Appendices Appendix I: Age of Baobabs

Adanson (1771) suggested the larger specimens of baobab seen by him in West Africa in 1749 and 1750 with diameters greater than 9 m might be more than 5,000 years old, stating a tree of one year of age had a diameter of 0.41 m and height 1.624 m. Escayrac (1853) questioned his extrapolation roughly having measured a specimen in Kordofan with a trunk diameter of 8.446 m taller than Adanson’s, which was 23.714 m for a diameter of 9.745 m. Walter (1971) pointed out age of the largest individuals can be easily overestimated, quoting a tree planted in Khartoum (annual rainfall less than 200 mm) which reached a diameter of almost 1 m in 30 years (3.14 m circumference or 10.47 cm/year), although Wickens (1982) considers an age of 2,000 years for the largest trees plausible. A baobab transplanted to a mission station at Bagamoyo in 1869 (mean annual rainfall at Dar es Salaam 1,049 mm/annum) estimated at 2–4 years of age, increased in circumference at an average of 2.973 cm/year over 87 years to 1956, although the average annual increase steadily declined indicating trees may be much older than their circumfer- ence suggests (Guy 1970). A baobab at Saadani on the Tanzania coast (Mbuyu kinyonga ¼ tree where people were hanged) was measured by Watt in 1886 with a circumference of 2,290 cm. Measured at breast height in 1975 the circumference was 1,500 cm (Kwagilwa 1975). Extrapolating from the Bagamoyo tree it would have been 505 years old in 1975, or 770 years old when Watt measured it. The difference may be due to Watt having measured it at ground level although Guy demonstrated the tree can shrink, and may shrink in dry seasons and expand in wet. “Livingstone’s baobab” in Botswana (rainfall 450 mm) measured by Chapman (1868) in 1852 as 2652 cm in circumference, and by Livingstone in 1853 as 2591 cm, was still a vigorous tree in 1988, but as it has six stems it is difficult to know how Chapman or Livingstone arrived at their measurements (Plate Appx. 1). Guy (1970) measured it in 1966 as 2,038 cm and including the convolutions and buttresses as 2,786 cm. This could suggest an apparent 6% shrinkage from 2,591 cm in 1,853 to 2,446 in 1966. However if Livingstone and Chapman used linen measuring tapes these may well have shrunk if they had been wetted and may not have been giving true readings. Chapman (1852) had recorded several baobabs in the vicinity but only the one remained. The “Big Tree” recorded by Baines and

C.A. Spinage, African Ecology - Benchmarks and Historical Perspectives, 1405 Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-22872-8, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012 1406 Appendix I: Age of Baobabs

Chapman between Ghanzi and Lake Ngami in Botswana, and measured as 1,524 cm in circumference in 1861, Guy identified with one in 1966 measuring 1,708 cm at breast height, and 1,798 cm at 4.5 m from the ground. A tree recorded by Holub (1881) near the Makgadikgadi Pans as “almost” 1,524 cm Guy recorded as 1,585 or 1,666 cm. A tree at Gutsaa Pan has dates of 1771 to 1859 carved into it, but there is no record of early measurement although it must have been a large tree already in the eighteenth century (Plate Appx. 2, Appx. 3). There is a number of other large baobabs in Botswana with nineteenth century dates carved into them, and possibly some eighteenth century ones, while “Baines’s baobabs” in 1988 looked almost exactly as Baines painted them in May 1862 (Plate Appx. 4, Appx. 5). Another tree measured by Livingstone, at Chiramba in Mozambique mean rainfall 800 mm, increased at an average of 1.68 cm/year between 1858 and 1965 (Guy 1970). Although this is apparently a 43% slower growth per annum than the Bagamoyo tree, rainfall is 24% lower and the area is subject to a cold dry winter regime also, factors which could slow growth. During bush clearing for Lake Kariba, at the confluence of the Sengwe and Zambesi Rivers, annual rainfall about 500 mm, a sample was taken from the heart of a 4.5 m diameter baobab tree in 1960 which according to the formula would have been 300 years old. Samples were taken also mid-way to the centre and just under the bark. C14 dating gave a date of 1010 100 years for the core and the mid-way sample 740 100 years. The indications were that the tree grew more slowly over the outer 2.25 m of diameter, “there appears to be no reason why some of the really large baobabs should not be several 1,000 years old” (Swart 1963). The average annual increase in radius over the last 1.14 m of the total radius was calculated as 1.5 mm, while the average ring width over the last 20 cm of growth was 1.1 mm, thus not incompatible with the fact that rings may be laid down annually. But Hall (1974) advised caution in the interpretation of C14 dating which is prone to error, and not all are agreed on its time relations. Guy (1982) considered circumference was not a reliable indicator of age as trees measured in South Africa showed both increases and decreases in circumference. Caughley (1973), assuming the concentric rings of the pith were annual, based upon observations in Luangwa Valley under an annual rainfall of 813 mm used the formula:

age in years ¼ 0:213 girth in cm; giving a mean annual increase of 0.75 cm. Whereas Barnes (1980) in Ruaha NP under an annual rainfall of 580 mm, obtained an annual increase in girth of 2.7 cm. The tree at Khartoum would have been 70 years by Caughley’s method compared to its actual 30. But this tree, and the Bagamoyo tree which was measured in 1913, 1927, and 1956, suggest there is a rapid initial growth rate. Hence in its first 30 years the Khartoum tree girth increased at a rate of 10.47 cm/year compared with the Bagamoyo tree in its first 44 years of 12.27 cm/year, despite the vastly different rainfall. The latter then declined to 11.24 in the next 14 years and 3.41 over the last 29 years, indicating rapid initial growth for the first 40–50 years followed by steady decline in annual increments. Appendix I: Age of Baobabs 1407

Plate Appx. 1. Livingstone’s baobab Botswana, September 1988. C. A. Spinage

Plate Appx. 2. Baobab at Gutsaa Pan Botswana, September 1988. C. A. Spinage 1408 Appendix I: Age of Baobabs

Plate Appx. 3. Eighteenth and nineteenth century signatures carved into a baobab, September 1988. Gutsaa Pan, Botswana. C. A. Spinage

Plate Appx. 4. Baines’s baobabs as painted by Thomas Baines May 1852, Kudiakam Pan, Botswana. # Royal Geographical Society Appendix I: Age of Baobabs 1409

Plate Appx. 5. Baines’s baobabs, September 1988. C. A. Spinage

In March 1975 the author measured girths at breast height of baobabs growing on the ruins of the abandoned Arab city of Gedi on the Kenya coast, annual rainfall 1,040 mm at Malindi. Gedi, founded in the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century, was abandoned in the early seventeenth (Kirkman 1970). In 1560 it was reported of Kilwa south of Gedi that its buildings showed that it used to be larger and more populous. Thus the trees found growing on and into the walls at Gedi had some 350 years in which to do so (Plate Appx. 6). Extrapolating from the Bagamoyo tree, I found that all of the largest trees had ample time in which to grow there, apparently having taken root about 1777–1794 (Table 1 Appx. I). Extrapolating from the Khartoum sample their ages would have ranged from 51–56 years only. Using Barnes’s (1980) annual increase of 2.7 cm/year the ages would have ranged from 199–218 years, but rainfall is much higher at Gedi than in Ruaha, nevertheless correspondence is reasonably close.

Table 1 Girths and estimated ages of baobab trees in the Gedi ruins 1975 Locality Circumference at Estimated age (years) breast height (cm) Tomb of the Fluted Pillar 590 198 House on the Wall 564 190 House of the Venetian Bead 552 186 House of the Chinese Cash 540 182 The Palace 538 181 1410 Appendix I: Age of Baobabs

Plate Appx. 6. Baobab tree growing on wall of the ancient city of Gedi, Kenya coast, 1977. C. A. Spinage

Although Adansonia apparently exhibits distinct incremental growth rings, studies in South Africa rated it relatively low for dendrochronological analysis because of false and also coalescing rings, with a factor of 4 on a scale of 0–13 (Lilly 1977). Lees (1860) argued that in the tropics there was a double season, thus: “Every computation of the age of trees in the tropics must be made upon the basis of two concentric rings of wood being formed in the year; since there can be no reasonable doubt that every fresh set of leaves forms a new concentric ring. Otherwise, if made upon that of only one being formed, it will represent the trees to be twice the age they really are. But the computations that have hitherto been made ...have omitted to take into account this double formation. And, consequently, they represent the trees to be twice their actual age”. Scaliger called the baobab Guanabanus in his De Plantis (1566) and noted one of which 17 men with outstretched arms could not encompass, reporting it as 11.278 m in diameter. Adanson (1763) quotes Ray as reporting an observation that between the Niger and the Gambia a baobab was seen of which 17 men had difficulty in surrounding it with their arms outstretched, which gave a circum- ference of about 25.908 m or nearly 9.144 m diameter. In 1749 Adanson measured a tree at Senegal as having a circumference of 23.774 m, estimating a diameter of about 8.23 m and height of 21.336 m, but noted that other travellers had reported bigger than this in Senegal. On the Cape Verde Islands he claimed to have seen Dutch and French inscriptions on a tree dating allegedly from the fourteenth (Humboldt [1850] considered this must be an error), and others from the fifteenth centuries, the tree being about 1.829 m in diameter when inscribed. Golberry (1803) states these were on the largest of the two Madeleine Islands where he saw them in 1786, the inscriptions being in Dutch, one of 1449 and others pre-1490. Stating that Appendix I: Age of Baobabs 1411

Adanson’s measurement was 7.925 m, he measured it 37 years later as 8.23 m and some cms. According to Azurara (Almeida 1936) Lanc¸arote described the baobab on one of the Cape Verde islands in 1447 but found the arms of the Infante already carved on a tree there, which were allegedly cut on two trees in 1435. It was the custom of the early Portuguese navigators to inscribe the arms of the Infante on the bark of trees. The biggest baobab he measured as about 21.946 m in circumference (7.01 m diameter). There is no record of a Dutch enterprise this early. The same trees were seen by Thevet in 1555 who did not give any measurements (Thevet 1557). Adanson surmised the tree must have grown at least half to one metre in 200 years. From a total of five observations he plotted a logistic curve of growth for diameter and a geometric rate of increase for height, calculating a tree of 9.144 m diameter must be 5,150 years of age (Fig. Appx. 1) (Adanson 1763). Savigny and Corre´ard (1818) challenged this, referring to Golberry having measured a specimen 36 years after Adanson which had increased its diameter by only eight ‘lines’, which would mean it would take 54 years for 2.54 cm, or 16,200 years to grow 7.315 m in diameter. The growth was therefore not uniformly progressive and must become slower at a certain age. Golberry claims to have measured one on the island of Goree 31.699 m in circumference at the base, but other than Scaliger and Ray’s reports we are not told by any of these authors how the measurements were made, whether by simply pacing around the base or other method. Lajaille referred to one on the Isle of Saure in 1784 as being 18.288 m in circumference (Labarthe 1802). Durand (1806) in 1745 claimed to have recorded one inland from St. Louis of 25.603 m circumference. But Bishops Usher and Lightfoot had calculated the world began in 4004 B.C. and the trees would have had to have been present before the Flood. Adanson’s deduction was therefore contrary to religious dictum and Livingstone challenged it, arriving at a date of 2000 B.C. for his oldest tree.

