Kilwa: a preliminary report

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Author/Creator Chittick, Neville Date 1966 Resource type Articles Language English Subject Coverage (spatial) Northern Swahili Coast, Tanzania, United Republic of, Kilwa Kisiwani Source Smithsonian Institution Libraries, DT365 .A992 Relation Azania: Journal of the British Insitute of History and Archaeology in East Africa, Vol. 1 (1966): 1-36. Rights By kind permission of Azania (British Institute in Eastern Africa). Format extent 54 pages (length/size)

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http://www.aluka.org Kilwa: A Preliminary Report

Kilwa: A Preliminary Report by Neville Chittick This article describes the most important of the results of the excavations carried out by the Institute over the last few years at Kilwa Kisiwani, and at other sites on islands off the southern coast of Tanzania. It sets out in particular the archaeological evidence for the new chronology proposed and for the architectural development. The site of the greatest of the mercantile towns of the East African coast lies at the north-western comer of Kilwa island, through which passes the parallel 90South. The village of the present day is called Kilwa Kisiwani ('on the island') to distinguish it from the town of Kilwa Kivinje, which has grown up on the coast to the north, and from Kilwa Masoko, the modem administrative headquarters on the mainland side of the harbour on to which the old town faced. 'Kilwa' in the present article refers only to the ancient town on the island. Excavations were begun at Kilwa in 1958 by the Tanganyika Department of Antiquities, of which the writer was then in charge; the initial work was on a comparatively small scale and largely incidental to the task of consolidation and reconstruction of the standing ruins. Since 1961 the excavations have been continued by the British Institute under licence from the Government and with the co-operation of the Antiquities Department. The season recently completed is the last of the present campaign. Excavations on a smaller scale have also been carried out at Kisimani Mafia, on Mafia Island sixty sea-miles north of Kilwa, and also at Songo Mnara and Sanje ya Kati, some seven miles to the south. I have recently published an article in the Journal of African History (Chittick, 1965) setting out some new views on the history of the coast, based partly on a re- examination of the written sources and partly on the evidence of the excavations. These views are, first, that the immigration of the 'Shirazi' took place in the latter part of the twelfth century, some two centuries later than the received date, and that they probably came not direct from the Persian Gulf, but from the Benadir coast between Shungwaya and Mogadiscio, where they had assimilated much from the Bantu. Secondly, that Kilwa had been an important town long before the arrival of the 'Shirazi', as also had Mafia and other places. Thirdly, that a new dynasty of sultans at Kilwa, at the end of the thirteenth century, is associated with a cultural break much more marked than anything before this date, and is probably associated with a substantial immigration, perhaps from southern Arabia. The purpose of the present article is to summarize the archaeological evidence bearing on these conclusions, as well as to give a preliminary and short account of the more important results of the excavations, particularly in respect of the earlier period, in advance of the definitive report on the work. It is not proposed to reiterate matter

HARB "6 .Well and cemetery Modern village .TT °WW g Cemetery of V'-, Kilwa Sultans C REEK ., Graves of I' the 40 Sheikhs Well. (kisima kikuu) -:- Graves Shangani well * Cistern * Octagonal cistern L GREAT MOSQUE GEAT IROUS House of the portico Small domed mosque

OUR? Foundations 11 ._Approximate 'l limhit of town , O3rave a Sake cemetery MA etres H USU NI KU BWA HUSUN I NDOGO

4 Kilwa that has been published elsewhere. I have given a general account of the standing ruins at Kilwa in Tanganyika Notes and Records, No. 53, 1959; some modification of the development of the Great Mosque as there put forward is now necessary as a result of our excavations in that building. In the Journal of African History, IV, 2, I gave some account of the great palace of Husuni Kubwa, then in course of excavation; an extended account of the architecture of this building, and of others at Kilwa, is given by P.S. Garlake (who for two seasons acted as architect on the excavation) in his Early Islamic Architecture of the East African Coast, the first Memoir of the Institute. Preliminary reports on the earlier work at Kilwa are also given in the Annual Reports of the Antiquities Department of Tanganyika. The main excavations providing evidence of the earlier periods have been on the east and west sides of the Great Mosque, and to the south and west of the Great House situated to the rear of that mosque (map, fig. 1). Test pits in the western and southernmost parts of the town site have not yielded evidence of the very earliest occupation, but have shown that at least from the eleventh century onwards most of the western half of the town site was occupied; the lower levels in the eastern half have not been examined. It is clear that before the first settlement the western end of the site, up to approximately a line drawn from the Malindi mosque to the north-east corner ofthe creek, was a low-lying, sandy expanse only some 60-80 cm above high water mark. The accumulated debris in the central area of the town, which covered about 50 hectares (110 acres), is between three and a half and five metres in depth. In general it decreases towards the limits of the site, except on the seaward side, east of the castle known as the Gereza. Of this accumulation, three metres, or rather less in some areas, lies below floors attributed to c. A.D. 1300; the predominant colour of this is red, from the colour of the soil used for the construction of the houses. Deposits of this soil are to be found east and south-east of the town. It is an admirable building material since it binds well and does not crack on drying, but it is now only used for ceilings in the better houses of the present day. The lower red deposits contrast markedly with the upper dark-grey levels, which apparently result from the accumulation of rubbish after stone buildings became common. The comparative thinness of deposits of the last six centuries is remarkable; it is seldom more than a metre, except where a stone building has collapsed. This grey soil is the main building material of the present day, and has no doubt been so since Kilwa's decline in the sixteenth century. The archaeological and cultural history of Kilwa is now seen to fall into three main periods: I. That before the establishment of the Shirazi dynasty, roughly A.D. 800 to 1150. II. That of the first dynasty of Kilwa, which may be c. A.D. 1150 to 1300. Culturally this period is more closely linked with the preceding than with the succeeding period. III. That subsequent to the establishment of the second dynasty at Kilwa, c.1300 onwards. This is the period of extensive building in stone, and the construction of the great palace of Husuni Kubwa is dated near the beginning of it. The most cogent of the evidence for the re-assignment of the coins of 'Ali ibn al- Hasan, and for the new dating, comes from excavations below the floor of the Great Mosque; but in anticipation of this, some account will first be given of the finds in the lowest levels, believed to date from before the establishment of the Shirazi. Neville Chittick 5 Period I: pre-Shirazi Investigation of the lower levels has been undertaken by the excavation of large rectangular areas outside the Great Mosque on its eastern and western sides, and in the courtyards at the southern end of the Great House situated immediately to the south of the mosque, as well as outside the north-western entrance to that house. In most cases it was possible to take as a point of departure a floor dated to c. A.D. 1300, at the beginning of the last major period. The upper levels have in many cases been disturbed by later pits and by stone-lined latrine shafts, some of which reach to the white sand that everywhere underlies the accumulated debris, save only in the test pit WW, where coral is found at the base. Pits, probably dug to obtain soil to be re-used for house building, also occur in lower levels. But despite these disturbances, a satisfactory stratigraphic succession can be distinguished which is consistent in all the areas examined. The succession can conveniently be summarized by a section of part of the western side of the largest of the excavations undertaken, situated in the south- western courtyard of the Great House and measuring 6 x 6 m. (fig. 2). In this the upper margin of the strata SN a pproxionaft ori gial landa su.rfate ------.--- a= a COINS rd-b.o(D~ AU. \ ...®N . / ..t AL- MASAN house -debris pit.-- pi red- brown clay MINIATURE house- dbris COINS hard .. . d. ... as,p ------.-, . . - d an -. basa I.-.p"n . . ..d.,...... ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ a"0s-Jbi...t1,ffodd-bona~h--P *~~~~U G,1-FCAATTO ....fiied' - b~onasd hi¢on. Sea Ievel (wIAosT) Fig. 2. Section of part of the western face of excavation ZLL.

6 Kilwa attributed to the pre-Shirazi period is that numbered 5. The beginning of the subsequent period in this excavation is marked by the construction of a lime kiln cut into the earlier deposits. Debris of collapsed houses accumulating above this is capped by a plaster floor believed to have been laid down about A.D. 1300. The earth which accumulated on this (marked 'C') contains pottery of the type associated with the Husuni Kubwa palace; this deposit and the floor have been cut through by a pit containing similar pottery. The upper levels, of post-fifteenth century date, have been removed at an earlier stage; they were disturbed and in this area very thin. The material culture of the pre-Shirazi period is remarkably uniform throughout its span. No complete plan of a house of this period has been recovered, but it is clear that dwellings were rectangular, and their walls built with red mud on a wooden framework. In one small building the vertical poles of the latter, preserved as charcoal, average some 6 cm. in diameter, set at an average of 15 cm. centres. The spacing of post-holes in other buildings is as wide as 25 cm.; this accords with the practice of the present day of using larger, more widely-spaced poles for bigger houses, and lighter, more closely-spaced ones for smaller dwellings. It is likely that these early houses were not dissimilar in appearance from those of modem times, which are roofed with fronds of the mwaa palm, or with makuti, contrived from coconut-palm fronds. Some building in stone was undertaken, but only short lengths of some walls have been found. The blocks are of squared coral, set in red mud mortar. The commonest objects, other than potsherds, found in this period are grooved blocks, usually of sandstone, but occasionally of coral; these are presumed to have been employed for the manufacture of shell beads, which are found in profusion (P1. Ia). Two examples of thick potsherds used for a similar purpose have been found. It is believed that the grooves, whose diameters range from 4 to 10 mm., were employed to grind the edges of the beads, a number of which would be held together in the hand while the operation was being carried out. These grinding blocks occur in such large numbers that one may deduce that the beads were used for trading purposes, presumably with people from the interior. Cowrie shells of the 'money' variety are found throughout the deposits of this period, and were evidently used for trade and possibly as currency. Against this latter view is their low value in a region where they can easily be collected from the sea-shore; on the other hand it seems significant that they virtually disappear in the archaeological record after the introduction of coins. Iron was smelted from earliest times, as attested by iron slag and tuyeres, but no furnaces have been found. No ore deposits which would now be of commercial value are known in this region; the raw material may have been ferricrete concretions, which are found on the mainland. Iron objects, though few (no doubt owing to the re-use of the metal) are as common as in later periods. They include fish-hooks and what may be a grater for coconut (mbuzi). Copper is even rarer. Among the local pottery, the commonest diagnostic types occurring throughout the period, except in the very lowest levels, are cooking pots of a bag-like shape, with rims either decorated with notches or square-bevelled (fig. 3b), and red- burnished bowls with thickened in-turned rims; the latter continue throughout the succeeding period (fig. 3c). No lamps are found save for a unique thinly-glazed example of open, boat-like shape found in the basal level of occupation at Mafia. This latter piece is comparable to

