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PRACTICING AND TEACHING ARCHAEOLOGY IN EAST AFRICA: TANZANIA AND UGANDA By ASMERET GHEBREIGZIABIHER MEHARI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2015 © 2015 Asmeret Ghebreigziabiher Mehari To the people of Tanzania and Uganda, and in memory of my late sister Rozina Mogos and my friend Esther Nakaweesa ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been extremely blessed with generosities and inspirations from great people and institutions to reach this point. This dissertation is possible because of their guidance, generosities, and inspirations. I am grateful for the untiring collaborative guidance I have received from my chair Prof. Peter Schmidt and Co-chair Prof. Faye Harrison. I also extend my gratitude to my dissertation committee, Dr. Steven Brandt and Dr. Abraham Goldman. I would like to thank the mentors who laid the foundation for my academic interests at the University of Asmara, in Eritrea, because without their effort I would not have been able to pursue graduate school. In the Department of History, my gratitude goes to Drs. Uoldelul Chelati Dirar, John Distefano, and Richard Reid. In the Department of Anthropology and Sociology, I extend my gratitude to Dr. Abebe Kifleyesus, the late Dr. Alexander Naty, and Dr. Abdulkader Saleh Mohammad. In the Department of Archaeology, I am hugely indebted to Dr. Mathew Curtis, Dr. Alvaro Higueras, and Prof. Peter Schmidt for sharing their passion of archaeology. I am also indebted to Dr. Yosief Libsekal and Mr. Rezene Russom for paving the road for me and many other Eritrean students of archaeology. It is only through their experience and endurance that I have learned what it takes to be an African archaeologist. At the University of Florida, several departments and people have contributed to my studies individually and collectively. I would like first to express my heartfelt gratitude to the International Center and the Center for African Studies for their dedication to serve international students. If it were not for the warm personalities in these centers, I would have experienced a much more difficult adjustment to a foreign country and they relieved my homesickness. At the International Center, I am especially grateful for the 4 untiring commitment of the Director of the International Student Services, Debra Anderson and the former Program Assistant Maud Fraser. I am forever in debt to Debra for the many days she took care of me just as my own mother would have. I also thank Nargiza Ludgate and Jessica Childers for welcoming me to join the Graduate Student Advisory Council, which helped me focused during the time I was performing the data analysis on this research. The University of Florida’s Center for African Studies has a great academic and social environment. As a student member of the Center, I enjoyed its social and learning environment and felt its sense of community. I am inspired by the humbleness of its faculty and staff members, and am grateful for the opportunities I received from the Center and for the kindness of its staff and faculty. I express my great gratitude to the former Director Dr. Leonardo A. Villalón, current Director Dr. Abraham Goldman, Assistant Director Dr. Todd Leedy, outreach coordinator Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie, and Editor-in-Chief of the Center’s online journal, the African Studies Quarterly, Prof. Hunt Davis. I am hugely indebted to Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie for her friendship. I also extend my gratitude to the faculty members of the Program in African Languages who taught me Kiswahili diligently: Dr. Charles Bwenge, Dr. Rose Sau Lugano, and former faculty member Dr. Masangu Matondo. Still at the University of Florida, I extend my gratitude to the Department of Anthropology. I am thankful to the former Chairs of the Department Prof. Alan Burns, Prof. Kenneth E. Sassaman, and the current Chair Dr. Susan deFrance. Without their service my graduate studies would not have been feasible. I am also thankful for the service I received from the rest of the Department’s staff members: Karen Jones, 5 Patricia Gaither King, and Pam Freeman. I am especially grateful for the kindness I received from the Graduate Program Assistant, Juanita Bagnall. I am also appreciative of the guidance and hospitality I received from the following faculty members: Prof. Willie Baber, Prof. H. Russell Bernard, Dr. Sue Boinski, Dr. Clarence C. Gravlee, Dr. Susan Gillespie, Dr. Michael Heckenberger, Dr. Abdoulaye Kane, Prof. Connie Mulligan, Dr. Augusto Oyuela-Caycedo, Dr. Christian Russell, Prof. Anita Spring, and Dr. Marilyn Thomas-Houston. I also extend my gratitude to professors or staff members in other departments and divisions at the University of Florida: Florida Museum of Natural History, Prof. Kathleen Deagan, Dr. David W. Steadman, and Irv Quitmyer; Department of Geography, Dr. Brian Child, Dr. Barbara McDade-Gordon; Samuel P. Harn Museum of Art, Dr. Susan Cooksey and Dr. Rebecca M. Nagy; Department