Fig. Appx 1 Adanson’s determination of age of the baobab tree 1412 Appendix I: Age of Baobabs

Although named after Adanson the tree was reported by Cadamosto near the River Gambia in 1456, “.. it is covered with numerous and very large trees which are everywhere throughout the country. Concerning the size of these ...there was a very great and broad tree; its height, however, was not in proportion to its size, for while we judged it to be about 20 paces high we found the girth by measurement to be about 17 paces round the foot. It was hollow in many places, and its branches were very large so that they threw a deep shade around. There are to be found even larger trees ...” (Crone 1937). Alpinus (1735) described the medicinal properties of the fruit, a source of tartaric acid, c1584. Although Adanson stated in 1763 that one of the ways of determining the age of a tree was from the number of concentric rings it was Leonardo da Vinci at the end of the fifteenth century who first recorded the circles of wood in the section of a branch denote the age of the limb, their density depending upon the dryness or wetness of the seasons, and that (in the northern hemisphere) the centre of a tree would be found nearer to its southern bark than to its northern (Black 1874). Montaigne in 1581 in his Voyage en Italie related that he was informed by an Italian carpenter at Pisa that all trees bear as many rings and circles as they have lasted years and that the rings grew closer together on the part that faces north. An annual occurrence in the baobab was apparently first suggested by Livingstone in 1853, “.. The concentric rings were well seen. The average for a foot at three different places was 81 and a half of these rings. Each of the laminae can be seen to be composed of two, three, or four layers of ligneous tubes; but supposing each ring the growth of one year, and the semidiameter of a mowana [baobab] of 100 ft in circumference about 17 ft, if the central point were in the centre of the tree, then its age would lack some centuries of being as old as the Christian era (1400)” (Livingstone 1857). But both Livingstone and Kirk expressed the opinion it was a tree of quick growth and those they saw and examined probably did not exceed 300 years of age, or 500 at most (Brown 1875). Lees’s (1860) argument that there were two seasons of growth in the tropics and thus the trees were only half as old as the number of rings would not apply to South Africa or to Adanson’s West African observations. Brown (1875) suggested interesting data might be obtained by sectioning both baobab and mopane C. mopane trees. Appendix II: African Mammal Trypanosome Host-parasite List

Host species Trypanosoma species Country Chimpanzee T. primatum, Trypanosoma sp. Cameroun, DR Congo Lowland gorilla T. primatum Cameroun Guenon T. theileri-like Tanzania Putty-nosed monkey Trypanosoma sp. DR Congo Gentle monkey Trypanosoma sp. DR Congo Moustached monkey T. primatum Cameroun Potto T. irangiense, T. perodictici Uganda, DR Congo, E and W Africa Greater galago T. perodictici Zambia Demidoff’s galago T. irangiense, T. perodictici DR Congo, Liberia Slit-faced bat T. thomasi DR Congo Slit-faced bat T. megadermae-like Zambia Slit-faced bat T. mpapuense East Africa Slit-faced bat T. heybergi Liberia Cape slit-faced bat T. heybergi East Africa Large slit faced bat T. sp., T. megadermae-like Liberia, Zambia Leaf-nosed bat T. vespertilionis, T. leleupi Zambia, DR Congo Trident bat T. morinorum Senegal Yellow-winged bat T. megadermae Sudan Long-winged bat T. pipistrelli DR Congo Horseshoe bat T. megadermae-like Zambia Hildebrandt’s bat T. megadermae-like Zambia Free-tailed bat T. vespertilionis Liberia White-toothed shrew T. lewisi-like Zambia Elephant shrew T. brodeni DR Congo Lesser elephant shrew T. petrodromi Malawi Four-toed elephant T. petrodromi, T. brodeni Malawi, DR Congo shrew Chequered elephant T. lewisi-like Zambia shrew Ground squirrel T. xeri Senegal Congo rope squirrel T. indicum DR Congo Gambian Sun-squirrel T. sciuri Guinea (continued)

C.A. Spinage, African Ecology - Benchmarks and Historical Perspectives, 1413 Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-22872-8, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012 1414 Appendix II: African mammal trypanosome host-parasite list

Host species Trypanosoma species Country Flying squirrelc T. denysi DR Congo Lord Derby’s anomalure T. anomaluri DR Congo African dormouse T. graphiuri DR Congo Gerbil T. lewisi-like Kenya, S. Africa, Zambia Tatera gerbil T. lewisi-like DR Congo Climbing mouse T. dendromysi DR Congo Giant rat T. lewisi East Africa Spiny mouse T. acomys Sudan Brush-furred mouse T. lewisi-like Zambia Soft-furred rat T. lewisi Senegal, Uganda Multimammate rat T. lewisi W.Africa, Zambia Woodland mouse T. lewisi-like Zambia Rusty-nosed rat T. aenomysi DR Congo Thicket rat T. dressei DR Congo Striped mouse T. avicularis Sudan, Ivory Coast Field rat T. avicularis Ivory Coast Otter Trypanosoma sp. Tanzania Dwarf mongoose T. helogalei Africa Hyaena T. brucei, T. congolense Tanzania Lion T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Tanzania Elephant T. congolense, T. elephantis Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique Zebra T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Tanzania, Mozambique Hippopotamus Trypanosoma sp. East Africa Bushpig T. congolense Mozambique, DR Congo Warthog T. congolense, T. vivax, S. Africa, Tanzania, Malawi, T. brucei, T. suis, T. simiae Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, DR Congo Chevrotain T. theileri, T. ingens Congo Republic Giraffe T. congolense, T. vivax, Kenya, Tanzania T. uniforme Reticulated giraffe congolense Kenya Buffalo T. congolense, T. vivax, Uganda, Mozambique, Malawi, T. brucei, T. uniforme Kenya, S. Africa Bushbuck T. congolense, T. vivax, Uganda, DR Congo, Zambia, T. brucei, T. ingens, Malawi, Kenya, Mozambique, T. theileri, T. uniforme, S. Africa, Gambia, Portuguese T. rhodesiense Guinea, Tanzania, E. Africa, W. Africa Sitatunga T. tragelaphi, T. congolense, Zaire, Nigeria, Uganda, E. Africa, T. ingens, T. theileri, T. vivax, Zimbabwe T. trucei, T. uniforme Nyala T. vivax Mozambique Greater kudu T. congolense, T. vivax, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, T. brucei, T. theileri Zambia, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, S. Africa Eland T. congolense, T. vivax, Tanzania, Malawi, S. Africa, T. brucei, T. caprae Mozambique, Zimbabwe, (continued) Appendix II: African mammal trypanosome host-parasite list 1415

Host species Trypanosoma species Country Common duiker T. congolense, T. vivax, E. Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zaire, T. brucei, T. ingens, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Uganda, T. theileri, T. cephalophi, S. Africa Mozambique T. tragelaphi Natal duiker T. congolense, T. vivax S.Africa, Mozambique Yellow-backed duiker T. congolense, T. vivax Congo Republic Suni T. congolense, T. vivax, Mozambique T. brucei, T. theileri, T. ingens, T. cephalophi Steinbuck T. congolense, T. vivax, Mozambique, DR Congo, Zululand T. brucei, T. theileri Oribi T. congolense, T. vivax, Malawi, Mozambique, E. Africa T. brucei, T. ingens Klipspringer T. congolense Mozambique Dik-dik T. congolense Tanzania Reedbuck T. congolense, T. vivax, E. Africa, Tanzania, Malawi, T. brucei, T. ingens, S. Africa, Uganda, Ruanda, T. tragelpahi Mozambique, Nigeria, Ghana Uganda kob T. congolense, T. tragelaphi Uganda Puku T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Zambia, Zimbabwe, DR Congo Common waterbuck T. congolense, T. vivax, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia, T. brucei, T. ingens, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, T. uniforme Ruanda, Uganda, Congo Republic Defassa waterbuck T. congolense, T. vivax, Tanzania, W. Africa, Ghana, T. brucei, T. tragelaphi Nigeria, Portuguese Guinea Thomson’s gazelle T. congolense, T. vivax Tanzania Grant’s gazelle T. congolense Tanzania Impala T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Tanzania, Mozambique Topi T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Tanzania Hartebeest T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Tanzania, Sudan Lichtenstein’s T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Tanzania, Mozambique, hartebeest Blue wildebeest T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei Kenya,Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe White-tailed gnou T. brucei Zululand Roan antelope T. congolense, T. vivax, Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique, T. brucei, T. theileri Rhodesia, Congo Republic Adapted from Hoare 1972 Many of the trypanosome names are probably synonyms. Keymer (1969) suggested T. cephalophi, T. tragelaphi, and T. ingens, were probably invalid species, these being T. theileri, widespread in cattle and other ruminants. Countries reflect collecting rather than distribution References