Neville Chittick examples from Ctesiphon, which are thought to be not later than the ninth century A.D. Imported objects are found throughout the period, but are very rare at the beginning. Glass vessels were evidently greatly valued, and the ratio of glass to imported pottery is higher than in later periods. In this connection it is interesting to recall the prominence given to glass among the imports to Azania mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea; though this of course relates to a time some centuries earlier. Glass beads on the other hand, are very rare. Carnelian beads are found (though rarely) from the earliest times and, together with beads of crystal quartz, in later periods. Though the general pattern of the material culture is similar throughout this period, it is possible to distinguish two phases, designated Ia and Ib. Period Ia.-During the first of these phases, whose span is covered by the lowest strata in the section, the characteristic imported ware is a blue-glazed ware with a buff body and under-glaze decoration in relief; the glaze within the vessels is a lighter blue, or black. This ware, termed Sassanian-Islamic, is thought to have been manufactured in middle and lower Iraq up to and including the ninth century A.D.; it is described more fully in the note on Unguja Ukuu elsewhere in this volume. A second imported ware has a white tin-glaze with a bluish tinge over a buff body, and is used for bowls; it is believed to imitate white Chinese T'ang wares and to date from the ninth into the tenth century. In the latter part of the phase occur varieties splashed with black (one example) and, more commonly, a greenish-blue. The pots of local manufacture, characteristic of the very earliest, midden, deposit, are bag-shaped vessels, with their rounded rims often decorated with criss-cross incisions, and with incised, hatched triangles, or rows of circular impressions, on the shoulder (fig. 3a). This type appears to precede that with bevelled or nicked rims mentioned above. The decoration in graphite of red-burnished bowls is also characteristic of this phase-an ornament that recurs much later, from the fourteenth century, but in a different mode. The early graphite decoration is in two styles. The first consists of very fine lines precisely like those made by a pencil, usually in the form of a trellis pattern, and is used in the interior of shallow bowls, mostly those of the type with in-turned rims (fig. 3d). The second consists of wider, poorly executed, graphite lines, not arranged in a symmetrical pattern, and used to ornament deep bowls with a poorly finished red-burnished surface (fig. 3e). An all-over black burnish is not uncommon, though this occurs rarely in later periods also (fig. 3f). Bowl-shaped objects of shell are an interesting feature of this phase (P1. Ia). They are formed by cutting off the dorsal part of the comparatively large tiger-cowrie shell, and it is thought they may have been used as spoons. They do not occur in later levels. Similar objects, made of Turbo shell, have been found at Talaky and Voh~mar in Madagascar as mentioned in P. Wrin's article elsewhere in this Volume. In the excavations at the southern end of the Great House the lowest stratum of this phase consists of a midden deposit of shells whose contents have been eaten for food, fish bones, and very fragmented pottery. This debris often fills cavities in the basal sand,1 some of which were deliberately dug and probably first served as water-holes; the 1. A very few sherds similar to those of the midden deposit, and some charcoal, have been found in the upper part of the basal sand in one excavation.

Kilwa ...... a e f Fig. 3. Pottery of Period 1. a. Rim Of vessel with triangle decoration below rim, of the earliest period. b. Cooking pot with notched rim. c. Bowl of red-burnished ware. d. Graphite decoration on base of bowl as in 3c. e. Open bowl decorated with wide graphite lines. f. Bowl with graphited surface in and outsidefron lowest stratum. Scale 1: .3. rubbish in one of these extended below the present water-table, which on the evidence of later stone-lined wells has fallen since antiquity. No structures have been found in this lowest stratum, and our first impression was that the debris was dumped here by

Neville Chittick fishermen who would have camped in flimsy palm-frond huts (bandas). However, iron slag and fragments of tuy~res have now been found in this basal deposit, as well as a fragment of a copper kohl stick. In addition to small sherds of imported pottery (only some 0.2 o of the whole) fragments of glass have been found, and a carnelian bead. All this suggests a settled and comparatively developed community, and it now seems that the small areas dug to this depth are probably outside the site of the settlement of the time. These would be the middens on the outskirts of the village. Throughout the first phase, shell-fish continued to figure largely in the diet of the inhabitants. This is the food of the indigent; in later periods one finds shell- middens in periods of decline, or on the sites of poor settlements as indicated by the low proportion of imported pottery. One can therefore presume that the early settlement of Kilwa was not very prosperous, and its trade little developed. On the historical evidence the more important settlements in this period were further north, and this is reinforced by certain surface finds (at Unguja Ukuu and Manda). It is probable that the majority of the inhabitants in this and the succeeding phase, Ib, were pagan, but on this important question we have very little archaeological evidence. No graves of the period have been found, though one fragmentary skeleton of a juvenile came to light in the basal sand. It is doubtful whether this individual was deliberately buried at all, but if he was, the burial was certainly not in the Muslim style. No mosques of this period are known. On the other hand, a fragment of slate-like stone having Arabic letters scratched upon it was found in a layer dated to the end of this phase. This indicates that there were some literate people, and hence presumably Muslim. The script is angular and redolent of the Kufic style. Radiocarbon dates have been obtained for charcoal samples from deposits of this phase, Ia, as follows :2 1. Near top of basal sand - A.D. 930± 100 years (SR 78) 2. Refuse pit in basal sand - A.D. 1060 ± 100 years (SR 76) 3. c.75 cm. above basal sand (a) A.D. 125 ± 110 years (GX 0398) (b) A.D. 630±110 years (SR 77) These dates have been calculated on the conventional (Libby) half-life of C14, 5770 years; if the more probable half-life of 5730 years is used the above dates should be read as earlier than shown above by a varying amount: 31 years in the case of the latest and 55 years in the case of the earliest. The results from the lowest levels, SR 78 and 76, are somewhat later than the dates deduced on archaeological grounds, even taking the lower margin of one standard deviation. Samples GX 0398 and SR 77 have on the other hand yielded results much too early. They are from one and the same deposit, about 80 cm. above the location of SR 78 in the same excavation, in the stratum below that in which occurs the first sgraffiato pottery, in this case together with splashed tin- glazed ware. They must therefore be later 2. Laboratory reference numbers in brackets: SR=Gulbenkian Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland; GX=Geochron Laboratories Inc. The samples are not from the excavation whose section is illustrated in Fig. 2.It should be emphasized that the dates given are the equivalents of conventional radiocarbon dates; corrections by amounts that are still somewhat uncertain must be made to arrive at true dates (see Radiocarbon, Vol. 8, Yale University 1966, pp 534-540)

Kilwa than SR 78, and on archaeological grounds it is hardly conceivable that they should be earlier than the ninth century. Moreover the results from the two laboratories are mutually inconsistent. The results are still more puzzling in that the samples were treated with hot dilute hydrochloric acid to remove carbonates, which would have eliminated the only obvious element which might produce a deceptively early result. Period Ib.-The date of the beginning of the second phase of the first period (Ib) hinges on the date at which the Islamic pottery characteristic of the phase began to be imported. This is sgraffiato ware, a lead-glazed red earthenware with designs engraved through a white slip. No satisfactory analysis has ever been made of sgraffiato wares as a whole and their dating is difficult. The earliest type found at Kilwa is characterised by hatching of the design, or sometimes of the background. The predominant glaze-colour is yellow, shading to cream; it is frequently splashed with green, brown, and sometimes a purplish hue. Bowls with this type of incised decoration, which derives from the Sassanian tradition of engraving of silver, are ascribed to the tenth to twelfth century (Lane, P. 25 and P1. 30). These, however, are without the splashed decoration, which derives from the imitation of T'ang dynasty wares. The most likely date for the introduction of this 'hatched' sgraffiato to Kilwa, taking into account the evidence from earlier and later vessels, is c.A.D.1000. It certainly continued in use into the following period, through the twelfth century, and probably well into the thirteenth century. Soon after the introduction of the hatched ware a type of sgraffiato with a medium or dark green glaze came into use. This is rare in this phase, but is common in the succeeding period. Towards the end of this phase (c. A.D. 1100 e) sgraffiato of the 'Garrus' or champlev, type, on which large areas are scraped from the surface, is introduced (P1. Ila), though other styles survive, and indeed continue into the very beginning of the succeeding period (P1. Ilb). The introduction of sgraffiato and the disappearance of the white tin-glaze wares are convenient indicators only: culturally there is very little difference between this phase and the preceding, and there is certainly no abrupt break. The increased quantities of imported pottery and glass indicate a growing prosperity, as does the reduction in the amount of shell-food debris. Cowries on the other hand are very common in this phase. The 'spoons' of tiger-cowrie shell disappear. The decoration of locally made red-burnished bowls in graphite is abandoned shortly after the beginning of the phase, though the bowls themselves continue unchanged3 Incised and impressed decoration on the body of cooking pots has now been abandoned. Spindle whorls made from rubbed-down sherds occur rarely; lamps are entirely lacking. Grooved sandstone blocks and shell beads continue to be common. Rotary querns of shelly limestone were used for grinding grain. The first steatite vessels were imported at the beginning of this phase. These objects are of great importance as they appear to have been imported from Madagascar; they become common in the succeeding period (see p. 14). Period II: Dynasty of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan The succeeding main period is characterised by the introduction of coinage, believed to be locally struck. The coins of issues hitherto known are of 'Ali ibn al- Hasan, described by Walker (1936) as his types XII, XIII, and XIV. I have suggested in the article in the 3. Red burnished bowls with inturned rim are found also on the Kenya coast; this is the only instance of a wide distribution for a common type of pot.

