ROUTE TO A REGIONAL PAST: AN ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LOWER PANGANI (RUVU) BASIN, TANZANIA, 500–1900 C.E. By JONATHAN R. WALZ A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2010 1 © 2010 Jonathan R. Walz 2 To the people of Tanzania 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people and institutions enabled my doctoral experience and the composition of this dissertation. Foremost, I thank Peter Schmidt, the chair of my Ph.D. committee, for his intellectual advice and friendship. Peter’s passion about archaeology and Africa, rooted in scientific practice and a humanistic outlook, continues to inspire me. I also gratefully acknowledge the guidance of Steve Brandt, Ken Sassaman, and Luise White. As members of my Ph.D. committee, they motivated and encouraged me with appraisals and critiques. I thank them for their professionalism and genuine contributions. Any errors herein rest with me. In East Africa, I am especially grateful to Felix Chami. He facilitated my research and regularly counseled me. I thank him and his family for their hospitality and for offering me a place to stay at Mbezi in Dar es Salaam (2005–2006). Amin Mturi and Isaria Kimambo influenced the conceptualization of this project while I was a visiting student at the University of Dar es Salaam. Athman Lali Omar of Mombasa, Kenya introduced me to the hinterlands of East Africa, a favor I will forever appreciate. During moments of hardship overseas, Zanat Fazal, Catherine Kiwango, Charles Rubaka, and Marti Todd lent unwavering support, gifts for which reciprocal love is the only possible repayment. Garcia Barnswell and Matt Curtis were great friends in this journey. They expressed love at pivotal moments and motivated me with their infectious enthusiasm for life. Other colleagues enhanced this dissertation in specific ways. Chap Kusimba and Tom Håkansson read and commented on drafts of chapters 2 and 7, respectively. Fredrick Fumbwani, Ed Gonzalez-Tenant, and Josh Torres assisted with field mapping or advised me about digital software and making maps. Amandus Kwekason examined rock and mineral samples. Ngalla Jillani, Peter Kasigwa, Simon Mwansasu, and Plan Nyabezi analyzed and identified bone and shell. Bertram Mapunda evaluated metal artifacts and the material residues of iron production. 4 Finally, George Casella assisted me with statistics and Megan Hosford improved the artifact photographs. I further offer my sincere thanks to Tamim Amijee, Prama Anand, John Arthur, Kayvon Bahramian, Carol Blankenship, Melanie Brandt, Allan Burns, Jarue Cabezas, Tom Cadogan, Michael Chege, Jeremy Cohen, Carole Crumley, Hunt Davis, Kathy Deagan, John Denny, Sheila Dickison, Shuala Drawdy, Jim Ellison, Bill Fawcett, Larry Harris, Berkeley Hoflund, Jeff Homburg, Kim Howell, Goran and Melania Hyden, Ray Gonzalez, Karen Jones, Sharyn Jones, Emanuel Kessy, Birgitta Kimura, Pat King, Paul Lane, Todd Leedy, Nestor Luanda, Matt Lucas, George Luer, Richard Marcus, Asmeret Mehari, Edward Mikundi, Paul Msemwa, Varun Nalagatla, Agazi Negash, Alicia Peón, Merrick Posnansky, Janet Puhalla, Asa Randall, Tony Oliver-Smith, Jane and Luke Schmidt, Leonard Sekibaha, Fred Smith, Rose Solangaarachchi, Bob Soper, Stuart Stevenson, Zalelem Teka, Ruth Tibesasa, Leo Villalon, Elaine Wamba, Kathy Weedman, and Terry Weik. With gratitude, I acknowledge the United Republic of Tanzania for granting me research access. Hilda Gideon and Mashuhuri Mushi at the Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) processed project clearances. Regional and local offices and officials in Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions provided similar permissions. Donatus Kamamba and Chediel Msuya from the Antiquities Department in Dar es Salaam administered archaeology licenses. Yusef Lawi and Audax Mabulla assisted me with obtaining export licenses for samples. Samiu Mbegu, an Antiquities representative, accompanied me in northeastern Tanzania (as required by Tanzanian law). For a much shorter period at Gonja, Simon Odunga served in a similar capacity. I thank them for their fortitude and for tolerating my exactitude. Many residents in northeastern Tanzania also assisted me during fieldwork. I particularly praise those who worked with me for 5 long periods: Mohamed “Mudi” Saidi Hussein, Jamali Hamza Mbwana, and Hashim Saidi Shedafa. At various libraries, museums, and archives, I received courteous and timely assistance. I especially thank librarians Dan Reboussin and Peter Malanchuk at George A. Smathers