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A Angola rainfall, 179 Abiotic substrate, 9 drought effects, 182 Acacia tortilis, 685–686 droughts, 180 xanthophloea, 777 famine, 180 Acarina, 1173 Animal numbers shot in tsetse control, 904 Acholi bush increase, 889 Animal population regulation, 36 tsetse fly invasion, 889–890 Antelope origin, 7 Adamawa Massif, 415 Anthrax, 1074, 1093, 1109–1114 Adaptation, 42 in chimpanzee, 1114 Aedes aegyptii ecology, 1269–1270 in gorilla, 1114 Afforestation, 357 in hippopotamus, 1113–1114 African Easterly Jet, 229, 250n1 in Kenya, 1112 African farming methods, 347–349 in Kruger NP, 1111 African horse sickness AHS, 1142 in Lake Manyara, 1112–1113 African Swine Fever ASF, 1137–1139 Anthropogenic burning, 253 Agatharkhide¯s on locusts, 535 forest, 413 Agricultural beginnings, 345 Antibodies, 1211 Akagera NP, 449 Arbovirus numbers, 1197 Aksum, 1391 Arboviruses, 1102, 1123–1131, 1211–1212 Albedo increase, 244–245 in CAR, 1125–1126 Algal blooms, 1275 Arenaviridae, 1215–1217 Amboseli, 448–449 Arid climate, 19 basin, 777 corridor, 6 carrying capacity, 774 Aridification, 462 early accounts, 779–781 Aristotle on locust plagues, 534–535 NP overgrazing, 776 on locusts, 518 salinity, 778, 781, 783 on rodent irruptions, 571 temperature, 783 Hartebeest 1387 tree loss, 777, 778 Arthropod-borne diseases, 1103 Amoebic dysentery, 1284 Aruba dam, 773 Amphibians, 24 Asfarviridae, 1137 Ancient plagues, 1321–1322 Ashanti, 400 Andropogonae, 253 Aswan Dam, 86 Anglo-French Forestry Commission, 176 Atkins’s description of sleeping conclusions, 178 sickness, 962

C.A. Spinage, African Ecology - Benchmarks and Historical Perspectives, 1541 Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-22872-8, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012 1542 Index

Atmospheric chemistry, 253–254 Bornu, Great Forest of, 408 Aubre´ville on degraded forest, 375–376 Borrelia duttoni, 1208 on desertification, 232 Bosumtwi, 359 Botero, 42, 1313 Boteti river, 204 B Bot flies, 1173 Babesioses, 1148 Botswana and ITCZ, 201 Baboon refractory to T. b. gambiense, 926 drought, 201–205, 207–208, 222 Bacterial diseases, 1104–1105 drying up, 204–205 Bakololo, 1389 rainfall, 203, 208 Balance herbivores and plants, 458 temperature rise, 223 Bamboo zone, 429 changes, 470–471 Bantu impact, 1370 elephant density, 797 main expansions, 1370 appearance, 803 Baobab, 416 drought, 803, 804 age, 1405, 1406 early records, 801–803 circumference increase, 1405 effects on vegetation, 798–800 deaths in drought, 684 fire, 801 destruction, 681–684 habitat use, 798 at Gedi, 1409 hunting, 803–804 growth rate, 1406, 1411 increase, 804 growth rings, 1410 ivory exports, 803 inscriptions, 1410–1411 movements, 802 measurements, 1405–1406 northern environment, 798 name, 1412 numbers, 797–798 tree, 683 population dynamics, 805–806 at Lake Manyara, 683 population prediction, 806–807 Barth, 408 tree destruction, 807 Baseline vegetation, 412 woodland modified, 801 Basenga and sub-acute sleeping Boussingault, 366 sickness, 1018 Bovidae, 7 Beetle diversity, 38 Bovid extinction, 421 Benin, 407–408 Brown locust, 514–517 Bilharzia, 1153–1154 Brown on forests, 365 Biological control of locusts, 485 Brucellosis, 1107–1109 Biomass, 30 Bubonic plague, 1307, 1398 burning, 254–255 in Algeria and Nile floods, 1331 Biomass-rainfall, 8 ancient centre in central Africa, Biotic types, 9 1341–1343 speciation, 25 ancient focus, 1307 distribution, 26 animal infections, 1312 migration, 26–27, 40 in animals, 1105–1107 Black Death origin, 1309, 1319–1320 antiqua strain, 1309, 1311 Blackfly, 1301 cases in Africa, 1307 Black rat, 1312, 1314, 1316–1318 and China, 1327–1328 flea infestations, 1317 a disease of rats, 1361 in Zanzibar, 1338 in DR Congo, 1339–1341 Black rhinoceros, 728–729 earliest references, 1307, 1362–1363n1 deaths, 756 in East Africa, 1337 Bladderworm, 1157–1159 effects, 1400 Blood group ‘O,’ 1193–1194 in Egypt, 1331–1336 historical references, 1193 endemic in Africa, 1307 Boma plateau, 602–605 and equatorial highlands, 1338 Index 1543

in Ethiopia, 1336–1337 and erosion, 256–257 evolution, 1310 extent in Africa, 257–258 and famine, 1321 scattered, 258 and flea, 1312–1315 grass, 458 foci in Uganda, 1338–1339 stimulates seed germination, 264 frequency, 1313 absence of, 321, 323 gerbil reservoir, 1354 at Cape, 274 and gerbils, 1319 Chirinda forest, 295 and India, 1326–1327 in East Africa, 281–286 in Kenya, 1343–1346 experiments, 314–315 at Lake Tanganyika, 1352 Bush clearing and tsetse fly, 869 in Luangwa Valley, 1352 Bush-clearing proposed, 901 in Mecca, 1329 Bush encroachment, 475–476 and Mediterranean, 1328–1329 Bush fires, 253, 258 in North Africa, 1329–1331 Bushpig elimination, 902 orientalis strain, 1310 Busoga epidemic and infection in game, origin recent, 1309 943–944 periodicity, 1320–1321 sleeping sickness epidemic reservoir in East African highlands, 1339 commencement, 998 rodent hosts, 1312 deaths, 999 role of rats, 1315–1319 depopulation, 999 and slaves in Cairo, 1334–1335 virulence causes, 1034–1035 in South Africa, 1352–1357 Butterfly speciation, 22–23 in Sudan, 1336 Buvuma Island deaths, 998 and Syria, 1328–1329 Bwamba virus, 1217 in Tanzania, 1349–1351 transmission and Simond, 1361 transmission by flies, 1312 C in Uganda, 1337, 1346–1349 C3 and C4 grasses, 239 in West Africa, 1356–1359 pathways, 252 in Zambia, 1352 C4 grasses, 251 Budongo Forest, 437–439 Cabinda, 409–410 contracting, 693–694 Calliphorid flies, 1179 elephant effects, 696 Camel, 855, 1096–1097, 1232 expanding in absence of elephants, 695 Cameroun, 408–409 mahogany, 695 Canine distemper virus CDV, Buffalo, 605–606 1119–1120 distribution, 1378 Cape drought, 188–190 in Kenya and rinderpest, 608–613 floods, 192 in Lake Manyara NP, 611 rainfall, 193 numbers in Botswana, 606–607 snow, 191–192 in Serengeti, 609–612 early history, 455–456 in Tanzania, 608 fauna, 457 and tsetse fly, 868–869, 874–876 game, 456 Buffon, 43 overgrazing, 457 Bunyamwera virus, 1217 stock, 456 Bunyaviridae, 1132, 1217 flora limit, 452 Bunyavirus-like viruses, 1224 Gondwana vegetation, 454 Burning, 358, 460–461 Capetown rainfall, 191, 193 early, 262 Cape Verde Islands, 351 effects on soil, 255–256 Carbon dioxide, 253 effect on forest, 258 levels, 237–238 effects harmful, 256 Carrying capacity, 44, 243 1544 Index

Cattle, 72, 357 Chikungunya, 1213 appearance in South Africa, 1374–1375 Chirinda, 453–454, 470 in CAR, 851 Chitemene, 335 in Congo, 851 Chobe River agricultural changes, 896 disease, 1372, 1375 cattle numbers collapse, 896 domestication, 1373 flood, 207 favoured by drought, 1372 Chobe riverine forest, 800–801 increase, 907 Cholera, 1273 losses, 890 in 18th century India, 1280 movement, 1380 from 1840, 1284 origin, 1371–1373 action in stomach, 1276 resistance, 1379 annual effect, 1275 in southern Africa, 859–860 in Arabia, 1280 stocking, 471 attachment to organisms, 1275 trypanotolerance, 1373 bacterium, 1273 in West Africa, 848–850 carriers, 1276 and West African tsetse belt, 1373 causes of plagues unknown, 1273 losses in East Africa, 1065, 1069 in China, 1280 in Botswana, 1090 and copepods, 1274 in Bukoba, 1075 early ideas, 1273–1274 deaths, 1075 early Indian records, 1279 at Cape, 1090 early origins, 1278 in Ethiopia, 1093 in East Africa, 1292 in Tanzania, 1073 epidemic of, 1869–1870 herds, 1067 parallels, 1284–1285 imports at Cape, 1097 in Egypt, 1282, 1283 inoculation, 1073 El Tor variety, 1276 numbers, 1089 endemic, 1298 in Africa, 1090 endemic foci, 1277 pre-rinderpest, 1090 endemic in Africa, 1285 in Tanzania, 1091 epidemic in Bunyoro, 1297 plague, 1095–1096 in 1960s, 1298 population altered, 1087 epidemic strains, 1275 in Senegal, 1097 behaviour, 1277 in Somalia, 1087 mid-1860s, 1284 survival, 1073 in Ethiopia, 1287–1289 trade, 1096 infection theories, 1289 in West Africa, 1089 in marine ecosystems, 1274 on Sesse Islands, 1045–1046 in Mecca, 1282–1283 stocks, 1054–1055 a misnomer, 1278 disease in Ethiopia, 1058 mortality, 1282 vaccination, 1059 in Niger Bend, 1283 Caughley, 795–796 outbreak 1970, 1285 Cerebrospinal meningitis, 1299–1300 outbreaks 1836, 1858–1859, 1291 Cestoda, 1155 pandemic, 1865 Chad epizootic, 1065 pandemics, 1277, 1281 Chaos theory, 45 periodicity, 1282 Chapin, 3 second pandemic, 1282 Charcoal layers in soil, 274 spread compared, 1285 Chari river hydrology, 172 in Sudan, 1292 Charney hypothesis, 250n2 Tabora to Manyema, 1296 Index 1545