Neville Chittick Journal of African History (1965) that this 'Ali is probably to be identified with the traditional founder of the 'Shirazi' dynasty. The script of these coins, particularly those having the text written in one line, is angular, redolent of Kufic type, with the tops of the letters alif and lam bifurcated, and greatly elongated ends to the letters nun and qaf, the terminal being curled back on itself. I have since discussed the script of these coins with Dr. George Miles of the American Numismatic Society, probably the greatest living authority on Islamic coins. He would assign script of this type on coins to the twelfth or early thirteenth centuries, and compares it in particular with coins of the Atabeg rulers of Fars, notably Muzaffar al-Din Zangi, 1162-1175. This is some confirmation of the date already put forward, and the possible connection with Fars, of which Shiraz was the capital, is interesting. Our latest work has brought to light minute coins clearly stratified below those types already mentioned and similar coins have been found at Kisimani Mafia, though not so satisfactorily stratified. The tiny size of these coins, and their thinness, coupled with their corroded state, has rendered cleaning and reading their superscriptions extremely difficult, and authorities to whom they have been submitted have made nothing of them. The coins fall into two groups; those of copper and those of silver. The latter are believed to be the only Islamic silver coins yet found on the coast. Only four specimens have been found, two at the Mafia site, and two at Kilwa. The style of script closely resembles that of coins of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan, especially the type with the text in one line. The original diameter was about 10 mm., and the weight about 0.1 gm. That it was possible to cut dies of this size, and strike coins on both sides of such a wafer-thin flan, argues a very high degree of craftsmanship. The most legible of these coins came from a poorly stratified sandy accumulation, a little above the original land surface outside a mosque at Kisimani Mafia. The deposit yielded also coins of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan of the usual types, all except one of the 'one-line' variety. No coins were found at a lower level. This silver coin weighs 0.057 gm. and measures 8.5 x 7 mm., the edges being partly broken away. I read: Obv. Within a double circle, with a six-pointed star in the centre, "od al-Hasan, the alif of 'al' being curved in form and disposed above the star, the remainder below. Rev. Pellet in centre with crescent below. d . JU, Yathiqu bi-Maula c.A41 -1-Minan The reverse, which rhymes with al-Hasan, is thus similar to (though of course much smaller than) Walker's type XIV of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan. The two silver coins from Kilwa are less legible, but 'al-Hasan' can be distinguished on each, and though they are from a different die, or dies, they appear to be similar to the above. The newly-discovered minute copper coins have a diameter of between 12 and 18 mm. and a weight of 0.2 to 0.7 gm. Most were found at Mafia. Of these, the majority were not of the type associated with Kilwa; they are mostly struck on one side only, but nothing meaningful has yet been read on them. Of those of 'Kilwa type' the following (the first from Mafia, the remainder from Kilwa) are noteworthy: 1. Obv. Crescent (?) at top, c. ;&J al-Hasan ib... doubtfully legible below, in one line. Rev. >J, bi al-Samad: (only the final d (dal) is clearly legible).

Kilwa 2. Obv. Cross in centre, word ending t. (part of 'Hasan':) below. Partly broken away above, surviving fragment blank. Rev. Cross in centre, word ending in nun (n) below; illegible above, but could be Ah .. Yathiqu bi-maula. Another specimen has a similar obverse, but with a six-pointed star. On the reverse only L&4 Yathiqu is decipherable, with a bifurcated letter following at the top centre. 3. In a minute spindly script. Obv. Cross in centre. c34 'Ali legible above, and bifurcated alif below. Rev. Five-pointed star in centre. Nothing legible above, &-jA al-Min[an] legible below. This is almost certainly a minute variant of Walker's type XIV ('Ali ibn al-Hasan). From the above it appears that there were miniature coins of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan struck in copper at an earlier date than those of the usual weight (rather over 1.2 gin.). There were also silver coins apparently carrying the name al-Hasan only, though it is just possible that "Ali ibn' has been struck off the surviving flan. The earliest copper coins from Kilwa may also have carried the name al-Hasan alone, but this is doubtful. This al-Hasan may, it is suggested, have been the father of 'Ali. Let us now relate these coins to the stratigraphy. Stratum 5 in the section, (fig. 2), has been dug into in the course of the construction of a succession of circular lime kilns, which extended over most of the area of the excavation. These took the form of pits with trenches leading into them on all sides, presumably for the purpose of providing draught and additional fuel. One of these trenches is visible in the section, with the associated ground-surface adjacent to it. The earliest context in which a coin has been found at Kilwa is in association with this lime kiln; this is the one described as (2) above. Coins of similar size and probably similar type, very heavily corroded, were found in the overlying fill levels, represented by '3a' in the section. In stratum 2 was found the miniature coin of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan described as (3) above; in stratum 1 occur coins of the same sultan of published types and normal size. The pattern is similar in other trenches, in one of which was found one of the silver coins, in a stratum corresponding to '2' and '3a' in the section illustrated. Towards the end of the period, in strata corresponding to the upper part of '1,' are found, but very rarely, coins of Daud ibn al-Hasan, who, it is suggested, may have been a brother of 'Ali and ruled after him, though he is not recorded in the Kilwa Chronicle. No other rulers of the first dynasty of Kilwa, with which this period is equated, appear to have issued coins. In strata above the equivalent of '1' in the section, appear coins of al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman and Sulaiman ibn al-Hasan, attributed to the second dynasty, that of Abu'l-Mawahib. Charcoal from one of the lime-kilns mentioned above has been analysed for Cl4 dating by the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, Bunkyo-ku, Japan, and has yielded the acceptable result of A.D. 1135 ± 110 based on a C14 half-life of 5730 years (sample code No. N-256), which is equivalent to A.D. 1160 ± 110 based on the Libby half-life. The period of the first dynasty is one of increased wealth, though there is a marked degree of cultural continuity with the preceding period. Building in stone was developed.

Neville Chittick The masonry, as in the rare earlier examples, is of roughly squared blocks set in courses 25-30 cm. deep, but now built with good lime mortar. It was no doubt for this purpose that the kilns already referred to were constructed. Though at Kilwa no substantial stone buildings of quite such early date as the kilns have come to light, there is little doubt that they existed. Lime plaster is also regularly used for floors. From this time date the three mosques at Kisimani Mafia and, apparently a little later in date, the earlier stages of the Great Mosque at Kilwa described below. There was an increase in the amount of imported goods, notably beads. Glass beads almost entirely displace those of shell. They are chiefly of the wound (multiple wound) variety, produced by winding a trail of glass round a conical mandril and marvering smooth. This method of manufacture results in a bore in the bead considerably wider at one end than the other. The beads fall into three main categories: 1. Spheroid beads, usually of opaque glass of various shades of blue-green, sometimes Indian Red and occasionally black, with a diameter of 9-12 mm. 2. Small beads, conical on one side and lenticular on the other, usually Indian Red in colour, sometimes light green, diameter 7-8mm. 3. Lenticular beads, always yellow, diameter about 10 mm. Some cane beads are also found, nearly all of the reheated variety. They are, however, rare compared to later periods; the commonest colour is blue-green. Indian Red, the commonest after about A.D. 1400, is very rare. The quantity of imported pottery also increased. This continues to be mostly of the sgraffiato type, though of a somewhat inferior quality. The classes of this ware with a hatched decoration disappear, as also does the chamnpleve style. The predominant glaze colour is dark green, with very little incised decoration beneath, and sometimes with none at all (and hence not strictly sgraffiato, though the glaze and paste is the same) (P1, II). A poor quality thin greenish-yellow glaze also occurs. This period also saw the beginning of the import of significant quantities of Chinese porcelain, though this is rare compared with the Islamic, itself only of the order of one per cent. of the whole. This porcelain includes Ch'ing Pai fragments, a little northern celadon, and very rare sherds of Ting type. Sherds of the last two categories submitted to expert opinion are ascribed to the Sung Dynasty, twelfth or thirteenth century. Fig. 4. Steatite vessels of Period L Scale 1:3.

