoing professional development is renewal of a competent teaching force are now wide- not substantial in most local schooldistricts. Overall, U.S. ly recognized as among the central policy issues facing school districts spend less than one half of 1 percent of the United States in its educational reform efforts. their budgets on professional development for teachers The emphasis on professionalism in teaching as compared to 8-10 percentof expenditures allocated urged by these reports and sought in some emerging 243 13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 237 reforms of licensing, certification, and teacher education for advanced professional certification of highly accom- is one that follows the path of many other professions plished teachers (NBPTS, 1991). By developing volun- in the United States over the past 100 years, starting with tary national certification standards, the NBPTS is defin- medicine, and continuing through law, architecture, ing what expert, experienced teachers need to know engineering, nursing, and many other occupations. Pro- and be able to do. As districts and states begin to rec- fessions can be characterized by a specialized knowl- ognize certification as a meaningful indicator of exper- edge base, a commitment to client welfare, and the def- tise for salary and appointment purposes, as well as for inition and transmission of professional standards designing evaluation programs, the standards are (Darling-Hammond, 1990b). Occupations that have expected to have increasing practical effect and reach. sought to become professions have increased their Second, model licensing standards and assess- requirements for education, created standards of knowl- ments for beginning teachers have been developed by edge and ethical behavior that govern entry and prac- a group of over 20 states belonging to the Interstate tice, and created means for enforcing these standards. New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium. The By these tenets, teaching in the United States is INTASC standards are derived from the National Board only a quasi-profession. It is the only licensed occupa- standards, which embody criteria for identifying excel- tion in the United States that still allows some individ- lent teaching as the basis for exploring what beginning uals to enter the profession without preparation and teachers should be prepared to know and be able to do without meeting common standards. In most states, in order to develop over time into board-certifiable, standards (requirements for teacher education, licens- highly accomplished teachers. More than a dozen states ing. and testing) are not developed or enforced by the have already adapted or adopted these standards for profession. Except in the small number of states with their state licensure requirements, and many others are professional standards boards for teaching, standards considering doing so. are set by legislatures, lay boards, and commercial test- Finally, the National Council for the Accreditation ing companies. While professional teaching associa- of Teacher Education has begun to reexamine its stan- tions have worked to define a common knowledge dards so that they are consistent with the INTASC and base, state policies do not always ensure that all prac- National Board standards. This means reevaluating the ticing teachers have mastered that knowledge base. content of the standards to ensure that they represent a The issues of how better to define, transmit, and similar conception of teaching knowledge and skills and enforce professional teaching standards are among changing the structure of the standards from input- those a variety of government and professional agen- based regulations to outcome-based goals for the cies are currently tackling. demonstrated abilities of candidates. Instead of just showing what courses and faculty they have, programs Policy Initiatives should also be able to demonstrate that their configuration of learning experiences addresses all of the stan- Various teaching associations are now making efforts todards and that they are carefully assessing candidates create structures that define professional membership toward attainment of the standards. by virtue of knowledge and competent practice, and INTASC and NBPTS standards create a continuum more states are joining the handful that have delegated of expectations for the teaching profession, from prepa- licensing decisions to professionally constituted stan- ration to advanced practice. In doing so, these standards dards hoards. Organizations such as the National Sci- clarify "the nature of teaching desired and define the ence Teachers Association (NSTA) are creating their effective teacher" (Wise & Darling-Hammond, 1987, p. own standards for certifying members. The Holmes 31). The push for coherent, performance-based assess- Group of education school deans is considering what ment of teacher knowledge and skills present in all knowledge constitutes a fully professional course of three of these initiatives is a trend that may ultimately preparation and how that should he delivered. These enable states and professional organizations to develop efforts are buttressed by a recent major revision of the and maintain a coherent accountability system for teach- standards used by the National Council for Accredita- ersone that may eventually provide a common con- tion of Teacher Education for evaluating teacher prepa- ception of teaching and a common set of standards for ration programs. learning to teach that would permeate both teacher edu- Private, nongovernment professional associations cation programs and licensing requirements. are currently quite active in influencing the develop- In addition to these efforts to articulate what ment of teaching. Three key policy strategies are now teachers should know and he able to do, some states underway toward professionalizing teaching: First, the are seeking to connect their