toxin production, 1275 D transfer by flies, 1274 Dahomey Gap, 371–372 in water, 1274 Danckelman on fire, 279–280 in West Africa, 1283 Darwin, 246 worldwide pandemic, 1283 on diseases, 35 in Zanzibar, 1289, 1293, Deforestation, 233, 349, 354, 359, 382, 388, 1296–1297 423 Christie on cholera, 1292–1293 Canary Islands, 349–350 Chronobiology, 54–55 for cultivation, 356–357 Circumpolar vortex, 144–146 Madeira, 349–350 Climate a factor in tsetse fly Uluguru, 434–435 disappearance, 906 in West Africa, 344 and forest, 362, 367, 370 Delagoa Bay, 454 change, 364, 421–422, 600, 1369 Dengue 1214–1215 change South Africa, 454 De-populated areas occupied by tsetse fly, 890 East Africa, 73 Derham, 43 of Africa, 60 Derived savannah, 377 trend adverse, 1371 Dermatophilus congolensis, 1148–1149 oscillations, 185 Desert advance, 231 prediction, 65 boundary, 241 historical studies, 65–66 Desertification, 62–63, 176, 235 records East Africa, 122 Desert locust, 484–485, 489–492 influences populations, 1368 breeding, 493–496 trend, East Africa, 70 hoppers, 497 changes, 70 movements in East Africa, 498–500 Climatic change, 237–238 plagues, 485 fluctuations, 58 effects on animals, 568 unfavourability, 354 swarm flying orientation, 492 Climatology, 143 swarming, 497–498 Climax theory qualified, 376–377 swarms, 551 Coefficient of rainfall variability CV, 243 in Ethiopia, 555–556 Turkana, 242 in Guinea, 552 Coffee plantations, 410 in Kenya, 559–560 Colonial de-stabilization, 907 in Sahara, 551 Columbus, 350–351 in Sahel, 551 Commensal faunas, 1189–1190 in South Africa, 562–568 Community stratification, 32, 33 in Sudan, 558 structure, 43 in Tanzania, 560–561 Compression hypothesis, 797 in Uganda, 558–559 Congo, 3 in western Africa, 551–555 Republic, 410 in Zambia, 562 Congo floor maggot, 1179–1180 in Zimbabwe, 562 Congolese red river fever, 1206 Desiccation, 58 Contagious abortion, 1108 Sahara, 72 Continental divide, 4 Dhow movements, 1297 Crescent Island lake, 102–103 Diarrhoeal diseases, 1301 Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF), Diel rhythm, 9 40, 1132–1134, 1217–1218 Dionysius, 41 Crocodile, 215 Diphtheria, 1197–1198 elimination proposed, 902 Disease, 52 Crop types, 359 emerging, 1102, 1202–1203 Cross-immunity, 1102, 1127 effects, 35–36 Cysticercosis, 1157 diversity, 35 1546 Index

Disease (cont.) cycles, 194 and human populations, 37 in Africa, 128, 131 importance in wild animals, 36 Kiziba, Rwanda, 135 isolation, 36 in CAR, 179 outbreaks, 1392 Drought Investigation Committee, 198 seasonality, 37 conclusion, 199 challenges, 1378 recovery cycle, 233–234 outbreaks, 823 stock mortality, 235–236 re-emerging, 1102 effects on people, 239–240 ungulate hosts, 1102 wild animal mortality, 236–237 in West African cattle, 1063 Dugbe, 1134 immunity, 1192 Duiker, 1104 adaptation to, 1194–1195 Dust in atmosphere, 246 change in human patterns, 1193 epidemics, 1192, 1193 and colonialism, 1198 E evolutionary sequence, 1196 Early descriptions, 769–771 natural cycle spillover, 1203 East Africa early tsetse fly records, 855–859 now more prevalent, 1195 East African fauna, 4 and populations, 1191 settlement, 419 prevalence, 1193 rainforest, 420 resistance, 1195 East coast fever (ECF), 1146–1148 transferred from animals to man, 1193 Ebola virus, 1204, 1220–1224, 1261 virulence, 1196–1197 Echuya Forest Reserve, 439 Diseases, 58, 59 Ecological stability, 672, 1384 and African development, 1191 Ecology, 1393 chronic, 1191 Ecosystems, 45 and ecosystem dynamics, 1192 Eland in Kalahari, 588 historical references, 1192 Elephant biology, 678 human, 1191 deaths, 174 new, 1203, 1205 effects, 471 susceptibility to, 1200 extinction, 675 viral, 1369–1370 breeding, 678 West African, 1229 clumping, 679 wild animal, 1371 conflict in Tanzania, 676 Distribution of organisms, 13 control history in Uganda, 699 Domestic animals, 345 control in Tanzania, 676 Downey on elephants in Serengeti, 726–727 counts, 712 Dracunculus medinensis, 1171–1172 density and human population, 677 Drought, 58, 86, 87, 140, 141n8, 147, density in Selous GR, 717 151–152, 155–156, 159–161, 186, destruction of acacias, 680 196, 459 effects on vegetation, 680 Bornu, 158–159, 162 feeding, 678–679 Cape Verde Islands, 154 and fire in Chirinda forest, 680 decreased frequency, 150 hunting, 743 East Africa, 136, 139 increase in Tanzania, 716 effects in western Africa, 180 in Kenya, 676 greatest, 70 migration, 713, 775 Machakos, 137 migration in Uganda, 679 Senegal, 154 movement in Botswana, 679 Tanzania, 138–139 numbers in Selous GR, 717 and anthropogenic factors, 244 population in Tanzania, 715 and global warming, 245 population in Uganda, 712 Index 1547

problem classification, 689 Ethiopia harvest failure, 1062 problem in Tanzania, 743 cattle recovery, 1088 social structure, 679 Ethiopia snow, 111 trematodes, 1152 Ethiopian famines, 128–131 tusk weights, 715 realm, 5 Uganda problem, 675, 676 Evelyn on forests, 363 overpopulation, 237 Extinctions, 16–17, 30–31 population rate of increase, 816 age structure of populations, 817 increase in numbers, 816 F population cycles, 817 Fallow period, 417n6 status in 1935, 816 Famine, 58, 76–77, 84–85, 155–156, problem, 796 159–161, 190 control shooting, 744 Bornu, 158 numbers, 744 Bunyoro, 135 Elephants, 179, 416, 428 in east Africa, 87, 128, 131, 136, 139 and human population, 676 and food production, 175–176 and Budongo Forest, 690–691 Guinea coast, 154 and fire destroy trees, 694 Kenya, 135–137 and forests, 690 Kikuyu, 135–137 on Gelai, 743 Niger Bend, 154, 176 in Kenya, 744 political causes of, 1391 north of Nile, 691 Rwanda, 135 and south of Nile populations Senegal, 154 compared, 691 Senegambia, 154 shot on control, 712, 715, 717, 721–722 Sierra Leone, 154 shot on licence, 712 Tanzania, 139 vegetation change caused by, 680–681 Ukamba, 136 and tsetse fly, 1104–1005 Fasciola gigantica, 1151 El Nin˜o, 105, 141n2, 228, 1275 Faunal migrations, 4 Elton, 49 Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), Emerging pathogens, 1400 1121–1122 Encephalomyocarditis virus EMC, 1142–1143 Fever, on West Coast, 1229 Endemism, 21, 23–25, 29, 1383–1384 Filariid worms, 1168, 1171 Energy turnover, 30 in worms, 1172 ENSO, 81–82, 189–191, 196, 206, 228–229, Filoviridae, 1219 243, 672 Fire, 381, 413, 420, 1371 in East Africa, 73 as consumer, 252 Environmental degradation, 231, 233 effect, 379 Epidemic disease effects, 1398–1399 role, 251 Epidemic diseases and towns, 1390 types, 252 Epidemic sickness, 1229 Fire importance, 259 diseases, 1230 adaptations, 265 Epidemics, survival in, 1198 affects food supply, 323 and population structure, 1198–1199 ancient references in Europe, 272 Epizootics, 240 ancient use in Europe, 271 Epizootiological balance and tsetse fly in CAR, 297 moved, 912 cause of erosion, 265 Equatorial Congo forest, 431–432 climax savannahs, 259 Equatorial East Africa fluctuations, 103 condemned, 266 Equilibrium ecology, 244 controls grass in South Africa, 266 Eritrea, 1059 destructive, 265 Erosion, 459 effect on soil water, 337 1548 Index