Kilwa Steatite vessels were imported in increased numbers. The typical form is a vessel with vertical sides, usually low, and with a flat or nearly flat bottom, with a diameter of 20-30 cm. Most or all were originally provided with lids, and some with legs, square in section; the exterior sides of the vessel are finished by turning on a lathe; the base is usually pecked (fig. 4). These vessels closely resemble those found at Voh6mar on the north-eastern coast of Madagascar and described by Gaudebout and Vernier (1942), and referred to by P. V6rin in his article in this Volume. They appear to have been used for cooking, probably taking advantage of the fact that steatite does not crack with heat, and that food does not stick to it even if dry. The vessels were occasionally imitated in pottery, of a grey ware which is not otherwise found. Glass vessels continued to be imported, and include besides large flasks, small phials some with moulded decoration (fig. 5a, b; P1. IVa). These probably contained scents or, kohl for the adornment of the eyes. To apply the latter, copper rods, rounded in section at the ends, and square at the centre, ornamented with incised designs, were used (fig. 5c). These objects are common in the succeeding period also. b c a c2Ib e Fig. 5. Objects of Period II. a-b. Glass phials with moulded decoration. c. Kohl stick. d. Spindle whorls with incised decoration. e. Conical crucible. Scale 1:2. Spindle whorls are commonly found in strata of this period, whereas earlier they had been extremely rare, this indicating a great development in the manufacture of cloth, probably of cotton. The typical form is plano-convex, often with a groove around the rim, with incised decoration on the upper surface, often in the form of a star. They are very neatly made (fig. 5d). Painted decoration in red is found, but rarely. Some specimens are made from a simple rubbed-down sherd, usually of sgraffato ware, Others are

Neville Chittick 15 plain, slightly convex on both sides; this is the form typical of subsequent periods (cf. fig. 8a), during which the incised type is not found. Spindle whorls continued to be made in large numbers until the early sixteenth century. Crucibles were used in large numbers at Kilwa, and more rarely at Mafia, in this period, for the melting of copper, as is attested by the oxides adhering to the interior. They are conical in shape, and made of a friable, gritty, refractory clay (fig. 5e). Both used and unused specimens have been found. The local pottery wares continue to be similar to those of the previous period. Most of the earlier forms continued in use, but characteristic and common are two new types, whose manufacture began at the end of the preceding period. They are: 1. Shallow bowls with a very exaggerated carination, and decoration below the rim, usually consisting of cross-hatching and always incised after firing (fig. 6e). 2. Very squat, wide bowls, markedly inturned, with an extremely short neck ornamented with impressed holes at the base (fig. 6a). Similar vessels have been found at Ras Mkumbuu in Pemba (Kirkman 1959, fig. 7e). These two types of vessel are in fact related to each other, and intermediate types occur. Other very distinctive, but less common types found only in this period are: 3. Pots with a curious double-curve profle. The example illustrated (fig. 6b) has hatched band decoration (see below); these vessels are also found plain, or with a simple notched decoration on the rim. 4. Very heavy pots, made in a coarse dark-grey paste, with flat bases. Apart from their massive nature these pots are distinguished by deep, roughly vertical scorings made with the fingers on the interior, which is very rough. The purpose of these vessels is obscure. The form of the upper part is uncertain but the example illustrated is shown below the upper part of a vessel from Kaole, manufactured in a similar fashion (fig. 6c). The first examples of the 'hatched band' ware are found. These are vessels ornamented with a band of impressed or incised decoration, part of the vessel usually being graphited (fig. 6d). This is the only local ware which carries on into the succeeding period, during which it is common, the bands often taking a chevron-like form. It is noteworthy that the characteristic ware of the lowest stratum at Gedi, with applied stripes of clay (class 1 of Kirkman, 1954, p. 78), is lacking. The connection these suggested with the ribbed wares of Zimbabwe seems therefore less likely. The first locally made lamps are found in this period. They are very shallow, nearly circular in shape, thick in section, with a simple pinched-out spout (sometimes more than one) for the wick (fig. 6f). Ovens of burnt clay let into the floors of houses (still almost all of wattle and daub) were introduced in this period. These ovens, known in Swahili as gai, were used for baking small unleavened loaves of rice or millet flour (mkate wa mofa). Their use continued through subsequent periods, and they may still be seen, though rarely, at the present day, an old water pot being now used for the purpose. The earliest grave monuments are ascribed to the first half of this period, or possibly the end of the previous one. As a result of the investigation of a section of wall of coursed masonry protruding from the ground at Sake, a locality south- east of the town proper and not far from the path to the Husunis, a group of tombs was discovered, completely covered by an accumulation of compacted, very hard red sandy soil. The coursed masonry

16 Kilwa ...... /4 oooor..Zz

Neville Chittick wall proved to be part of the rectangular enclosure kerb of a grave; another similar grave was found near by. The remainder of the tombs, however, were of a type not hitherto recorded from the coast. They are built of coral blocks and are rectangular, the length being twice the breadth. The long axis, as in all Muslim graves in this longitude, is EastWest. The structures are solid and have a stepped form, capped by a ridge of triangular section with slightly curved sides (P1. IVb). The exterior is rendered with a lime plaster of good quality. Unhappily none of the graves carries an inscription. The overlying fill contained coins of 'Ali ibn al- Hasan only, and pottery of the poor dark greenglazed type of sgraffiato, typical of the period of that ruler. No coins were found in the soil into which the graves were dug, though little of this was excavated. It is deduced therefore that the graves date from before the time of the larger coins of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan. Period III: Dynasty of Abu'l-Mawahib Period flIa: The Fourteenth Century There is a very marked cultural break at the beginning of this period. This break is most apparent in the architecture, which displays a fresh and direct influence from the home-lands of Islam. I have previously set out (Chittick 1965) my reasons for believing that the accession of the sultan al-Hasan ibn Talut marked a complete change of dynasty. I suggested that the cultural break might be associated with this new dynasty, that of Abu'l-Mawahib. I am now almost convinced that this is the case; I shall return to this point at a later stage. Assuming this view is correct, this period begins at the end of the thirteenth century, and for our purposes may be considered to end with the sack of Kilwa by the Portuguese in 1505. It may be divided into two phases, corresponding roughly to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries respectively. The new style of architecture is dramatically exemplified by the palace and emporium known as Husuni Kubwa, in which has been found an inscription with the name of al-Malik al-Mansur al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman. This great building has been briefly described by myself (1963) and more fully by P. S. Garlake (1966) and it is not necessary here to enter upon a full description and analysis. Suffice it to say that this building stands, so far as its plan goes, in an ancestral relationship to all later domestic buildings on the coast. The greater part of the palace is composed of a number of dwellings (Arabic bait) consisting essentially of a long, narrow ante-room, with a similar main room behind, and bedrooms to the rear, the whole facing on to a sunken courtyard, with steps leading down into it. Houses follow variants of this plan not only in Kilwa but further north also, as at Gedi. Other new elements introduced at Husuni Kubwa include the use of domes and vaults, as well as carved decoration in stone. Most of the vaults are of the barrel type, and built with a lining of stone voussoirs, rather thin in depth; other vaults are of more sophisticated type. The domes are conical or tent-shaped; the best preserved example of the former is ridged both on its inner and outer sides. The decorative motifs include friezes (P1. Va), (P1. Vb), roundels, fleur-de-lys and cable-pattern surrounds of doorways (Pl. VI). The last-named is the ancestor of the herring-bone motif which continued to be used in northern Kenya as late as the seventeenth century. We shall see that these innovations are paralleled in the reconstruction of the Great

18 Kilwa -z

Neville Chittick Mosque at about the same date, early in the fourteenth century; here hemispherical domes were constructed, and stone columns used, and during this century numbers of houses were built of stone. Kilwa, from being a town almost entirely of wood-and-mud dwellings became one largely of stone. Rather unexpectedly, the quality of the wall masonry is inferior to that of earlier periods, being of random rubble, in place of the former roughly cut and coursed masonry. There is a marked change in the local pottery at the beginning of this period. All the earlier types go out of production, except the 'hatched band' ware, which is produced in a greater variety both of decoration and form, the shapes including besides bowls with inturned rim (fig. 7a), carinated bowls (fig. 7b). The characteristic pottery of the period is made in a pink paste with black grits, decorated with protuberances worked up on its surface; most are cooking pots (fig. 7c; Pl. VIIla). Closely allied to this are vessels with a moulded band with impressed decoration thereon at the base of the neck. This decoration is sometimes combined with the moulded protuberances (fig. 7d). These classes are referred to as Husuni ware. Graphite lines re-appear as a decoration on shallow bowls, almost invariably in the form of a concentric pentagonal design, as in (fig. 7e). The most notable, though rare, type of pottery is a well-made vessel, probably a water-pot, apparently turned on the wheel, and with ridged decoration at the neck. These are the only wheel-made pots of local manufacture known from the coast; no complete examples have been found (fig. 7f). Lamps are common. In contrast to the shallow, rather crude, lamps of the previous period, they are comparatively thinly-potted, with low vertical sides capped by a flat rim, which is often painted red (P1. X). Spindle whorls on the other hand are now all simple discs without decoration (fig. 8a). Imports increase markedly in this period, although the steatite vessels are no longer found. Chinese porcelain was bought in much larger quantities; most of it is celadon, often with a bluish tinge; 'lotus bowls' are common (P1. VIla). A very little of the earliest blue-and-white porcelain was imported, mostly jars of the form known as Mei Ping (P1. VIIb), whereas in later periods the blue-and-white is almost all in the form of small food bowls. Chinese stoneware is not uncommon, both green-brown and near black glazes being found; the former has underglaze incised decoration. Little Islamic pottery was imported; the characteristic ware, perhaps made in Aden, IIL GI'I b I a FiS. 8. Objects from Huuni Kubwa. a. Spindle whorl ofplain type. b. Aragonite beads.

