RIVISTA DI STUDI ITALIANI

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GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO

PIERO GAROFALO University of New Hampshire Durham, New Hampshire

iovan Battista Niccolini was one of the most renowned Italian dramatists of the nineteenth century, but since the early 1900s critical Gand popular interest in his literary production has steadily diminished. His tragedies appealed to the ideals associated with national unification and with the Risorgimento culture because they reiterated the necessity of resisting tyranny in the cause of freedom. Extravagantly praised during his lifetime, Niccolini was buried alongside some of ’s most famous citizens in the church of Santa Croce. A funeral monument sculpted by Pio Fedi was added in 1883, to commemorate his literary achievements. The son of Ippolito and Settimia da Filicaja, Giovan Battista was born in Bagni di San Giuliano (today, San Giuliano Terme) near Pisa on 29 October 1782. His father, a nobleman of the Counts of Camugliano, was somewhat of an anglophile so English comprised part of Niccolini’s cultural formation. Ippolito served in the Palazzo Pretorio as a government representative of the Grand Duchy of . His mother was also a descendant of a patrician Florentine family. As a child and throughout his life, Giovan Battista was timid and frail, more interested in intellectual activities than physical ones. In 1786, the family moved to Florence where Niccolini frequented the Scolopi School in Florence. He studied under the guidance of Angelo D’Elci (1754-1824) and Giovanni Battista Zannoni (1774-1832). He began to learn Greek in 1796, and quickly developed a passion for classical studies. Latin, Greek, and the ideals of the French Enlightenment formed the foundation of his intellectual development. One of his first compositions, Grandi italiani in Santa Croce (Great in Santa Croce) reveals the influence of Vincenzo Monti (1754-1828) on his poetic formation. While pursuing his secondary studies, he discovered that the Collegio della Sapienza in Pisa had seven vacancies. Despite the family’s aristocratic lineage, Niccolini’s financial resources were limited therefore he appealed to Ferdinando III for permission to study law at the Collegio della Sapienza free of charge. The Grand Duke 65 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO granted his request on the condition that Niccolini pass the entrance exam, which he did. On 14 September 1798, he was admitted to the University of Pisa. At this time, the political situation in the Italian peninsula was rapidly evolving. The Grand Dukes of Tuscany descended from the House of Lorraine, a junior line of the Habsburgs. When Napoleon invaded the Grand Duchy in the spring of 1796, Tuscany and France were still formerly at peace. Napoleon quickly gained control of the region, but French troops did not enter Florence until March 1799. The Grand Duke’s exile, however, was brief because in the early summer of 1799, Austrian and Russian forces defeated the French in and restored Ferdinando III to power. One of the Grand Duke’s first actions was to order the closings of the Universities of Pisa and Siena in order to convert them temporarily into military barracks. Niccolini was an ardent republican and he protested the return of Austrian domination and the suspension of classes. Because of his activities, he was briefly imprisoned in 1799. General Dupont repealed the ordinance in 1800, and classes resumed. After Napoleon’s victory at Marengo on 14 June 1800, the French re-occupied Florence on 15 October 1800. Despite his firm anticlerical republican position, Niccolini never engaged actively in politics again. His maternal uncle Alemanno da Filicaja, an aristocrat of Jacobin opinions, was instrumental in the articulation of Niccolini’s political ideals, as was the poet Giovanni Fantoni (1755-1807) and the dramatist Francesco Benedetti (1785-1821) whose acquaintances he had made while studying in Pisa. Another influential figure in the raising of Niccolini’s political consciousness was Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), whom Niccolini had befriended during one of the poet’s visits to Florence in 1799. The two youths had much in common and took an immediate liking to each other. Later, critics assumed that Foscolo modeled the figure of Lorenzo Alderani in Le ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis (1802; translated by Douglas Radcliff-Umstead as Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis, 1970) on his young friend, although this appears unlikely. Niccolini’s acumen impressed Foscolo who wrote him a generous dedication in both Poesie di Ugo Foscolo and the translation La chioma di Berenice in 1803. They saw each other frequently in Florence in 1812, but had a slight falling out after Foscolo’s exile in 1813, because Niccolini mistakenly thought his friend had capitulated to the Austrians. After completing his law degree at the University of Pisa in June 1803, Niccolini returned to Florence where his family was suffering economic duress. Although he harbored