Fire importance (cont.) burnt in Kenya, 268 effects, 305–306 changes central African, 373 effects on climate, 279 and cloud, 1384–1385 effects on animals, 318–321 contraction Uganda, 69 effects on Mount Mulanje, 294 decline Uganda, 439 effects on seeds, 337 destruction, 177, 232, 344, 365–367 387, effects on vegetation, 282, 335–337 422, 468–469 effects variable, 302–304 by fire South Africa, 293 essential, 267 in Zululand, 469 first West African records, 277–278 destruction at Cape, 454 and forests, 262 development, 414–415 and grassland, 299 encroachment, 396–397 and grazing animals, 321 equatorial, 351–352 history in Africa, 273 expansion, 412–413 and invertebrates, 329–330 expansion Uganda, 69 in Kruger NP, 317–318 fire and elephants, 297–298 long term effects, 304–305 fire, Tanzania, 285 maintains grassland, 261 history, 352–355 and rainfall, 260–261 islands, 377–378, 387, 414 and reptiles, 328–329 isolation, 19 reviews, 338 loss, 399 and Serengeti, 324–325 loss Kenya, 424–425 and small mammals, 327–328 Mount Kilimanjaro, 427–428 in South Africa, 287–289, 291 Tanzania, 427 in South African grasslands, 301 occupation, 374 and species composition, 301 organism distribution, 421 Stone Age use, 273 and rain, 372 and termite mounds, 299 richness, 20, 1385–1386 and ticks, 334 role, 477 tolerance, 264 savannah mosaic, 374–376 and topi, 323–324 succession, 407 traditional use, 274–275 tropical, 10 and tsetse flies, 334 virgin, 351 types, 263–264 zones, 22 in Virunga NP, 325 Fusain, 251 in Zambia, 287 Fusca tsetse fly group, 834 Firewood consumption, 1390 Fish diversity, 23 Flaviviridae, 1131, 1214–1215 G Flea populations in Uganda, 1313–1314 Gabon, 409 fauna in Ethiopia, 1314 Gad flies, 1173 rat, 1310 Gambia, disease, 970 Fleas in South Africa, 1354 Gambia mahogany, 384 Floods, 193 Gambian sleeping sickness eruption, 1031 Fluctuations, 53–54 causes of introduction to Upper Ubangi, Flukes, 1151 1041–1042 Foot and mouth disease (FMD), 1143–1145 in East Africa, 1043 Forage quality, 30 epidemic cycles, 1044 Forest, 12, 13, 17, 30 epidemic severity, 1039 advance, 352, 399, 402, 410, 414–415 historical existence, 1038 advance and retreat, 473 low incidence of cases, 1040 burning, 377 Madaba epidemics, 1040–1041 Index 1549

people-disease relationship, 1031 H and population evacuation, 1039 Habitat change Kenya, 422 related to trade routes, 1040 Tanzania, 422 spread by carriers, 1039 destruction, 232 spread by man, 1038 reversal, 6 spread by population instability, Hale, 42 1038–1039 Hale-Carpenter report, 638–639 spread from DR Congo, 1040 Hanno, 275–276, 291n4 spread inland, 1039 Hantaviridae, 1218 Gambian sleeping sickness occurrence, 951, Hartebeest in Kalahari, 588 954, 955 Henbane, 487 Game, 475 Herbivore biomass, 7 abundance in Tanzania, 592 consumption, 34 destruction, 824, 882–883, 900, 1399 Herd immunity, 38 elimination calls for, 900 Herpes viruses, 1211 areas reclaimed by, 904 Hippopotamus, 215, 1152–1155 areas re-infected in Uganda, 904 annual counts, 666 criticism of, 900 biology, 622–623 outcry against, 904 calves predation on, 673 supported, 902 density, 666 eradication experiment proposed, 901 elimination, 657, 659 in Botswana, 903 and erosion gullies, 627 in Botswana: buffalo not reduced, 903 grassland studies, 667 in Botswana: local hunting not and grassland types, 625–626 effective, 903 grazing, 623–625 not supported by evidence, 901 grazing density, 666 in Zimbabwe, 902–903 increase, 667 in Zululand, 903 Luangwa Valley, 665 Game protection, 1085 numbers, 626 recovery, 1092–1093 overgrazing, 627–628 Gasterophilidae, 1174, 1177–1179 overpopulation in western Uganda, 615 Gbaya ’bodoe, 410–411 problem, 626–627 Genetic variation, 1369 reduction, 625 Ghana, 397–403 reproduction, 672 Gillet and plant diversity, 39 wallows, 657 Glaciation, 67 HIV AIDS, 1209–1211, 1319, 1399–1400 Glaciers, 105 Holocene, 70 Global warming effects, 1400 Hookworm, 1161 Glossina morsitans first record in Hoppers, 486 East Africa, 856 Horses in Sierra Leone, 850 Grass evolution, 251 in East Africa, 855 Grasshoppers, 34, 330–334 Host resistance, 1101 colour change, 332 Human activities, 18 Grassland, 11 communities, 1194–1195 and forests, 341–342 density and trypanosomiasis, 1041 quality, 31 ecology, 1367 Grazers, 31 evolution and pathogens, 39–40 Grazing, 16, 34 influence, 6, 70 Grazing effects, 312–313, 459 pathogens, 1101 Greenhouse gas effect, 227, 237–238 plague, 541 Guinea, 384–385 population, 22, 476, 1383, 1386, 1389 Guinea worm, 1171 disasters, 1392 Gully erosion, 435 in DR Congo, 1389 1550 Index

Human activities (cont.) Karoo, 463–467 increase in Kenya, 1389 Katwe, 629–644 increase in Tanzania, 1389 early history, 629 prehistoric, 239 region, 708 Hydatid cyst, 1158–1159 salt trade, 1001–1002 Hydrologic cycle, 9 Kenya human population increase, 744 Kidepo Valley NP, 709–710 controlled burning plots, 710–711 I elephants, 711 Ice loss, tropical glacier, 118 tree loss, 710 Indian Ocean Dipole, 73–74 Kilimanjaro, 70 temperatures, 1368 and fire, 286, 298–299 links, 1279–1280 volcanic activity, 106 Infectious diseases, 1101 glaciers, 107–108, 111–112 Influenza, 1201–1202 ice loss, 119–121 deaths in West Africa, 1202 melt waters, 122 in Ethiopia, 1202 Kissidougou, 386–387, 472 in Tanzania, 1202 forest increase, 385 Insecticides, 24 mosaic forest-savannah, 385 Insecticide spraying, 904 Kitale Forest Reserve, 707–708 Interlake area and G. morsitans, 887 Kruger NP, 53 tsetse fly, 888 Kuruman river, 219–220 Invertebrates, 33 Inyanga, 454 Iron Age, 18 L beginning, 1370 Lactose tolerance, 1381–1383 Iron discovery of, 355 Laikipia cattle mortality, 1065 smelting, 355–356 Lake Albert sleeping sickness, 1001 Italian locust, 517–518 Lake Bosumtwi changes, 149 ITCZ, 60, 63, 75, 80 Lake Chad, 158, 162–163 Ivory Coast grasslands, 395 decline, 169 Ivory exploitation, 416, 711–712, 796, 808 filling of, 249 elephant population response, 816 hippopotamus, 167 exports, 816–817 level changes, 164–167, 169 history, 808–816 levels and glaciers, 168–169 Ivory traders, 1297 a marsh, 167–168 occupation, 164 plant species, 174 J shrinkage, 172 Jigger, 1303 causes, 174 Justinian plague, 1311, 1323–1326 Tilho predictions, 168 in East Africa, 1326 Lake Fayum, 84–85 origin, 1337–1338 Lake Fitri, 167 Lake George, 625 chemistry, 625 K crocodile, 621 Kalahari Basin, 214 Lake level changes, 149 decreased vegetation, 223 Lake levels east Africa, 104 desert, 217–219 Lake Malawi, 94, 186 rainfall, 219 Katwe, 103 Kalahari flooding of, 248 Malawi, 103–104 Kamba settlement, 135 Manyara, 97 Karamoja changes, 430 Naivasha, 100–101 livestock, 1088 fluctuations, 102 Index 1551

Nakuru, 101 Leonardo da Vinci, 41 Rudolf, 99–100 Leprosy, 1115–1116 Stefanie, 100 Leptospirosis, 1104–1105 Tanganyika, 99 Lerai forest, 446–448 Lake Manyara, 141n5 Liberia, 394 fluctuations, 734 Lice, 1180–1183 NP, 732–734 Life expectancy, 1198 biomass, 735 Lightning and fires, 269–270 early history, 738 Little Ice Age, 103, 146, 185 elephant numbers, 735 Livy on locusts, 534 population, 736–738 Locust birds, 521–523 human population, 738 Locust consumption, 481 vegetation, 734 in Ancient Egypt, 533 woodland damage, 735–740 biblical references, 533–534 Lake Naivasha changes, 1396–1397 biology, 485–486 Lake Nakuru changes, 1395 control, 530–531 Lake Ngami, 204, 209–212 diseases, 518–519 fluctuations, 213 effects, 483 hippopotamus, 211–212 feeding, 487 Lake Oursi, 232 flight, 488–489 settlement, 346 invasions 7th-9th century in Europe, 537 Lake Victoria, 90 migration, 524 blue-green algae, 1394 outbreak cycles, 526 changes, 91 phases, 486 destruction, 1394–1395 plague 11th century Russia, 537 drying phases, 91 18th century great plague, 542 fish species, 1394 in Britain, 543 forest decline around, 91 Canary Islands, 539–540, 542 high rainfall, 92 in Cyprus, 543 hybrid cichlids, 1395 in Wales, 540 levels, 91, 94 plagues, 483–484, 525–530 low level, 94 in 6th century, 536 mass fish extinctions, 1394 13th-18th century in Europe, 538–540, in Miocene, 91 542 and Nile perch, 1394 plague, 193 oral tradition, 91 in Europe, 542–543, 545 primary production increase, 1395 in North Africa, 546–551 rise in level, 90 and sunspot cycles, 525–526 and sunspot cycle, 94–95 predators, 518–521 water hyacinth, 1394 species, 486 water temperature increase, 1395 speed, 488 Lambwe Valley, 887 spreading, 488 Land mismanagement, 241 swarming, 486 Landslides, 435 swarms, 481, 484 La Nin˜a, 228 in 5th century, 536 Large mammal abundance in South Africa, 575 Locusts, 136 Lassa fever, 1204, 1215–1217 Loita plains, 613 Latent infections, 1200 London Conference on sleeping sickness, Lechwe, 605 949–950 Leishmania, 1192 Longido Mountain, 441 Leo Africanus, 1229 Low rainfall, 146 1552 Index