Kilwa is of poor quality with a matt yellow glaze decorated with designs in black. It is found in larger quantities on the Kenya coast, and is listed by Kirkman (1954) as his Class 1 of the Islamic wares. Probably in the latter half of the fourteenth century, however, there began the import of an Islamic monochrome ware, having a light green glaze over a buff body, which is closely related to the monochromes of the fifteenth century. Glass beads were imported in large numbers, the proportion of the cane to the wound variety increasing with time. The cane beads include a cobalt-blue variety not previously found. Locally, beads were made of aragonite cut from the shell of the giant clam; they are of small size compared with those found later (fig. 8b). Coins with the names al-Hasan ibn Talut, al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman, Sulaiman ibn al-Hasan, and Daud ibn Sulaiman make their appearance early in this period. Period III b: The Fifteenth Century There appears to have been some decline in wealth in the latter part of the fourteenth century; the minting of coins had ceased and no substantial buildings have been dated to this period. It is noteworthy that according to the Kilwa Chronicle most of the Great Mosque was in ruins at this time. The first half of the fifteenth century saw a revival of building activity. The architecture displays more local characteristics, though the basic house design continues the same. Lime concrete, poured over shuttering, replaces stone in the construction of domes, and monolithic pillars are replaced by composite pillars of stone and concrete. Buildings of more than one storey are more common; in some cases a second or even a third storey is added to an earlier structure. Typical of this period is the decoration of vaults and domes with glazed bowls, set in masonry. The bowls are usually of Persian but in one case of Chinese origin. Very little better quality decorated Islamic ware seems to have been used about the house, the usual type being a monochrome ware glazed in shades of blue- green to green (Islamic Class 18 of Kirkman, 1954). The earliest form of this ware appears to have come into use in the latter half of the fourteenth century, and is a hemispherical bowl with a plain rounded rim, glazed in a light green over a buff body. In the fifteenth century a shallow bowl with a ledge rim is common, as well as the deeper bowl; the glaze in this period is usually a deep blue or blue-green over a red body. The use of this ware continued through the sixteenth century. (P1. VIIc). Chinese porcelain is almost twice as common as Islamic ware in the fifteenth century; celadon and blue-and-white wares occur in approximately equal quantities. Large celadon bowls with 'ledge' rim, which do not occur earlier, are common; the blue-and-white on the other hand consists almost entirely of small food bowls. Mei Ping jars, found in the fourteenth century, and plates, which occur later, are both lacking. The types of local pottery most typical of the fifteenth century are as follows: 1. Wealed ware. This is the standard cooking pot of the period. It is thinly potted, well-fired and hard. The upper part of the vessel is decorated with narrow 'weals' worked up on its surface, a form of ornament that appears to be derived from the Husuni ware of the fourteenth century (fig. 9b, P1. VIIIb). These pots are found in a wide range of sizes. On some of the best quality pots the weals have small spiky projections on their surface, producing a barbotine effect, (fig. 9a).

Neville Chittick '(((RW\\~\\ N e a Fig. 9. Pottery of Period iTb, fifteenth century. a-b. Wealed-ware cooking pots. c. Bowl of painted ware. d. Bowl of red-burnished ware. Scale 1:3. 11\ =W

Kilwa 2. Painted ware. These are food bowls with a ring base and nearly hemispherical section; their shape appears to have been modelled on Chinese examples. The body of the bowl is pinkish with many black grits, and thinly potted. The interior is decorated with red paint, most commonly with groups of lines radiating from the centre; some times with rather more sophisticated designs (fig. 9c; P1. IXb). Similar decoration in white on a dark grey body is found, but is rare. 3. Red burnished ware. We have observed that this style of finishing was used in Periods I and II. It now recurs, but applied to different forms of pots, mostly near-hemispherical bowls. These are often decorated in graphite with groups of radiating lines, like the painted ware; the lines are wider than the earlier periods (fig. 9d). All the above wares apparently continued in use in the sixteenth century, though no properly stratified deposits of this period have been excavated. It is interesting that the painted and wealed wares are rare at Kisimani Mafia, only 80 miles to the north (though the town there was in decline in the fifteenth century) and apparently quite lacking on the Kenya coast. It is clear that most of the local pottery had a purely local distribution. The portable stove is common in this century. This peculiar vessel is provided with three pointed horns projecting inwards and upwards from the bevelled rim; on them was placed the cooking pot, with (presumably) charcoal inside the stove (P1. IXa). The earliest examples are found in deposits of the fourteenth century and have a more rounded form of horn, but they do not become common until the following century. Their use continues through the sixteenth century. Stoves of a similar nature but rather different design are found in sixteenth century deposits at Gedi (Kirkman 1963, p. 45). Lamps of the fifteenth century are of complicated design with high sides, and the top, which is usually decorated with concentric grooves, is covered over. These too are unknown on the Kenya coast, where the lamps are of a simple open boat shape, a form which does not occur at Kilwa until comparatively recent times, probably seventeenth century until (certainly) nineteenth century. This again emphasises the restricted distribution of locally made pottery. Glass vessels are not uncommon. They are mostly flasks of considerable size, undecorated, with long necks. The small phials found in earlier periods are lacking. The glass beads of this period are almost entirely of the reheated cane variety; the commonest colour is Indian Red. Beads of aragonite continued to be manufactured locally; some are of very great size (P1. Xb). These large specimens are of short biconical form and many attain 70 mm. in diameter and 200 grammes in weight. That they were, in fact, beads (which at first sight seems improbable) is indicated by the fact that intermediate sizes between the smallest (which plainly were beads) and the largest are found. A group of five has been found together; it is possible that they were anklets. Plain spindle whorls continue to be common, though they become rare and finally disappear after the end of this period, the spinning and weaving industry presumably declining as a result of the competition of imported cloth and of the control by the Portuguese of the Sofala trade, for which cloth was needed as an exchange commodity. The smelting of iron had ceased at this time, and probably earlier, the little iron slag found in fourteenth century contexts being very possibly derived from earlier deposits. Crucibles for the melting of copper are lacking.

Kilwa 2. Painted ware. These are food bowls with a ring base and nearly hemispherical section; their shape appears to have been modelled on Chinese examples. The body of the bowl is pinkish with many black grits, and thinly potted. The interior is decorated with red paint, most commonly with groups of lines radiating from the centre; some times with rather more sophisticated designs (fig. 9c; P1. IXb). Similar decoration in white on a dark grey body is found, but is rare. 3. Red burnished ware. We have observed that this style of finishing was used in Periods I and II. It now recurs, but applied to different forms of pots, mostly near-hemispherical bowls. These are often decorated in graphite with groups of radiating lines, like the painted ware; the lines are wider than the earlier periods (fig. 9d). All the above wares apparently continued in use in the sixteenth century, though no properly stratified deposits of this period have been excavated. It is interesting that the painted and wealed wares are rare at Kisimani Mafia, only 80 miles to the north (though the town there was in decline in the fifteenth century) and apparently quite lacking on the Kenya coast. It is clear that most of the local pottery had a purely local distribution. The portable stove is common in this century. This peculiar vessel is provided with three pointed horns projecting inwards and upwards from the bevelled rim; on them was placed the cooking pot, with (presumably) charcoal inside the stove (P1. IXa). The earliest examples are found in deposits of the fourteenth century and have a more rounded form of horn, but they do not become common until the following century. Their use continues through the sixteenth century. Stoves of a similar nature but rather different design are found in sixteenth century deposits at Gedi (Kirkman 1963, p. 45). Lamps of the fifteenth century are of complicated design with high sides, and the top, which is usually decorated with concentric grooves, is covered over. These too are unknown on the Kenya coast, where the lamps are of a simple open boat shape, a form which does not occur at Kilwa until comparatively recent times, probably seventeenth century until (certainly) nineteenth century. This again emphasises the restricted distribution of locally made pottery. Glass vessels are not uncommon. They are mostly flasks of considerable size, undecorated, with long necks. The small phials found in earlier periods are lacking. The glass beads of this period are almost entirely of the reheated cane variety; the commonest colour is Indian Red. Beads of aragonite continued to be manufactured locally; some are of very great size (P1. Xb). These large specimens are of short biconical form and many attain 70 mm. in diameter and 200 grammes in weight. That they were, in fact, beads (which at first sight seems improbable) is indicated by the fact that intermediate sizes between the smallest (which plainly were beads) and the largest are found. A group of five has been found together; it is possible that they were anklets. Plain spindle whorls continue to be common, though they become rare and finally disappear after the end of this period, the spinning and weaving industry presumably declining as a result of the competition of imported cloth and of the control by the Portuguese of the Sofala trade, for which cloth was needed as an exchange commodity. The smelting of iron had ceased at this time, and probably earlier, the little iron slag found in fourteenth century contexts being very possibly derived from earlier deposits. Crucibles for the melting of copper are lacking.

Neville Chittick A good example of an important building of this period is the House of the Mosque in the area later enclosed by the walls of Makutani, the main block of which, excavated in 1964, is shown in plan in fig. 10. This building is distinguished by the fact that it incorporates a mosque of very unusual design, evidently primarily for the use of the occupier. This, and the lavish decoration of the building, vouch for its owner having been a person of the first rank. The southern side of the sunken courtyard was flanked by a covered cloister, roofed with domes and a vault, as in the Palace at Songo Mnara. The adjacent retiring room was roofed by three transverse barrel vaults, as also was the mosque on its eastern side. The undersides of all these roofs were decorated with inset Persian bowls (P1. XIa). They constitute a collection which is probably unique; in all they numbered about 300, though most were badly damaged by the collapse and disintegration of the vaults; the glaze of all is affected by corrosion. The bowls are all Fig. 10. Plan of the main block of the House of the Mosque.