Libraries, University of Florida. In Dar es Salaam, archivists deserving of my appreciation include Mwanahamisi Mtengula at the Tanzanian National Archives, Jangawe Msuya and Chrispin Malegesi at the East Africana Collection, University of Dar es Salaam, Rajabu Makame at the Directorate of Policy and Planning, Ministry of Water and Livestock Development, Joyce Nyamfulula at the Periodicals Office, National Museum of Tanzania, Juma Mshana at the Aerial Photo Library, Department of Surveys and Mapping, and Anna Intenda, Mwanakombo Jumaa, and Theresia Nyantori at the Picture Section, Department of Information. Moshi Mwinyimvua assisted me at the Tanga Regional Archives. I was fortunate to receive dissertation funding. A Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Award from the United States Department of Education funded field study and a Michael Aschoff Dissertation Fellowship from the Graduate School at the University of Florida supported write-up. A Charles H. Fairbanks Scholarship from the Department of Anthropology and a grant from the Foundation for African Prehistory and Archaeology (FAPA) in Gainesville supported laboratory analyses and the final preparation of this dissertation. Resources and experiences earned while working as a Teaching Associate in the Department of Anthropology and as a Lecturer in the Honors Program at the University of Florida enriched my graduate career and made possible the presentation of findings at scholarly meetings in Africa, Europe, and North America. 6 My most fundamental debts are to those Tanzanians who shared themselves and their families, their memories, and their hopes for the future whether by expressing histories and traditions, providing access to practices and properties, or offering insights and encouragement. The school children at Maore and Tongoni primary schools and Boza and Gonja secondary schools taught me humility and bred an enhanced appreciation for the pasts and futures found in heritage. Elsewhere, time spent with Rashidi Janja, healer and historian, was particularly influential. His and others’ sacrifices on my behalf occurred in contexts where many Tanzanians struggle to survive and prosper. That they took the time to share their present and past speaks to their humanity and to the humanity of history. They have made this dissertation possible and it is to them that I dedicate its contents. To my parents, David Henry Walz and Ruth Allen Todd Walz, I offer my heartfelt appreciation and a son’s love. They are true role models to me, always offering peaceful guidance. Without their support and the support of my brother, Kristopher David Walz, this journey would not have been completed or, perhaps, even started. My maternal grandparents, Daniel Eason Todd, Jr. and Shyla Ruth Allen Todd, also offered regular encouragement. Memories of my paternal grandparents, George Franz Walz and Vivienne Georgine Vineis Walz, inspired me to consider and reconsider the importance of pasts, personal and otherwise. To Joella Wilson, I offer that we made too many sacrifices. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................................... 4 LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................................. 11 LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ 13 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................ 16 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 18 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 20 Historical Archaeology and Connectivity ................................................................................. 21 Representations and Historiography .......................................................................................... 24 Vulnerabilities ............................................................................................................................. 27 Contributions and Chapters Outline ........................................................................................... 28 2 HISTORIOGRAPHIC FRAGMENTS ...................................................................................... 35 Fragmented Pasts: A Preamble................................................................................................... 36 Coastwise, Interactive Indications ............................................................................................. 38 Routes and Connectivity in Central, Coastwise East Africa .................................................... 46 Extant Archaeology and Northeastern