of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, Dr. Fiona McLaughlin; Department of Special & Area Studies Collections, Dan Reboussin and Peter Malanchuk; and from the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Prof. Michael A. Crary. My interactions with my colleagues, current and former graduate students at the University of Florida, have shaped my intellectual journey tremendously. I am grateful for all the intellectual stimulations and social support I received from my colleagues, graduate students within and outside of the department. In particular, I thank Judy Anderson, Khadidja Arfi, Luz Martin del Campo, Karen Conn, Dorian Dorado, Justin Dunnavant, Michelle Sotaridona Eusebio, Erich C. Fisher, Jennifer Jai Hale Gallardo, Amanda Concha-Holmes, Gabriel Kasozi, Michelle Lea Kiel; Chin-hsin Liu, Ryan Morini, Bothepha Bogolo T Mosetlhi, Timothy D. Nevin, Kwadwo Owusu, Sheryl Quail, 6 Kharyssa Rhodes, Jonathan Walz, Jessica Zimmer, and all the Eritrean and Ethiopian graduate students. My especial thanks also goes to those who helped me to get settled in Gainesville: Drs. Mathew Curtis, Ade Ofunniyin, and Cheryl White. In East Africa, my special gratitude goes to Kenyan archaeologists who are based within and outside of Kenya, for extending their wings to mentor African students of archaeology like myself. They never ceased to be my source of inspiration: Dr. George Okello Abungu, Mr. Patrick O. Abungu, Prof. Chapurukha M. Kusimba, Dr. Karega-Munene, and Prof. Simiyu Wandibba. I am hugely in debt to Dr. George Okello Abungu and Prof. Chapurukha M. Kusimba for their mentorship. Of the Africanist archaeologists who work in the region, I would like to express my gratitude to Drs. Andrew Reid and Ceri Ashley and especially to Prof. Merrick Posnansky, who welcomed me to his home and spent a tremendous amount of time to introduce me to the archaeology of Uganda. I am very grateful for his kindness, dedication, and mentorship. I am also extremely thankful to the Tanzanian and Ugandan archaeologists for their genuine hospitality and assistance throughout this dissertation research while I was in their countries and afterwards. I am indebted to them for welcoming me into their homes and for inviting me to several special occasions, for devoting their time to discuss archaeology, for assisting and allowing me to attend archaeological field schools, and for their constant guidance and mentorship. I also want to express my heartfelt gratitude to the University of Dar es Salaam graduate and undergraduate students in archaeology and heritage studies for their ever heartfelt hospitality and assistance and for making my stay in Tanzania a very 7 productive and memorable experience. The same goes to all the archaeology graduate students who came from other African countries. I was completely, and still I am, mesmerized by the support and attention they gave me. I want to thank them for the time we spent together, be it individually or in groups, for the time they took to encourage me, listen to my grievances, and provide solutions when I did not have them. I fully enjoyed the discussions we had in classrooms. They opened my eyes in various ways to learn how we Africans are teaching or learning about archaeology despite the hardships we go through. I am very thankful in many ways because their contributions will continue to educate me. I am especially grateful to those who participated in various interviews and those who wrote anonymous journals during their practical field trainings. I thank the institutions that granted me research permits: Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology, the Antiquities Division (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism) and the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and the Department of Monuments and Museums, the History Department at Makerere University, and the Uganda National Commission of Science and Technology in Uganda. I also gratefully acknowledge the assistance and guidance of the Antiquities officials and museum staff members in Tanzania and Uganda. I extend my gratitude to the faculty members of the Departments of History both at UDSM and MAK. I thank staff members of the African Archaeology Network and the Archaeology Unit at UDSM. I am forever indebted to the local people of: Masaka area in central Uganda, Tororo area in eastern Uganda, Bagamoyo and Kaole in coastal region of Tanzania, and Oldupai in northern Tanzania for their hospitality and willingness to share with me and my colleagues their experiences in and perspectives of archaeological practices. I 8 very much appreciate my colleagues Onyango Aloysius, Herman Muwonge, Salmu Muya, Jonathan Mwandambo, Naserian Ndangoya and Kokeli Peter Ryano for their willingness and commitment to be my mentors, for their collaboration, and for the lessons and achievements we experienced together. Their contributions are priceless. My studies would have been impossible without the financial supports I received from institutions, friends, and family members.
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