literary aspirations, his family’s precarious financial condition impelled him toward a legal career. Alemanno da Filicaja interceded on his behalf and appealed to the Grand Duchess, who offered him a modest clerical position at the Archivio delle Riformagioni with a monthly stipend of fifteen scudi on 14 July 1803. While subsisting in this employment, 66 PIERO GAROFALO he translated the Versi d’oro (Golden Words) attributed to Pythagoras and composed the poem La Pietà (Mercy) on the pestilence in Leghorn in the fall of 1804. That same year he visited Venice and Milan with Gaetano Capponi and met Melchiorre Cesarotti (1730-1808) and Vincenzo Monti. Two years later, he was awarded the honor of delivering the lecture “Sulla somiglianza la quale è fra la pittura e la poesia, e dell’utilità che i pittori possono trarre dallo studio dei poeti” (On the Similarities between Painting and Poetry and the Utility that Painters Can Draw from Studying Poets) to the Accademia di Belle Arti at the awards ceremony for the Triennial competition in 1806. In his talk, he shows the affinities between the poetic and plastic arts and defends the need for writers to imitate past literary models. On 5 September 1807, after four years at the Archivio, Niccolini replaced Tommaso Puccini as secretary at the Accademia di Belle Arti where he also served as librarian. In 1809, he delivered another lecture to the Accademia: “Quanto le arti conferir possano all’eccitamento della virtù e alla sapienza del viver civile” (How Much the Arts Can Confer toward the Incitement of Virtue and the Wisdom of Civil Life). In this discussion, he defends the arts from the accusation that their sole purpose is to provide pleasure. Later, he also served as preceptor to the court page-boys of Napoleon’s sister, Elisa Baciocchi Bonaparte whom the Emperor had made Grand Duchess in 1809. He became a member of the Accademia della Crusca in 1812, and served on the commission that revised the fifth edition of the Academy’s dictionary in 1843. Throughout his career, he delivered lectures at both the Accademia di Belle Arti and the Accademia della Crusca on literature, art, philosophy, and language. In 1810, Niccolini met Mario Pieri (1776-1852) in Florence and their close friendship endured until the latter’s death. That same year, the Accademia della Crusca awarded Niccolini a prize of 500 Napoleoni for his five-act tragedy Polissena (Polyxena) modeled on Euripides’ Hecuba, but influenced by Foscolo’s poetics. He published it in 1811, and the play premièred at the Teatro della Pallacorda in Florence on 15 January 1813. Because of the positive public and critical response, Polissena traveled quickly to other major Italian cities and helped establish its author’s reputation. The tragedy is classical in its presentation. Niccolini departs from Euripides and imagines that after the fall of Troy, Polissena, the daughter of Ecuba (Hecuba) and Priamo (Priam), is given to Pirro (Pyrrhus) with whom she has fallen in love. Cassandra, another of Ecuba’s daughters is taken by Agamennone (Agamemnon). For some reason, the Greeks are unable to depart. Ulisse (Odysseus) asks Calcante for an explanation and discovers that the gods demand a sacrifice: one of Priamo’s daughters. Agamennone and Pirro refuse to kill their slaves. Ulisse decides that Ecuba must draw the name from an urn, but Polissena, who in the meantime has discovered that Pirro

67 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO killed her father, offers herself. Pirro tries to intervene and kill Calcante, but Polissena throws herself on Pirro’s blade and dies. In 1813, he obtained a post as professor of history and mythology at the Accademia di Belle Arti. Following this appointment, he found himself increasingly isolated from his colleagues and students because he was not responsive to the cultural and didactic needs of the institution. His lectures were not well attended. With the restoration of Ferdinando III in 1814, Niccolini also assumed the duties of private librarian for the Grand Duke between 1814 and 1815. During this same period, he composed another tragedy: Ino e Temisto (1814). The play, however, was not staged until 16 February 1824 at the Teatro Nuovo – what used to be the Teatro della Pallacorda – in Florence, and was not published until 1825. The confusing plot made both stagings and readings of Ino e Temisto difficult to follow. After its première, Niccolini modified the text and wrote an explanatory essay prior to submitting it for publication. Ino e Temisto is a complex tragedy that was not well received by either the critics or the public. Cadmo, the founder and king of Thebes, is exiled. His son-in-law Atamante assumes the throne and exiles Cadmo’s daughter Ino because he wants to marry Temisto, the widow of the king of Thessaly. Temisto, with Atamante’s approval, orders the slave Medonte to kill Ino, but moved by pity he spares her. Learco, the son of Atamante and Ino, and Dirce, the daughter from Temisto’s previous marriage, fall in love. In order to be closer to her son and to protect him from his stepmother, Ino disguises