Kilwa made in a white granular paste. They fall into three categories: 1. Large bowls (diameter 18-19 cm). Most are decorated in blue, under a nearly transparent white glaze; the commonest motifs, notably tendrils, are derived from Chinese Ming porcelain (P1. XIb). Others have a simple floral design in dark-blue in the cetnre under a turquoise glaze. 2. Medium sized bowls (diameter 9-13 cm). Decoration never of Chinese type, but a variety of designs occur, notably stylized flowers in black and turquoise under a whitish glaze (P1. XIIa-d). Others are smaller versions of the type with turquoise glaze, as described above (P1. XIIe). 3. Small cups (diameter 6-7cm). All have a turquoise glaze, occasionally with a little dark-blue underglaze decoration (P1. XlIe). These bowls are of a little-known type and period, but are thought, on grounds of style, to date from the late fourteenth century or early fifteenth. This date agrees well with that presumed for the building, the domes of which (all of which had collapsed) must have closely resembled those of the Great Mosque rebuilt between about A.D. 1420 and 1440. It remains to consider the break in the cultural tradition at the beginning of Period III in relation to the history of Kilwa. According to the new chronology proposed (Chittick 1965), the struggle with the neighbouring state of Shanga (probably to be identified with the island of Sanje ya Kati) ended with the expulsion of the usurper Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al- Mundhiri4 in about A.D. 1260, and the restoration of al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman I. I have previously hesitated between identifying the al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman of the inscription at Husuni Kubwa with the latter sultan, or with the second sultan of the same name who was visited by Ibn Battuta. I am now almost certain that this second view is correct, and that the new styles of architecture were associated with the establishment of the new dynasty by al-Hasan ibn Talut, his grandfather. The chief reason for this view arises from consideration of the passage of the Arabic Chronicle relating to Abu'l-Mawahib al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman.5 In the enumeration of the ancestry of this man the surname al-Mahdali is given to the ancestor, Talut, and so presumably to the family. Now Mahdali is seemingly an early form of Ahdali, the name of a family of sayyids whose ancestors lived in the later thirteenth century in the little town of Murawa'a in the extreme south-west of Arabia.6 This therefore indicates that the dynasty derived directly or indirectly from that area. We are further told by the Chronicle that before his father's death al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman went to Aden for two years to pursue his studies; this suggests that the connection with the original homeland of the family was maintained. Now certain elements of the new style of architecture dramatically exemplified at Husuni Kubwa appear to derive from abroad; indeed it is difficult to believe that the builder of the palace had not learned his trade in the homelands of Islam. This, coupled 4. This vocalization is probably to be preferred to 'Mandbiri'; Mr. G. M. Hinds informs me that the Al Bu Mundhir are a section of the Manasir tribe of the Rub' al-Khali in south-eastern Arabia. This connection has not hitherto been observed. 5. The only edition of the Arabic version of the Kilwa Chronicle is that by Strong. Both the Arabic and Portuguese versions are translated by Freeman-Grenville (1962a); the same author (1962b) refers also to the Mahdali connection. 6. 0. L6fgren in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden 1960, s.v. al-Ahdal.

Plate I (a) (i) Spoon made from shell of Tiger Cowrie, (ii) Sandstone block with grooves for bead-making. (iii) Shell beads. (b) Sgraffiato sherds with hatched designs.

Plate II (a) Sgraffiato sherds with champlevé design. (b) Sgraffiato bowl.

Plate III (a) Sgraffiato bowl of late type, diam. 16.5 cm. (&) Jar from Kisimani Mafia containing coin hoard; partial green glaze of type found on sgrqfiato wares.

Plate IV (a) Glass phials of Period II. (b) Graves at Sake.

Plate V

Plate VI 0o

Plate VII (a) Lotus bowl of green celadon. (b) Fragment of Mei Ping jar. (c) Islamic monochrome bowl.

Plate VIII (a) Cooking pot of Period lla, diam. 23 cm. (b) Cooking pot wealed ware of finer quality than usual, diam. at rim 13.6 cm..

Plate IX (a) Portable cooking stove (one of the horns missing), diam. 27.5 cm. (b) Bowl of painted ware, diam. 15.5 cm.

Plate X (a) Lamp,fourteenth century. Length 18 cm. (b) Large aragonite beads.

Plate XI (a) Part of vault with inset bowls from the House of the Mosque. (b) Persian bowlsJrom vaults, oj the larger size (diam. c IY cm). Decoration (all wite ground): (a) blue and black (b) blue (c) originally turquoise, glaze decayed (d) underside of bowl as c.

Plate XII Å*-2

Plate XIII (a) The Great Mosque from the south-west. I 'he ureat Mosque: interior oj northern ena.

Plate XIV -

Plate XV The Great Mosque: barrel vault (on left) and dome ef stages IVa and V respectively.

Neville Chittick with the changes in the pottery, strongly suggests the arrival of some immigrant people. Who were these immigrants, They cannot be the 'Shirazi', who arrived at an earlier date. It seems very possible that they arrived with the Mahdali; and that the style of Husuni Kubwa, and of Stage IV of the Great Mosque, described below, derives from the Yemen. G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville (1962b) has suggested a further connection with south-west Arabia in the name Husuni, which is an adaptation of the Arabic husn, the word designating the defended private residences which are an outstanding feature of the settlements of the Hadramaut and the Yemen. It must be emphasised, however, that no architectural parallels are known in the Yemen; but on the other hand, hardly anything is known of the buildings of that country in this period. I have suggested in the article previously referred to that the first four of the succession of nine Sultans named only in the Portuguese version of the Chronicle set out by de Barros, may duplicate, by dittography, four early sultans of the dynasty of Abu'l-Mawahib. Two of the sultans vouched for only by de Barros are represented as the chief architects of the power and wealth of Kilwa. Of these, the second, Soleiman Hacen, is stated to have built a fortress and houses of stone at Kilwa. If, as has been suggested, this man is the same as al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman II, this would refer to the construction of Husuni Kubwa and other buildings. The first, Daut, is stated by de Barros to have been brought from Sofala. This is intrinsically improbable, since it was not, according to de Barros, until or after this man had become sultan that Kilwa gained control of the Sofala trade. It may be that this statement is a confusion of the fact that the dynasty came from abroad and that in this period Kilwa founded her colony of Sofala. The Great Mosque The Great, or Friday Mosque at Kilwa is a building of primary importance for the history of the architectural development between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, first because it is the only building on the coast to which we have any historical references (in the Arabic version of the Kilwa Chronicle), and secondly because of its repeated alterations over a long span. The Mosque consists of two distinct parts. The northern (P1. XIIIb), which is earlier, is a rectangular building whose roof has collapsed and been removed long ago; the southern part is later in date and is still for the most part roofed with its original domes and vaults (P1. XIIIa). One of the two arches connecting the two parts has been blocked by a mihrab of crude construction, probably inserted in the late eighteenth century after the collapse of the roof to the north of it. Of crucial importance is the fact that it can be shown that the level of the floor has remained the same since the first extension to the south, which was effected about A.D. 1300, or very shortly after, as will be shown. There are three floors below this in the northern part, corresponding to the first three of the five major building stages distinguished. Our knowledge of the early stages is still somewhat incomplete, owing to the great difficulty in conducting excavations beneath the floor of a building which stands substantially intact. Further details about the architecture are set out in P. S. Garlake's work; that account

Kilwa 0 a g - 3 4 5 Metres STAGE 1 S7771 STAGE 2 STAGE 3. .r- - -- -r-i - 'TIIi I ! iit Itt II I I '' tI I TAN It I, I\I "I I I TANK II II I I IIII , I. _ I ...... IL ------V I - Ii I ' A'I IE i III Fig. 11. Plan of the Great Mosque, stages I, II and IlL

Neville Chittick now requires slight modification as a result of recent work, in which I must acknowledge the great assistance given by Mr Norman Thomas. Stage L-The only walls belonging to the first stage of the mosque which have been brought to light are two sections of the south wall of the musalla (or main prayer hall), marked 'A' on the plan (fig. 11), and part of the wall of a chamber to the south of this, marked 'B'. Associated with these two walls is a plaster floor laid over a foundation of rough coral stones laid in red earth (section, fig. 12). This floor, which has four layers of plaster, is 1.1 an. below the latest floor (IV). Beneath this a deposit of stratified red sand, with some occupation and rubble near the top, extends down to the basal white sea-sand. These deposits, nearly 2 m. thick, antedate the mosque and correspond to the early strata in the excavation south of the Great House described above, and elsewhere. No coins have been found in these lower deposits anywhere underlying the mosque. Of the two walls found, that of the musalla ('A') has been destroyed to within a few centimetres above the associated floor. At either end are the remains of the threshold of a door, with slots for wooden treads. In the sockets of both thresholds was a quantity of ash; the adjacent lime mortar had been burnt grey and neighbouring earth baked hard. It appears therefore that the musalla of the first mosque was destroyed by fire. The southern wall, ('B') shows no signs of burning, and continued in use until Stage III, when the upper part was demolished and a floor laid over it. It was pierced by a doorway7 provided with steps leading down to a pavement of rammed lime laid directly on the underlying earth. This pavement tapers away to the south and was clearly outside the mosque. No remains of the side walls of Stage I have been found, nor any evidence of how the roof was supported. It is probable, however, that the musalla was similar to that of Stages II and III. The ablution area was probably to the west of the musalla, as it certainly was in Stage III; the relation of the walls in this area to the various stages is, however, rather uncertain. The masonry of this and the two succeeding stages is of roughly squared blocks of coral stone, set in courses about 20 cm. deep. In the packing of rubble in red earth placed as a foundation for the floor to the north of wall B and associated therewith were found two coins8. One of these is certainly of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan; the other has a reverse similar to those of this sultan, and is of miniature type (existing weight 0.24 gm., perhaps originally 0.5 gm.). All coins found beneath the later floors of the mosque were also of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan, with the exception of certain coins in the make-up of the latest floor, which will be noted below. Stage II.-To this stage belong most of the visible walls of the northern part of the mosque, including those on the east, west and north: the mihrab, however, has been rebuilt in Stage IV. There were doors in each end of the southern wall, and three doors in each of the east and west walls. The exterior of the walls was broken by engaged pilasters, and there was a projection of a similar nature at each comer. 7. Only the eastern jamb of this was exposed in the excavation; the width shown on the plan is based on the assumption that the door was central to the building, as it appears to have been. 8. It is possible that these coins, or one of them, comes from the foundation trench of wall C of the succeeding stage; initially this trench was not distinguished and Floor I had been considered to be contemporary with what is now regarded as Stage II.