school restructuring efforts National Board for Professional Teaching Standards was with initiatives to reform teacher education. These established in 1987 to create an assessment structure efforts are aimed at creating schools to meet an infor- 244 IN APEC MEMBERS 238 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT mation- or knowledge-based society and economy. term, one-time professional developmentactivities and They seek to help students learn to frame problems; toward more sustained, long-term efforts that become find, integrate, and synthesize information; create new integrated into the daily life of the school. solutions (problem solve); work and learn indepen- Other provisions in ESEA, among them activities dently; and work cooperatively. In order forthis to supported under Title I (Helping Disadvantaged Chil- occur, teachers must be able tobring together all that dren Meet High Standards) and Title VII (Bilingual Edu- they know about cognition, different approaches to cation, Language Enhancement, and Language Acquisi- learning, the structures of their content areas, and more tion Programs) also authorize substantial resourcesfor authentic measures of achievement in a varied teaching professional development. repertoire (Darling-Hammond, Wise, & Klein,1995). Also, the U.S. Department of Education is working One example of a joint strategy for mutual restructuring with other federal agencies to examine how to integrate of student learning and teacher learning is theadvent services for students and tl eir families and exploringthe of professional development schools as places that interprofessional development issues for educators and exemplify the goals of school restructuring and that pro- other human resource personnel. Such efforts will vide learning opportunities for new and veteran teach- attempt to coordinate funds and the evaluationof vari- will tell how these ers (Darling-Hammond, 1994a). ous federal efforts in this area. Time Thus far, most of the effort to improve the caliber many and varied initiatives willunfold as the nation of teaching and teacher education has taken place on looks to schools for ever-more ambitious attainments, the state level. However, there are a number of major and to teachers for making them come to fruition. federal initiatives emerging that support teaching and the professional development of teachers. REFERENCES A new federal law, the Goals 2000: Educate Amer- ica Act, establishes a framework for comprehensiveedu- and Abdal-Haqq, I. (1992). Professional development schools: A cation reform, by supporting states, communities, directory of projects in the United States. Washington, DC: schools in efforts to raise the expectations for all stu- Clinical Schools Clearinghouse, American Association of dents based on the establishment of challenging acad- Colleges for Teacher Education. emic standards. Title III of Goals 2000 authorizes a state Akin, J.N. (1989). Teacher supply and demand in the United grant program designed to support,accelerate, and sus- States: 1989 report (ASCUS Research Report). Addison, IL: tain state and local improvement efforts aimed athelp- Association for School, College and University Staffing. ing all children reach challenging standards. The act American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. requires that mandated state improvement plans reflect (1987). Teaching teachers: Facts and figures. Washington, the input of classroom teachers in outlining strategies DC: Author. for improving teaching and learning and students' mas- American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. (1938). Teaching teachers: Facts and figures (RATE II). tery of basic and advanced skills in academicsubjects. Washington, DC: Author. State plans must also describe a process for familiariz- American Council on Education. (1989). Eighth annual status ing teachers with state content and performance stan- report a .norities in higher education. Washington, dards and developing the capability of teachers to pro- DC: Author. vide high-quality-instruction in the core areas. Local Ashton, P., & Crocker, L. (1987). Systemic study of planned subgrants, awarded, by states, might also support pro- variations: The essential focus of teacher education fessional development efforts. reform. Journal of Teacher Education, 38 (3), 2-8. The recently enacted Improving America's Schools Association for School, College, and University Staffing. Act of 1994, the reauthorization of the Elementaryand (1984). Teacher supply/demand. Madison, WI: Author. Secondary Education Act (ESEA), builds on Goals 2000 Bents, M., & Bents, R. (1990). Perceptions of good teaching by providing nearly $11 billion to school districts and among novice, advanced beginner and expertteachers. schools to improve teaching and learning, primarily for Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. disadvantaged students. Among the key provisions of the Blank, R. K., & Gruebel, D. (1993). State indicators of science new ESEA is the EisenhowerProfessional Development and mathematics education 1993. Washington, DC: program, which will support sustained,intensive, high- Council of Chief State School Officers. quality professional development tied to academic stan- Bledsoe, J. C., Cox, J. V., & Burnham, R. (1967). comparison dards. The program, which requires school districts and between selected characteristics and performance of pro- schools to develop plans for improving teaching, recog- visionally and professionally certified beginning teachers nizes the different needs of schools and provides teachin Georgia. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, ers and principals with importantroles in determining Education, and Welfare. their training needs. Efforts supported under the Eisen- Borko, H. (1986). Clinical teacher education: The induction hower program are intended to move away from short- years. 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