Luangwa Valley, 786, 788–789 Mastomys natalensis, 573–574, 1316 baobab, 795–796 Mayombe, 380–381 early records, 792–794 savannahs, 370 elephant numbers, 791–792 M. bovis origin, 1115 control, 792 in buffalo, 1117 game protection, 909 in Kruger NP, 1116 habitat, 789–790 in kudu, 1116 river changes, 790–791 in lions, 1116–1117 and sleeping sickness, 1017, 1047 in ungulates, 1116 tree destruction, 791, 792 Migration of herbivores, 612–613 tsetse fly, 794 human, 1367 Lugard on rinderpest panzootic in Africa, Migration theory of disease transmission, 1041 1056, 1057 Migratory birds, 1124 Lusitanus, 950 Migratory locust, 500–506 Lyme disease, 1209 distribution, 482 hopper feeding, 505–506 outbreak area, 503–504 M Miocene, 3 Maasai raids, 1072 Miocene era plains and evolution, 337 cattle survival, 1087 Miombo succession, 429 Mababe Flats, 217 woodland, 307–309, 311 Mabira Forest, 437 Missionaries on rinderpest epizootic, 1059 Madeira, 365 Mites, 1188–1189 Mahdists, 1066 ear, 1188 Makgadikgadi salt pans, 214–215 trombiculid, 1188 Malaria, 39, 59, 1224–1227 Molecular evolution, 7 immunity to, 1399 Molopo river, 220–221 infection of apes, 1197 flood, 206–207 Malawi changes, 473–474 Mombasa records, 122 Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF), 1122–1123 Mongalla gazelle, 605 Malthus, 42–43 Monkeypox, 1231 Mammal diversity, 7, 29 Monsoons, 60–61, 75 spread, 5 Mopane caterpillar, 54 Man and forests, 380 Mopane coppicing, 797 and nature, 1368 Moran theorem, 49 as tsetse fly host, 842 Moroccan locust, 517 Manda Island, 476 Morsitans tsetse fly group, 834 Mande conquerors, 180 Mosquito vector increase, 1400 Manioc, 417n1 Mount Cameroun, 409 Man-made change, 354 snow, 153 land changes, 1393 Mount Elgon deglaciation, 112 Man not natural component, 1392–1393 ice loss, 118 Man’s alien role in ecology, 1400 Kenya glaciers, 114–116 Man’s uniqueness, 1393 Kilimanjaro, 441 Mara ecosystem, 728 Meru, 436 fire, elephants, grazers, 728 Mulanje, 414 rinderpest, 728 Mozambique habitat changes, 897 and tsetse fly, 728, 8845–886 M. tuberculosis in suricates, 1116 Marantaceae forest, 263 in mongoose, 1116 Mara River hippopotamus, 672 Murchison Falls NP elephants, 689–690 Marburg virus, 1219–1220 fire and grazing experiments, 697–699 Massawa, 1059 sleeping sickness, 697 Index 1553

Murchison Falls NP hippopotamus record analysis, 81–82 numbers, 664 records, 79–81, 83, 89 early records, 664 Nile flood, 69 Pitman counts, 665 climate, Holocene, 71–72 rinderpest, 664 habitation, 70–72 sleeping sickness, 664 Nilometers, 81–82 Mweya Peninsula, 620 Nitrogen loss, 257 Mycobacterium, 1115 Non-equilibrium dynamics, 243 Mycotic diseases, 1148–1149 ecology, 243 Non-equilibrium ecology, 46, 472, 476 Non-equilibrium systems, 43 N dynamics, 44 Nagana, 834, 918, 1375, 1380 North Bunyoro human population affecting wild animals, 944 evacuation, 700 deaths from, 888 deforestation by elephants, 693 experiments of Bruce with dogs, 932 described by Emin Pasha, 703–704 and Fulani cattle migration, 933 early reports of area, 701 historical references, 932–933 early travellers, 704 immunity to, 865 elephants, 689, 706 increase, 864 described by Pitman, 704 in Kenya, 935 fauna, 691 at Mandera, 890 forest areas, 692 premunition in cattle, 933 forest expansion, 692 in southern Africa, 860 human population, 705 wild animal infection in forests, 944 ivory exploitation, 705–706 in Zimbabwe, 935 and Samuel Baker, 701–703 Nairobi sheep disease NSD, 1134 Nairoviridae, 1132 Namibia drought, 188 Natal wet conditions, 186 O drought, 187 Ocean forcing, 229 Natural fires, 259, 269 Oculotrema hippopotami, 1152–1153 Ndola burning experiment, 314–317 Oestridae, 1174–1177 Necrobacillosis, 1109 Oestrus fly, 853 Nematode worms, 1160–1168 Okavango Delta, 214, 217 Ngorongoro Crater species decline, 614 flood, 207 Ngorongoro highlands, 444–445 Olbalbal, 444 Conservation Area, 1389 Olifants River, 1398 Crater, 445 bird declines, 1398 Niche specificity, 14 crocodile mortality, 1398 Niger Bend, 87, 174–175 Onchocerca volvulus, 1301 droughts, 175 Onchocerciasis, 1009n4, 1301 famine, 175–176 O’nyong nyong, 1203, 1213 Niger climatic change impact, 181 Ornithodoros porcinus porcinus, 1138–1139 Nigeria, 408 Oscillation, 194 Nile, 68 18 year, 201 ancient Egyptian records, 81 Ostrich, 24–25 crocodile, 58 Overexploitation, 1390 Delta, 87 by man, 1368 floods, 77–78, 81, 83, 85–86 Overstocking, 1378 historical climate, 76 Owen Falls Dam, 93 and lake levels, 80 Ozone, 254 origin, 79 production, 11 1554 Index

P fluctuations, 44, 52–53 Palpalis tsetse fly group, 834 infant mortality, 51 Pansteatitis, 1398 regulation, 49, 51 Papyrus valleys, 439 Populations, urban, 1201 Parasite contact, 1101 Portuguese voyages, 1229 evolution, Africa a centre for, 1197 Pox genera, 1230–1231 Parasites, 35–36 Predators, 33 of African fauna, 1102 Prehistoric climate change, 66–68 and host diversity, 37 Principe and tsetse fly, 909–910 Parrots, 390 Prions, 1101, 1149n1 Pastoralism, 1371 Pygmies, 374, 1386 Pastoralist diffusion, 1374 Pyrophytes, 260 Pathogen spread, 38 Pax Britannica theory, 906 Pentastomids, 1188 Q People movements restricted in pre-colonial Q-fever, 1205–1206 times, 907 Quantum theory of epidemics, 1196 Peppered moth, 334 Queen Elizabeth NP, 616–619 Periodicity, 53 animal densities, 618–620 Pestilence in Africa, 1199 biomass, 620 early authors on, 1234–1235 bush clearing, 644 in North Africa, 1282 cattle, 644 in Rome, 1234 early records, 629–642 Phleboviridae, 1134 grassland studies, 657–660, 663 Photographic comparisons, 440–441 herbivore population changes, 660–661 Photosynthesis, 252 competition, 662–663 Phthiraptera, 1180 prehistory, 629 Phytoestrogens, 321–322 rainfall increase, 627 Picornaviridae, 1142 rinderpest, 644 Piroplasms, 1147–1148 sleeping sickness, 644 Pitman on hippopotamus numbers, 642 Worthington visit, 640–641 Pitman’s faunal survey, 794 elephant population, 707 Plague of Athens, 1233 former cultivation, 707 of Antoninus, 1233 historical records, 708 Plagues, 42, 85–86 tree survival, 707 identification, 1199 Plant diversity, 12 Plant productivity, 34 Plant, species richness, 14 R reactions, 15 Rabies, 1139–1142 Plasmids, 1363n2 in East Africa, 1141 Pleistocene, 5 in Serengeti, 1141 climatic change, 148 in South Africa, 1140–1141 Pleuropneumonia, 1063, 1065, Rainfall, 156, 199 1072–1073, 1097 at Capetown, 905 Pliny on locust biology, 536 changes, 225–226 Pliocene, 4, 421 cycles, 177 Pneumonic plague, 1312 East Africa, 75, 104–105, 123, 137 Population, 403 and forests, 368–369 cycles, 48–50 increase, 69 decline in Africa, 1369 increase Sahel, Soudan, 161 limitation, 41, 49 not in decline, 463 control, 41–43 oscillation, 196 Index 1555

records, 178 transmission, 1049, 1050 variability, 59 a typical zoonosis, 1049 fluctuations, 227 in Uganda, 1025–1028 variability, 227–228 becomes endemic, 1027 Rainfall, southern Africa, 61 disappears, 1028 changes, 61–62 Uganda epidemic, 1049 higher, 63–64 Rhodesian sleeping sickness occurrence, Rainforest types, 360 951, 954 loss, 361–362 epidemic in Zimbabwe, 1016 Rains, 152 Rickettsias 1119, 1205–1206 effect of, 12 Rifting, 3–4 Gambia, 152 Rift valley fever virus (RVF), 1134–1137 Ghana, 153 Rift Valley lakes East Africa, 96–97 Guinea coast, 152–153 Rinderpest, 41, 597–600, 796, 1048 Loango, 153 accounts, east Africa, 1066–1067 Senegal, 152 actions to prevent spread, 1084 Sierra Leone, 153 affects game in Botswana, 1080 in West Africa, 134, 152 in Ankole, 1068 Rat plagues in Kenya, 1315 and armies, 1098 biological control, 162 in Bophuthatswana, 1081 in North Africa, 1319 in Botswana, 1077–1080, 1085 Rats and plague, 1359 and British Nile campaign, 1058–1059 in Buganda, 1360 and buffalo, 1093 in China, 1360 deaths, 1067, 1068, 1070 India, 1360 cattle mortality, 1063 in Old Testament, 1359 a cause of sleeping sickness epidemics, Red locust, 506–514 1035 Lake Rukwa breeding area, 510–513 and climatic conditions, 1058 Red-tailed monkey infections, 1203–1204 control of, 1085 Refugia, 17, 19, 1384, 1386 crosses Zambesi, 1076 birds, 18 in eastern Tanzania, 1070 Relapsing fever, 1208–1209 effects in Tanzania, 1071 Reoviridae, 1142 effects on Maasai, 1070 Resource base reduction, 1368 in Egypt, 1053–1054 Retroviridae 1209 epizootic in Ethiopia, 1060 Rhabdoviridae, 1139 cattle mortality, 1060 Rhodesian sleeping sickness, 1011 eradication in South Africa, 1086 Busoga epidemic, 1028, 1050 immunization, 1056 and evacuation policy, 1028 in Kenya, 1069 Central Nyanza epidemic, 1029–1031 at Lake Tanganyika, 1072 in East Africa, 1011 lechwe deaths, 1076 first identification, 1013 mortality, 1091 genetic distances, 1050 moves south, 1072 genetic exchange, 1050 in Mozambique, 1083 immunity, 1050 in Namibia, 1085 in Kenya, 1029–1031 in Natal, 1083 in Lambwe Valley, 1029–1030 panzootic, 823–824, 1053, 1060 in Mara River, 1029 effects, 1054 as new disease, 1019 in Europe, 1056 spontaneous evolution, 1050 origin of, 1057 in Tanzania, 1021–1025 in Pongola GR, 1083–1084 spread in, 1920s 1021 pre-panzootic, 1091 Tororo epidemic, 1049 rate of movement, 1076 1556 Index