Neville Chittick The foundations of these walls were cut down through floor I, the footings extending up to the level of that floor, which gave the initial, erroneous, impression that the two were associated. The three courses above this, which were to be concealed by the packing, are more carefully laid than any others in the building. This packing, first 30 cm. of coral chips and then a similar depth of coral stones in red earth, was piled above floor I as a foundation for the floor (II) belonging to this stage.9 The floor itself is of plaster, in two layers; this plaster joins with that of the inner face of the wall. Stage III.-In this stage the east and west walls were nearly doubled in thickness by the construction of additional walls on their inner side. It is evident that this was done because either the span of the roof of Stage II was too great, or the outer wall was of insufficient strength to support the weight; the roof had probably collapsed. Massive pillar-foundations were cut through floor II, and extend down to floor I on which they are based. In the middle of each of these foundations, which are disposed in three rows in each direction, is a sixteen-sided socket, evidently for a wooden column. At the base of the sockets can be seen, in some cases, the impression of the wedges used to fix the columns in a vertical position on the sandstone slab at the base. It is evident that the upper part of the foundation was then built around the pillar; the socket consequently displays a cast of the column. The nine columns which supported the roof are arranged in three rows of three, and were all sixteen-sided. They supported three massive transverse beams, which in turn supported secondary beams laid on the north-south axis. Above these were closely spaced squared rafters, on which were laid rectangular coral blocks, which formed the ceiing. Over these blocks would have been poured a thick mass of lime cement, which forms the roof proper. The plaster with which the underside of the blocks was covered was incised with a design of concentric circles; this is a unique example of this style of decoration.10 It is probable that the roof and arrangement of columns was similar in its first two stages, but the foundations for the columns of Stage III have destroyed, or conceal, any direct evidence there might have been for this. So far as our present knowledge goes, this is the only type of mosque built on the coast during this period: a rectangular chamber, having a flat roof supported by wooden columns, with arched doors in the side walls corresponding in number to the rows of pillars, and one or two doors at the southern end, opposite the mihrab. All other known mosques of the period, however, had two rows of two columns. The three mosques at Kisimani Mafia all have this type of plan;" a good example is the mosque excavated on Sanje ya Kati (fig. 13). This small island, some six miles south of Kilwa, is believed 9. Between the two layers of packing are patches of what appears to have been a further floor. The existence of this is unexplained. It is possible that it was originally intended to have the floor at this level and before the work was finished it was decided to lay it at a higher level. 10. These roof blocks have only been found in derived d6bris, mostly in the centre room to the west, but they almost certainly come from the roof of the musalla, the collapsed d6bris of which had all been removed. 11. Mosque m, on the shore (Chittick 1961), subsequently had a different arrangement of columns, but the excavation in 1964 of the baulks and parts of the lowest levels left intact in the initial excavations, disclosed that in its original state this mosque also had two rows of two wooden columns. Their bases rested on sandstone slabs set far below the floor. In the other two mosques such slabs were also used as foundations, an interesting correspondence of detail with the Kilwa mosque. to be the Shanga of the Kilwa Chronicle. Here alone there are remains of houses of this period visible above the ground; all are built in the squared masonry characteristic of the period. This settlement appears to have been almost entirely abandoned by the beginning of the dynasty of Abu'l-Mawahib, there being hardly any pottery to be found of a date later than Period II, and no coins other than those of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan. It is presumed that this extinction was consequent on the final victory of Kilwa in the war with Shanga. " 0 I 2 ' 4 1SANJE YA KATI MOSQUE Fig. 13. Mosque at Sanje ya Kati. Stage IV.-This stage corresponds with the break in the architectural tradition, which I have suggested is connected with the new dynasty of Abu'l-Mawahib. The mosque was greatly extended to the south in this period, attaining its present limits; the new structure was virtually a separate building (fig. 14). Of this, the most important surviving portions are an outer wall which enclosed a new ablution area to the south, and the east and south12 walls of the body of the new building. The latter were provided with engaged monolithic colunms of coral rag (Pl. XIVb), which supported arches on which there evidently rested a vaulted or domed structure. A vaulted passage was also added on the eastern side of the northern musalla. It was first thought probable that the structure within the inner walls was a portico surrounding a courtyard. Recent work, however, has shown that the tie walls beneath 12. The south wall has largely been reconstructed, having collapsed outwards into the ablution area about the tin of the abandonment of the mosque, Kilua

STAZE & STAGE Ii STAGE bit STAGE IV STA G E IVo STAGE V - STAGE VI N Fig. 14. Plan of Great Mosque showing later stages. u-- . - - -

Kilwa the floor connecting the existing pillars of Stage V are of earlier date than those pillars, and belong to Stage IV. These tie walls can only have been constructed to support columns; it is therefore presumed that the whole of the southern part was roofed by domes or vaults of similar size to those of Stage V. The south wall ('C' in the section, fig. 12) of the original musalla of Stage II was demolished to the level of the new floor, with the exception of a short projection at either end which had flanked the doorways. These short sections were reduced to half their original thickness, and the pilasters along the sides and at the corners hacked away. The doorways in the sides were rebuilt. The floor of the old, northern musalla was raised 30 cm. by a rubble packing, over which plaster was laid. This rubble had clearly been packed around the pre-existing wooden colunns, which continued in use until the final collapse of the roof some time after the Kilwa Chronicle was set down, c.A.D. 1530. The appearance of the column sockets is quite inconsistent with the original columns ever having been replaced, the margin between the floor of Stage III and the socket below, which shows a cast of the column, and the rubble of the floor of Stage IV above, being very marked (P1. XIVa). We are told in Chapter IV of the Arabic version of the Chronicle (set out by Freeman-Grenville 1962a, p.121) that in the reign of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad, (c.A.D. 1421-1442) seven wooden pillars were erected to replace those of stone which the masons of the time were incapable of replacing. This must be incorrect; the wooden columns are certainly the earliest. Had they been replaced, some damage would surely have been done to the original socket, and as a new column could never have been an exact fit to the socket, one would have expected some filling to have been poured into the interstices. The passage in the Chronicle must therefore be inaccurate, though it is undoubted that a reconstruction of the southern part did take place (Stage V). It is probable that the pillars which the masons were no longer capable of fashioning were the monolithic columns of hard consolidated coral of Stage IV, to which there are no parallels; the pillars of Stage V, built in their place, are a combination of coral blocks and concrete, as are the columns of all other fifteenth century buildings at Kilwa. Somehow the Chronicler has muddled this with an explanation of the wooden columns, which were to be seen in the northern musallal3. Stage IV A.-In this Stage a dome, larger than any other known at Kilwa, was built in the south-east corner of the mosque (named Great Dome on the plan). The dome has collapsed, but substantial sections of it were found in the debris. It had been built with a lining of cut stone voussoirs, in a style similar to the barrel vault to the north of it with which it is probably contemporary(Pl. XV). This is the only example of such a dome, as opposed to vault, that has come to light. It seems certain, however, that the dome is later in date than Stage IV, mainly because of the position of the pillar on its north-western side. This pillar would not have been so sited, well away from the corner of the area to be roofed by the dome, if the two had been designed together. The dome is supported on its northern side by the wall of a small entrance-chamber, which was probably constructed in this period, or possibly in Stage IV. Now we are told in the Arabic version of the Kilwa Chronicle that the mosque collapsed in the reign of al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman Abu'l-Mawahib, with the exception of the dome 13. There could, of course, never have been seven wooden columns, but this number can be explained as a misreading of the Arabic word for nine, . with that for seven, : , which it closely resembles,

Neville Chittick in which he used to say his prayers.14 If we accept this reference to the sultan as correct, then this dome must have been standing during his reign. All earlier stages, including the latest floor, IV, must therefore be earlier than, or just possibly contemporary with, al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman, who probably died in the 1330s, seemingly shortly after he was visited by Ibn Battuta in 1331 (Hrbek 1962, p.442). This view is supported by the evidence of the coins. The identifiable coins found below floor IV in the northern musalla comprise six of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan. Five of these were in the slots for threshold timbers of the southern doorways, and the sixth in the loose earth at a slightly higher level, below the foundation of the pillar of Stage V built above it. It seems possible that these coins were placed below the timbers as a sort of foundation deposit, in which case they may belong to Stage II or III. In the make-up of floor IV in the passage to the west of the mosque was found one coin of Daud ibn al-Hasan. Below the floor in the southern part was found one coin of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan (or possibly Daud ibn al-Hasan; the first name is illegible), and, apparently from the plaster of the floor itself (some of which adhered to the coin), one of Sulaiman ibn al-Hasan. In a latrine pit earlier than the mosque, and sealed by make-up of the floor in the southwest corner of the southern part, were found five coins of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan. In the foundation of the floor associated with Stage III were found four coins of 'Ali ibn al-Hasan, and in the floor associated with Stage II, one coin of the same man. These finds indicate that the first three stages of the mosque fall within our Period II, that of the 'Shirazi' dynasty, and are consistent with the view, put forward above, that the great extensions of the fourth stage are contemporary with the beginning of our Period III. Stage IV is probably rather earlier than Husuni Kubwa, and is placed about A.D. 1300; the Great Dome of Stage IV A is contemporary with, or a little later than, the Husuni building.15 Stage V.-In the fifth stage almost the whole of the southern part of the mosque was rebuilt. It is almost certain that this reconstruction is to be equated with that which the Kilwa Chronicle tells was carried out in the reign of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad al-Malik al-Adil, who is believed to have ruled c.1421-1442. The east and south walls must have survived the collapse of the building and were evidently thought to be in sufficiently good condition to be incorporated in the new structure, as was done. The western wall, however, must either have collapsed, or have been in such an unsafe condition as not to be of further use, for it was demolished and replaced by a wall incorporating pilasters built in the style of the new and larger pillars which supported the roof. These pillars are built of a combination of coral blocks and concrete (Pl.XIVb). They support a roof of domes and vaults, for which, as we are informed by the Chronicle, the builders used the dome of al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman as a model. They are different, to the extent that they are constructed of lime concrete poured direct over a form, without the lining of stone incorporated in the fourteenth-century dome (P1. XV). The holes left by the scaffold poles used in erecting the new domed structure can be observed in the floor of the mosque where the later layers of plaster have been eroded. 14. As remarked above, it is almost certain that the northern musalla remained substantially intact. 15. The fact that the true, as opposed to the conical or tent- shaped dome, is lacking at Husuni Kubwa, suggests that Stage IV A is likely to be a little later,

'EJ' 1-. 'fl 1 ,1 '~i i;, ~'. ~ I.r***. , ~ 1 *'I**''.3i 1 l~ -~ 8 l Ja .~ * 0' III ~ 1! lI1~ å b' - .0 ~i. j:; ~.,, '8 0~. i''~' 0 ~ ,0 j 0 0 5 * 0 ~i **'j*0' 0Q~ ~ iiii'i0 ~: * , - ~. *0 0 0. b. .0 *j** g 1.~ il' 0.0< 0 -~ *Q ~g 001 0 OJ 0 ,iji.,. nr ' *~ 1 1 LL, Gå * 1' j *q .4 It., 1 o . , *. *0 lj*. o -.

Neville Chittick They penetrate the make-up of floor IV and their bases have in many cases damaged the surface of the underlying floor III. This is further confirmation that the floor level remained unchanged from about 1300 onwards. The ablution area to the south of the musalla was provided with new tanks and other fittings in this period. For these works numbers of monolithic columns removed from the Stage IV mosque were re-used as steps and the like; others were laid on their sides outside the mosque on its western side. Since the floor of the early fourteenth century remained in use throughout later periods, these are unrepresented stratigraphically within the mosque. The later stratigraphic succession, however, can be observed in the section of the deposits exposed on the western side of the mosque, which has been cleared to a distance of nine metres from the western wall (fig. 15). At the base of this section can be seen the pavement contemporary with floor IV of the mosque. This pavement was kept more or less clear throughout the fourteenth century, but rubbish accumulated to the west of it, stratum 3 of the section. Lying on the slope of this debris, as it was at the time of the Stage V reconstruction of the mosque, is one of the monolithic pillars removed at that time; others lay close to the wall on a few centimetres of soil which had accumulated on the pavement. The mosque was thus already well below the level of the surrounding ground at the beginning of the fifteenth century. Rubbish subsequently accumulated above the pavement, but in areas further west the amount of debris that has built up during the past four centuries has been very slight. There is little to be said about the later history of the mosque. The east and south walls, with their smaller monolithic columns, proved insufficiently strong to support the thrust of the domes, and eventually both fell outwards. The south wall would appear to have collapsed at the end of the sixteenth, or early in the seventeenth century, and its remains were found in position where they had fallen, in the ablution area. The surviving body of the southern part appears to have been restored to use in the latter part of the eighteenth century, when a number of doorways were blocked and the shoddy mihrab in the centre of the mosque was inserted. This rehabilitation of the mosque was carried out during the short-lived revival of Kilwa, when her prosperity was founded on the trade in slaves, in place of the gold and ivory of her finest days. REFERENCES Chittick, H. N. .. 1959. 'Notes on Kilwa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, No. 53, pp. 179-203. 1957-61. Annual Reports. Department of Antiquities. Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika. 1961, Kisimani Mafia, Occasional Paper No. 1, Ministry of Education, Antiquities Division, Tanganyika. 1963, 'Kilwa and the Arab Settlement of the East African Coast', Journal of African History, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 179-190. 1965, 'The "Shirazi" Colonization of East Africa' Journal of African History, Vol. VI, No. 3, pp. 275-94. Garlake, P.S. . . 1966, 'Early Islamic Architecture of the East African Coast'. Memoir No. 1 of the British Institute of History and Archaeology, in East Africa. Oxford University Press,

Kilwa Gaudebout, P. and Freeman-Grenville, Hrbek, Ivan, Kirkman, J. S. Lane, Arthur Lofgren, 0. Strong, S. A. Walker, J. Vernier, V. .. 1942, 'Notes A la suite d'une enquete sr les outils en pierre de la Rt6gion de Voh6mar', and 'Notes sur une compagne de fouilles a Voh6mar: Mission Rasikajy', Bulletin de rAcademie Malgache Vol. XXIV (1941), pp. 91 and 100. G. S. P. .. 1962a, Mediaeval History of the Coast of Tanganyika, Oxford University Press. 1962b, 'Husuni', Tanganyika Notes and Records, No. 59, pp. 227-230. 1962, 'The Chronology of Ibn Battuta's Travels', Archiv Orientiln!, 30. 1954, The Arab City of Gedi, Oxford University Press. 1959, 'Excavations at Ras Mkumbuu on the Island of Pemba', Tanganyika Notes and Records, No. 53, pp. 161-179. 1963, Gedi, The Palace, p. 45. Mouton & Co., The Hague. 1947, Early Islamic Pottery, Faber & Faber, London. 1960, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden, s.v. al-Ahdal. 1895, 'History of Kilwa', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 404 f. 1936, 'The History and Coinage of the Sultans of Kilwa', Numismatic Chronicle, 1936: reprinted in Tanganyika Notes and Records, No. 45, p. 33-61.

A z a n i a The Journal of the British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa Edited by NEVILLE CHITTICK VOLUME I - 1966 Published on behalf of the Institute by Oxford University Press Nairobi Addis Ababa Lusaka 1966

Contents, Volume I Page Foreword .. .vi Editorial ...... vii NEVILLE CHITTICK, Kilwa: a Preliminary Report ..1 J. E. G. SUTTON, The Archaeology and Early Peoples of the Highlands of Kenya and Northern Tanzania .. 37 JEAN BROWN, The Excavation of a Group of Burial Mounds at Ilkek, near Gilgil, Kenya ...... 59 HAMO SASSOON, Engaruka: Excavations during 1964 ...... 79 BRIAN FAGAN, Early Iron Age Pottery in Eastern and Southern Africa 101 D. R. F. TAYLOR, The Gumba and 'Gumba Pits' of the Fort Hall District, Kenya ill.. 1 PIERRE VERIN, L'Arch6ologie A Madagascar (with English summary) .. 119 SUSANNAH CHAPMAN, A Sirikwa Hole on Mount Elgon .. .. 139 P. M. FAUGUST andJ. E. G. SUTTON, The Egerton Cave on the Njoro River 149 Notes CupMarksandGrindingGroovesbyR.C.Soper 155 Six Early Coins from near Tanga by H. N. Chittick 156 A Bone Figurine from Kangila, Zambia by B. M. Fagan 158 A Stone Mortar from Northern Malawi by D. W. Phillipson 159 Unguja Ukuu: the Earliest Imported Pottery, and an Abbasid Dinar by H. N. Chittick 161 Reviews History of East Africa, Vol. I, by Roland Oliver and Gervase Mathew (J. E. G. Sutton) .. . .. 164 The French at Kilwa Island, by G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville (J. S. Kirkman).. 166 Excavations at Sanga, 1957: the Protohistoric Necropolis, by Jacques Nenquin (B. M. Fagan) ...... 168 Les Figures Incisges et Ponctuees de la Grotte de Kiantapo (Katanga), by Henri Breuil and G. Mortelmans (B. M. Fagan) ...... 169 The Prehistory of East Africa, by Sonia Cole (J. E. G. Sutton) . .. 170 History of the Chagga People of Kilimanjaro, by Kathleen M. Stahl (H. A. Fosbrooke) .. ... 171 Ancient and Mediaeval Sources on the Ethnography and History of the Peoples of Africa South of the Sahara. Arabic sources (Vols. I and II), edited and translated by L. E. Kubbel and V. V. Matveyev (H. N. Chittick) .. .. 173 Taloha I: Publication hors serie des Annales de t Universite de Madagascar (H. N. Chittick) ...... 174 Research work in progress and recently completed .. . . 176