Rinderpest (cont.) Sahel, 58, 353–354, 360 reasons for spread, 1084 drought, 226 resurgence, 1075–1076 problem, 233 and sheep and goats, 1061 rainfall, 143–144 on Somali coast, 1060 causes, 146 in South Africa in 1901, 1085 decline, 63 and species distribution, 1056–1057 drought, 143–144 spread by Egyptian army, 1058 limit changes, 148 spread from Ethiopia, 1063 Sahelien drought, 57 in West Africa, 1064 Sahel-Soudan rainfall, 147 in Sudan, 1066 Salivaria, 917 in Swaziland, 1083 and nagana, 917 and transport route, 1071 and trypanosomiasis, 917 in Transvaal, 1081 Sand flea, 1303 and trypanosomes, 1046–1047 Sarcocystis, 1146 virus, 1053 Savannah, 12, 25, 30, 46 and wild animal deaths, 1068, 1070, changes, 1400–1401 1074–1075, 1093, 1098–1099 complexity, 45–46 animals affected, 1091–1092 created by fire, 296 wild animals, 1062, 1063, 1065 productivity, 13 Rinderpest and tsetse fly disappearance, 869, tsetse fly development, 826–827 871–873, 880 advance, 357–358 in Uganda, 905 development, 359–360 River blindness, 1301–1303 history, 352–353 destruction, 1397–1398 anthropogenic, 352 poisoning, 1397 Savuti, 215,–216 Rodent irruptions, 571 Marsh, 46–47, 216, 807–808 in Africa, 573 Schistosomes, 1153–1155 in Botswana, 574 Schwarz scheme, 248 cycles in South Africa, 571–572 Sclater line, 19 fluctuations in Kenya, 572 Seasonal changes, 12 reservoirs, 1227 Sea surface temperature, 146, 227–229, in Tanzania, 572–573 245–246 Rodents, 35 Secondary Congo forest, 432 Royal Society Commission, 997 Secondary forest, 379 Ruaha NP, 718–719 Seed resilience, 476 baobab trees, 719 Seismic activity, 214 elephant density, 720–721 Select Committee on teak export, 388 human habitation, 720 on oil palms, 402 Rwenzori Mountains, 68–69, 105 Selous GR, 716 glaciers, 106–107 elephants, 717–718 Rwindi-Rutshuru elephants, 785 and T. spinosa, 718 fire, 786 human population, 716 habitat change, 786 Seneca, 57 Rwindi-Rutshuru plain, 669 Senegal forest, 383 overgrazing, 181 prehistoric climate, 148 S Senegambia, 382–383 Sahara desert, 147, 150 Serengeti, 34, 37, 244, 442–444 flooding of, 247–249 competition in, 602 fluctuations, 177 fire frequency in, 602 in Neolithic, 149 landscape use in, 602 expansion, 149 Thomson’s gazelle, 602 stock in arid phase, 1373–1374 Index 1557

elephant range, 722, 727–728 deaths, 997 absence, 726 in DR Congo, 981, 984–986, 999, 1001 elephants and Seronera, 725, 727 early records, 950–953 human populations, 722 effect on man’s evolution, 1051 numbers, 722–725 and Emin’s troops, 1007 tree destruction, 723–724 epidemics, 957, 969 tsetse fly, 722 caused by man and aridity, 1042 grasslands, 15 in Ghana, 970 high animal densities, 591–592 on Lake Victoria islands, 1045 lion population, 594 in northern Nigeria, 959 plains, 593 periodicity, 1008 Serengeti-Mara, 722 in Senegambia, 970 early 1900s, 729–731 in Uganda, 995–999 elephant estimate, 732 in West Africa, 959, 960 Maasai occupation, 732 evacuation policies, 996 tsetse fly, 731 experiments of Kleine et al. monkeys, 1014 Sesse Islands, 436–437, 1000 first case in Malawi, 1016–1017 deaths, 1000 first record, 960 Settlement in South Africa, 1374 first reference to, 950 Settlement mounds, 474 first reports, 997 Settlement of West Coast, 381–382 first reports in east Africa, 995 Sexual reproduction, 39 foci persistence, 957 Sheep and goats appearance, 1371 history in West Africa, 960–969 Sheep appearance in South Africa, 1374 Ikoma epidemic, 1004 at Cape, 458 and inoculation of cow blood, 1014 effects, 461 in Katanga, 1014–1015 Shifting cultivation, 178, 344, 346–348, in Kavirondo, 1004 358–359 in Kisii, 1004 Shinyanga fire exclusion experiments, 324 in Lake George-Edward area, 1001–1003 Ship deaths, 1230 on Lake Victoria shores, 1003, 1004 Shire River system, 95–96 maintenance of foci, 1051 Siedelhaine, 414, 474 in Nigeria, 974–981 Sierra Leone, 388 Okavango epidemic, 1019–1020 Simulium damnosum, 1301 history, 1020–1021 Sitatunga and sleeping sickness, 999–1000 periodic epidemics in West Africa, 1042 Slave trade, 1399 primitive knowledge of, 996 depopulation, 1392 reappearance in Busoga, 1008 and spread of sleeping sickness, 1014 Semliki primordial focus, 1001 ancient endemic focus in Nigeria, 975 in slaves, 961 in Angola, 969–970 spread, 1042 behaviour in Nigeria, 979 spread from Ngamiland, 1047–1048 in Bukedi area, 1002 in Sudan, 994 in Bunyoro, 1001 and Sudanese settlement, 1006–1007 in Burkina Faso, 971–974 survey Albert Nile, 1001 in CAR, 987–994 in Toro, 1002 Sleeping sickness advance of, 1016 and trade routes, 974 epidemic causes, 992 and trading contacts, 1007 cattle reservoir, 1044–1047 transmission, 997 caused by colonization, 1033–1034 transmission and G. morsitans, 1016 causes of epidemic, 1052 upsurge in Zambia and settlement causes of increase in DR Congo, 1033 policy, 1017 in Chad, 991–993 vectors in South Busoga, 956 confused with malaria, 968 wild animal reservoir, 1044 1558 Index

Sleeping sickness advance of (cont.) drought, 188 in Zaire Basin, 984 drying up, 221 Zambia epidemic in 1970s, 1018 desiccation, 222 Sleeping sickness epidemics and migration rainfall, 222 theory, 1038 South Africa early tsetse fly records, ecological theory, 1038 860–865 epidemics caused by spread of bush and South African climate, 83 tsetse, 1035 Miocene, 183–184 climate affecting tsetse fly vector prehistoric climate, 183–184 requirements, 1036–1037 Sparganosis, 1158–1160 expansion of tsetse fly range, 1037–1038 Speciation, 8 human control of trypanosomiasis, 1035 Species abundance in eastern Africa, human population disruption, 1035–1036 590–591 human population increase, 1035, 1036 decline, 589, 613–614, 1383 spread of trypanosomes by humans, 1036 distribution, 31 spread on Black Volta River, 1037 diversity, 21 universal factors, 1036 richness, 7, 20, 46 Sleeping sickness outbreak, 823 richness, grazer, 32 epidemic causes, 825 variety, 1196 Small mammals, 34 Spirochætes, 1208 Smallpox, 1199, 1230 Springbok, 193, 576–582 in 1930s, 1253 decline, 590 African susceptibility, 1236 Stable fly, 1103–1104 in Ancient Egypt, 1233 Stable limit cycle, 794–797 in Britain, 1234 Stanley and spread of sleeping sickness, early history, 1232 1005–1007 in East Africa, 1240–1245 Stebbing on fire and shifting cultivation, 396 in Ethiopia history of, 1237–1238 Stercoraria, 917 fatal in Uganda, 1236 Stock seizures, 1089 in India, 1232 deaths at Cape, 1097 lineages, 1232 in Kenya, 1088 (home) in central Africa, 1237 in Tanzania, 1088 in South Africa, 1250, 1399 Stone Age populations, 1369 in Sudan, 1238–1240 Strabo on locusts, 535 in Ukerewe, 1236 on plague, 1359 in Zanzibar, 1242 Striped bush, 233–234, 360 Smallpox inoculation, 1238, 1241, 1247 Sudan climatic deterioration, 132 Smoke production, 272–273 Sudan early tsetse fly records, 854–855 Smokes, 278–279 Sunspot cycles, 194–196 Snow, 193, 197 Swynnerton elephant estimate, 708–709 Soil, 9–11 elephant recommendations, 676 erosion, 231–232, 342–344, 429–430, Sylvatic plague, 1310, 1319 472–473 Machakos, 433–434 Tanzania, 430 T Uganda, 430 Tabanid flies, 853–854 Solar radiation, 66 Tapeworms, 1155–1156 Sotoka, 1074 Tarabagan, 1309 South Africa climatic change, 197 Tarangire NP, 740–741 drying up, 198 elephants, 741 rainfall records, 198, 200 woodland decline, 741–742 soil erosion, 198 Taute experiments, 936 veld burning, 198 Taute’s tsetse fly experiment, 901 Index 1559

T. b. brucei, 921–923 species co-existence, 21 a zoonosis, 923 Trematodes, 1151–1152 T. b. gambiense, 922, 923 Trichinosis, 1168–1170 ancient foci, 926 Trypanosoma gambiense discovery, develops in tsetse fly, 928 918–919 evolution, 926 brucei evolution, 920 infectivity of G. palpalis, 928 in prehistoric fauna, 926 isolation, 999 congolense, 919, 924 mechanical transmission, 928 equiperdum, 920 reservoir, 955–956, 1043 evansi, 920 virulent strain, 999 godfreyi, 920 T. b. rhodesiense, 923, 1011 lewisi, 924 an old disease, 1016 simiae, 924 in Botswana, 1019 suis, 924 and cattle introduction, 927 theileri, 924 derived from gambiense, 1014 vivax, 919 evolution, 923 Trypanosome pathogenicity, 916 and man, 926 cycles in tsetse fly, 917 isolation, 1013 experiments with antelope, 936 a strain of T. b. gambiense, 1013 host classification, 939 virulence, 1011–1013 immunity in game, 945–947 in wild ruminants, 931 index of importance, 940–941 Temperature changes, 229–231 infection and host age, 947–948 increase, 196 infection in tsetse fly, 927 records, East Africa, 126–127 infection rates in wild animals, 929–930, Terminalia glaucescens, 697 938–939, 942 Termites, 16 in domestic animals, 930–931 Theilerioses, 1378–1380 in DR Congo, 934 Themeda triandra and fire, 306–307 in humans, 931 Theophrastus, 57, 362 in Ivory Coast, 934 Thicket creation, 357 in Sudan, 934 Thucydides, 1234 in Uganda, 934 description of cholera, 1278 infections in game, 936 origin of epidemic, 1234 infections in Luangwa Valley, Tiang, 605 937–938 Tick fever, 1205 lesions, 947 Ticks, 40, 240, 1103, 1183–1189 mechanical transmission, 927 Tick vectors, 1187–1188, 1206 persistence of infection, 939–940 Timber exports, 391 reproduction, 916 Togaviridae, 1131, 1213 reservoir, 894 Togo, 403, 405–407 reservoirs of infection, 940 Tomboctou, 158, 175, 1230 sitatunga study, 936 Tongue worms, 1189 species, 917, 918 Topi decline, 1386–1388 species infective to man, 918 Trades, South-East, 75 transmission, 916, 925 Trade with Africa, 1308 virulence, 918 East African coastal, 1289 Trypanosomes, 916 with India, 1338 in Animal Kingdom, 916 and plague, 1320 antigenic protection, 917 Tree destruction, 459–460 discovery by Castellani in Uganda, 954, growth rings, 1412 1009n3 locusts, 518 discovery in patient, 953 rings, 186–187, 194 effects on immune system, 918 1560 Index

Trypanosomes (cont.) hunters, 771–772 and hominid species, 1051 numbers, 760 human infective, 1050 Tsetse fly, 22, 240, 821 in hyaena, 929 absence at Lake Ngami, 867–868 influence on fauna, 925 absence in Transvaal, 868 in lions, 928–929 absence on Chobe River, 868 monitor lizard host, 944–945 advance in Uganda, 888 resistance in game animals, 942 attracted to buffalo urine, 879–880 and suids, 925 in Barotse, 896 transfer to mammals, 925 barrier to early pastoralists, 885 source, 827 behaviour, 839 in WWI, 913n2 belt increase, 823 Trypanosomiasis, 391, 1193 belts, 865 early theories, 915 biology, 832–833 historic foci, 944 and buffalo, 863–864 infection in game, 935–936 and burning, 883 native treatment, 935 and Buxton’s conclusion, 905 occurrence, 821–822 on Chobe River, 863 Trypanotolerance, human, 957, 958 and climate, 910 Tsavo East NP, 75, 745–748 co-existence, 836–837 baobab destruction, 749 computerized forecasts, 911 black rhinoceros numbers, 761 control measures, 822 bush removal, 749 control programmes lack of effect, 881 drought, 754 cycle of infection, 821 elephant numbers, 753 cycles, 911 clans, 758–759 densities, 838 deaths on Tana River, 759 disappearance in South Africa, 905 distribution after drought, 759 disappearance on Chobe River, 869 mortality, 754, 760 due to combination of factors, 873 mortality: age distribution, 755 in Mozambique, 871 mortality: cause, 755 distribution, 821, 839–841 mortality: sex distribution, 755 and cattle, 827 movements, 759 in Ngamiland, 895 fauna, 748, 760 and temperature rises, 911 habitat changes, 761 distribution in Nigeria, 878 human occupation, 762 early West African records, 848–851 rainfall, 755–757 endosymbionts, 836 tree destruction, 749 and evacuation policies, 911 tsetse fly, 761 existence in absence of game in Sudan, 905 vegetation, 748, 750–751 expansion in West Africa, 893 analysis, 750–751 in Botswana, 894 damage, 754 in Ghana, 894 Tsavo NP first area description, 762–764 reasons for, 893 droughts, 773 experiments with game, 879 early, 764–769 extension of range, 825 elephant reports, 772 feeding and temperature, 838 increase, 772 feeding preferences, 841 migration from Kilimanjaro, 772 female reproduction, 835 numbers regulation, 774 first record, 825 poaching, 772–773 and game, 846–847, 883 rains in 1961, 773 in Ghana, 879 Tsavo West NP elephant drought host preference, 846 mortality, 760 hosts, 842–846 Index 1561

and humidity, 838 Tuberculosis, 1115–1119 increase in Zambia, 900 human, 1115 invasion of Sukumaland, 891 Tunga penetrans, 1303–1305 and lake levels, 877 Typhoid, 1300 larvae, 835 Typhus, epidemic, 1205 larval development, 835 murine, 1205 limits, 828 tropical, 1206–1208 localized, 865 mechanical transmission of trypanosomes, 915 U numbers controlled by leopards, 912 Uganda, 87 numbers limited by elephants, 912 drier conditions, 132 origins, 826 Bantu immigration, 132 pathogenicity, 915 demographic trends, 135 population response after reduction, 909 drought, 133, 134 protective role, 822 forest, 133 pupae survival, 836 forest regression, 132 parasitism on, 836 rainfall, 134 and rainfall, 911 Ungulate fauna, 21 range increase in Malawi, 900 Usambaras, 435–436 rate of increase, 881 rate of spread, 888 recession, 891 in Nigeria, 877 V in northern Uganda, 905 Vaccinia origin, 1231 recovery, 882 Variola forms, 1231 reduction in Uganda, 876–877 Variola major, 1230, 1231 regression followed by expansion, 906 Vegetation changes, 467 re-invasion of Chobe River area, 894–896 Vegetation density and temperature, 231 response at Lake Manyara, 909 Vibrio bacteria, 1273 retraction and Sahel drought, 906 Vibrio cholerae, 1274 retreat, 864 seasonality, 1276–1277 in South Africa, 867 Viroids, 1223 on Rwenzoris, 832 Virunga NP biomass, 620–621, 653 and saturation deficit, 910 south of Lake Edward, 654 species, 833–834 burning policy, 670 spread by transport, 909 early records, 645–652 spread in Central Province, 891–892 habitat changes, 655–656 spread in Tanzania, 883 hippopotamus numbers, 645, 653, 671 spread in Zambia, 908 grazing, 654–655, 670 spread in Zimbabwe, 899–900 population increase, 655 in Sudan, 852, 876 human populations, 671 survival in Zimbabwe, 898 Ishasha River area, 670 switch hosts, 902 plant responses, 669–670 and temperature effects, 837 protection, 670 trypanosome vectors, 834 Rutshuru plain history, 671 trypanosomes, 821 Viruses, 1101 trypanosomiasis relationship, 823 as plant pathogens, 37–38 and wild animal slaughter, 822 Virus infections of ancestors, 1197 and Zulu policy, 896 V. minor, 1231, 1249, 1253 Tsetse limit, 233 Vossius, 79 1562 Index

W early mortality, 1260 Wallace Ethiopian Region, 4 in east and West Africa compared, 1270 Warble fly, 1173, 1178–1179 epidemic cycle, 1264 Wells, drying, 132 epidemics, 1265 West Nile virus, 1204–1205 in 19th century, 1262–1264 Whipworm, 1170–1171 in 20th century, 1266–1267 White-eared kob, 602–603 epizootics in monkeys, 1269, 1270 migration, 603 exposure to, 1256 White stork, 531–532n3 first identification in West Africa, 1259 Wild animal re-population, 1390–1391 first records, 1261 resistance, 1103 immunity to, 1256, 1271 responses Athi-Kapiti plains, 1393 maintenance in forest, 1267 studies, 1104 mosquito reservoirs, 1255 Wild animals and settlement patterns, species, 1266 1389–1390 vector, 1258, 1267 Wildebeest, 44, 49 non-human epizootics, 1268 distribution, 1376–1378 origin in Africa, 1266 Kalahari, 244, 582–587 pathogenicity, 1271–1272 biomass in Serengeti, 595 periodicity in Ghana, 1270–1271 deaths in Serengeti, 596 predictions, 1267 decline, 589–590 primate transmission cycles, 1268 drought deaths, 594 at Sao Thome´, 1260 food supply, 595 and slave trade, 1259 food supply in Serengeti, 600–601 spontaneous development, 1265 migration in Serengeti, 593–594, 598 in Sudan, 1271 migrations compared, 595 sylvatic cycle, 1267 numbers in Serengeti, 596, 598–599 vaccination, 1266 population increase, 594 virus in East Africa, 1268 population increase in Serengeti, wandering epizootics, 1269 599–600 Yellow fever tree destruction, 684 predation, 595 deaths, 685 predators, 600 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, 1309, 1311 Serengeti, 41 pestis, 1310–1311 Wind circulation change, 225 Winterbottom’s description of sleeping sickness, 962–963 Z Zambia tsetse fly and settlement, 832 Zanzibar island and tsetse fly, 841 X Zanzibar rainfall, 122–125 Xenopsylla cheopis, 1313–1314 Zebra, 1378 deaths, 1074–1075 predation, 600 Y in Serengeti, 599–600 Yellow fever, 1254–1272 and tsetse fly, 841 African origin, 1260 Zimbabwe historic tsetse fly distribution, and America, 1259 829–832 areas of immunity, 1268 vegetation changes, 453 Ætiology, 1267 wetter phase, 185 in Bwamba Forest, 1268–1269 drought, 185 and Captain Tuckey expedition, 1262 Zoning, 11 centres of infection, 1266 Zoogeography, 3 decline in cases, 1264 Zoonosis, 1101 early history, 1259 Zymodemes, 955, 1030, 1048