herself as Argea, a priestess of Bacchus, and enters Temisto’s good graces. Temisto plots to have Argea kill Learco during the Bacchic mysteries preceding his wedding. Dirce, suspicious of her mother’s motives secretly enters the temple where in the confusion Temisto mortally wounds her. When she realizes what she has done, Temisto kills herself. Learco dies from grief. Niccolini also wrote Nabucco (Nebuchadnezzar) in 1815. Influenced by the symbolic representations in Foscolo’s Aiace (Ajax, 1811), the tragedy suggests a relationship between the Assyrian and French empires. The play opens with the Assyrians (French) at war with the rest of Asia (). In Babel () Nabucco’s (Napoleon) wife Amiti (Maria Luisa, Napoleon’s wife) and his mother Vasti (Madame Letizia) are concerned for him because he has just suffered a defeat on the banks of the Arasse (Elbe, defeat at Leipzig). Nabucco’s counselor Aspene (Caulaincourt) enters and informs them that Nabucco may be releasing his prisoner the high priest Mitrane (Pope Pius VII). Nabucco does free Mitrane, but neither man trusts the other. Amiti begs Nabucco to make peace with her father Darius (Francis II, Habsburg Emperor), but he refuses. Arsace (Carnot) tries to reason with Nabucco, but the latter remains steadfast in his resolution. Aspene announces that the enemies are at the gates. Arsace tries to convince Nabucco that it is 68 PIERO GAROFALO not too late to raise the flag of freedom that he had let fall. Nabucco, however, replies that he could take such measures only in victory, not in defeat. The city is on the verge of succumbing to the invaders, and all that remains for him is death. Nabucco leaves his sword for his son and throws himself into the Euphrates (Seine). The tragedy’s transparent representation of Italy’s contemporary situation and its implicit depiction of Nabucco as a Napoleonic despot made the play politically sensitive. In order to avoid the government censors, Niccolini’s friend (1792-1876), assisted by Ugo Foscolo, had Nabucco published at Capponi’s own expense in London in 1819. Although the drama did not lend itself to performances, the text circulated throughout Italy and was even translated into French and German. Early editions of Nabucco contained a notice to the reader in which Niccolini stated: “It is easy to recognize the modern events that the images of the ancient stories veil”. In an 1830 edition published in Lugano, this notice was expanded to include a detailed interpretive key providing an exact one to one correspondence between both past and present characters and events. The play’s political theme and tone were indicative of Niccolini’s dramatic efforts to conciliate the aesthetics of Classicism and Romanticism. In 1816, Niccolini published a translation of Aeschylus’ I Sette a Tebe (Seven against Thebes), which he dedicated to his friend Zannoni. He was also working on a version of Aeschylus’ Agamennon (Agamemnon) around that time; however, he did not publish it until 1844. A polemic developed between Niccolini and the translator Felice Bellotti (1786-1858) because the latter had already undertaken a similar enterprise; however, the two resolved the issue amicably by 1821, with Niccolini agreeing not to translate the rest of the Aeschylus’ tetralogy. The only other translation that he completed was a version of Aeschylus’ Le Coefore (Choephori) on which he had worked between 1844 and 1846; however, this translation remained unpublished in his lifetime. On 9 September 1818, Niccolini delivered a lecture to the Accademia della Crusca called “Qual parte aver possa il popolo nella formazione d’una lingua” (What Role Can the People Play in the Development of a Language) in which he articulated his views on the formation of a national language. He followed up this talk with another titled “Considerazioni intorno ad alcune correzioni proposte da Vincenzo Monti al Vocabolario dell’Accademia della Crusca” (Thoughts Concerning Some Corrections Proposed by Vincenzo Monti for the Crusca Academy’s Dictionary). He enters the discussion on the questione della lingua (the language question) by recalling the examples of Dante, , and Boccaccio. Niccolini argues for the need to consider the Florentine dialect in its spoken forms as the model for a national language and affirms his support for the Academy’s linguistic position against Monti’s critiques. The following year, Niccolini delivered to the Accademia di Belle 69 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO

Arti his “Elogio di Leon Battista Alberti” (In Praise of Leon Battista Alberti) in which he attacks all forms of tyranny and oppression through the veiled examples of fifteenth-century Florence. He addressed the Academy on two more occasions on linguistic issues: “Discorso intorno alla proprietà in fatto di lingua” (Speech Concerning the Propriety of Language) on 13 September 1821, and “Considerazioni sulle ragioni onde entrano nuovi vocaboli in una lingua e sullo stato nel quale essa fra noi si trova” (Thoughts on the Reasons Why New Words Enter a Language and on its Current State) on 9 February 1836. The five-act tragedy Medea, Niccolini’s liberal adaptation of Euripides’ homonymous text, had its première in 1821, with Maddalena Pelzet appearing in the title role. Niccolini enjoyed female companionship and was romantically linked to several women including Pelzet (known as Lenina). They shared a long-lasting friendship and a copious correspondence. In 1825, Medea returned to the stage starring Carolina Internari. The play, however, achieved its most memorable production with Laura Bon in the title role at the Teatro Nuovo in Florence on 1 July 1858. The drama’s structure is complex and did not lend itself to effective staging. Medea’s political content more than its artistic merit explains the success attained by Laura Bon’s performance. Medea’s tone is reminiscent of Pietro Metastasio’s (1698-1782) melodramas. Giasone (Jason) has taken refuge in Corinth and plans to marry King Creonte’s (Creon) daughter Creusa (Glauce). At Creonte’s insistence, Giasone must repudiate Medea and take their two children from her. Medea decides to avenge herself by killing Creusa. She pretends to be resigned to her fate and presents the bride with a wedding gift: a crown. Medea, however, infused the crown with her magic so that it will burn whoever wears it. Her plan works and both Creusa and Creonte die. The people of Corinth call for justice, and a mob sets out in search of Medea. She tries to flee with her children, but, realizing that escape is not possible, she locks herself in her room and kills the children. Giasone enters and, overwhelmed by the crime, incites the mob to lynch Medea. Medea calls him a coward, then stabs herself. Niccolini’s Edipo (Oedipus) premièred in Florence at the Teatro della Pergola on 17 March 1823. Niccolini entrusted the play to his friend Salvatore Viale in 1824, to edit and publish it, which he did the following year. This five-act tragedy is an adaptation of Sophocles’ tragic drama Oedipus at Colonos. Edipo and his son Polinice (Polynices), who had exiled his father, arrive in the woods of the Eumenides near Athens. Edipo suffers from guilt because he has committed both patricide and incest. Polynices wants to enlist his father’s aid in his war against his brother Eteocle (Eteocles). The Erinyes appear and soothe the father’s spirit because his sins were involuntary, but they terrify Polinice whose actions were willful. Edipo’s daughter Antigone 70 PIERO GAROFALO arrives and tells him that her uncle Creonte (Creon) wants him to return to Thebes to put an end to the battle for the throne. Edipo refuses because he does not trust Creonte. The uncle then kidnaps Antigone. Teseo (Theseus), an ally of Polinice, frees Antigone. Polinice apologizes to his father and swears not to take up arms against Eteocle. Edipo accepts the apology on the condition that his son repeat this vow at the altar of the Erinyes. Polinice enters the temple of the Eumenides, but his motives are not pure. He has terrible visions, and Antigone tries to console him. Then he hears the trumpets signaling the attack on Thebes and rushes to engage in that profane battle. Oedipus enters the temple and is incinerated by a lightning bolt thereby fulfilling his destiny. Despite the play’s anti-tyrannical exposition, its solemn tone and confusing narrative did not go over well with either the critics or the audience. Because of the public’s lack of enthusiasm for these tragedies extrapolated from myths, Niccolini decided to forsake the mythological genre in favor of historical fictions – in particular, medieval subjects – that were more consonant with the times. During this period, he read the works of George Gordon, 6th Baron Byron (1788-1824), Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805), and Manzoni, and these literary experiences further enhanced his Romantic sensibilities. Although Niccolini cared little for the tragedies of Vittorio Alfieri (1749-1803), he did not ignore their lessons. In order to pursue this new line of creative investigation, Niccolini returned to a project that he had first undertaken in 1815. The text in question was the drama Douglas. A Tragedy in Five Acts (1756) by John Home (1722-1808) which he had apparently begun to translate at the request of an attractive Scottish women whom he had met in Florence that year. He realized, however, that the play was not suited for performance in its present state and that it needed to be adapted for the Italian stage. In his rewriting of the text, he renamed the tragedy Matilde and transposed the setting to medieval Sicily. Although Matilde maintains the structural precepts of classical theater, the action is more Romantic. Matilde is sad because she has led a difficult life. In her youth, she had fallen in love with Guelfo, from a rival family, and the two had wed in secret. Matilde became pregnant, but then Guelfo died in battle. She was forced to hide her condition from her family and then give up her newborn. Before her father Ruggiero died, he left Matilde in the care of his heir Arrigo who proposed to her. Matilde’s new husband, however, has an evil nephew, Ormondo, who tries to kidnap Matilde and murder his uncle. Ormondo sets an ambush for Arrigo, but a young man named Normano saves him. Arrigo thanks the youth and makes him one of his vassals. Normano is Matilde’s son and he rises quickly through the ranks. By chance, Matilde discovers the truth as to his identity. To prevent their reunion, Ormondo convinces Arrigo that Matilde is in love with Normano. Following Ormondo’s advice, Arrigo decides to kill Normano. They ambush Normano, and 71 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO

Ormondo fatally wounds him. Normano, however, with a final blow kills Ormondo. Matilde arrives and holds her dying son in her arms while Arrigo, having discovered the truth, kills himself. Although the political content of Matilde was less pronounced than in his other tragedies, Niccolini’s primary thematic interest remained Italy’s national condition. He expounded his concerns outside the theater by engaging in other cultural projects. The restored Grand Duchy of Tuscany was militarily and diplomatically dependent on ; nevertheless, it maintained a relative degree of tolerance toward contrasting political expressions. Following the example set by the Milanese newspaper Il Conciliatore (1818-1819), Gian Pietro Vieusseux (1779-1863) founded the Antologia in Florence in January 1821. Prior to starting the journal, he had established a meeting-place, the Gabinetto scientifico-letterario, for Italian nationalist intellectuals in 1819. Along with Vieusseux, Niccolini, Gino Capponi, and Cosimo Ridolfi (1794- 1865) were instrumental in the Antologia’s inception. Although the journal did not engage in overt propaganda, its program did support the development of a national identity. Under pressure from Austria, the Grand Duke’s government suppressed the Antologia on 26 March 1833. Niccolini engaged in extensive intellectual discussions with several of the journal’s contributors and associates including Cesare Lucchesini (1756- 1832), Giovanni Battista Zannoni (1774-1832), Leopoldo Cicognara (1767- 1834), Jean-Charles-Léonard Simonde de Sismondi (1773-1842), Giuseppe Montani (1789-1833), Giovanni Rosini (1776-1855), Enrico Mayer (1802- 1877), (1774-1848), Pietro Colletta (1755-1831), Antonio Ranieri (1806-1888), and Camillo Ugoni (1784-1855). His literary circle extended beyond the Antologia and included the writers (1798-1837), (1785-1873), and Giuseppe Giusti (1808- 1850). Niccolini read the lecture “Discorso intorno al sublime e a Michelangelo” (Speech Concerning the Sublime and Michelangelo) before the Accademia di Belle Arti in 1825. It represents his final sustained reflections on the figurative arts. In it, he argues that artistic rules restrain inspiration. He took advantage of this opportunity to deliver a patriotic oration on the quality of Italian artists. That same year, Alemanno da Filicaja died and bequeathed to his nephew a considerable inheritance including the beautiful Popolesco villa between Prato and . This unexpected wealth allowed Niccolini to dedicate more of his energies toward literary interests and to participate in the social activities of his affluent friends. That same year, Niccolò Tommaseo (1802-1874) obtained a permanent position on the staff of Vieusseux’s Antologia. He did not respect Niccolini, and their mutual animosity was quite public. As a result, Niccolini began to distance himself from the journal. In fact, quite late in Niccolini’s career 72 PIERO GAROFALO

Tommaseo published a vituperative article in the Spettatore n. 29 (19 August 1855) attacking his teaching and calling for his retirement from the Accademia di Belle Arti. As early as 1823, Niccolini had developed the idea of writing a tragedy based on a story he had read concerning a Venetian nobleman. He had written to the poet Ippolito Pindemonte (1753-1828) to ask for a copy of a poem that he had composed on the topic, but Pindemonte was unable to satisfy the request. Now with more time at his disposal because of the inheritance, Niccolini was able to return to this project. The result of these efforts was one of his most popular plays, the five-act tragedy Antonio Foscarini. It had its première in Florence at the Teatro del Cocomero on 8 February 1827. The performance was well received, and the play went on to have a successful run in Italy, France, Germany, and England. The librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte (1749-1838) suggested bringing the tragedy to the United States, but this proposal never came to fruition. Antonio Foscarini was similar to Nabucco in that Niccolini attempted to fuse the aesthetics of Romanticism and Classicism in an anti-tyrannical representation. Set in Venice following the Bedmar Conspiracy of 1618, it tells the story of the Venetian nobleman Foscarini who falls in love with Teresa Navagero. The play opens with the Council of Ten debating a law proposed by the inquisitors Contarini and Loredano who want to establish the death penalty for anyone who enters an ambassador’s residence in secret. The Doge Alvise Foscarini and the judge Badoero oppose the promulgation of the law, but they are overruled. When the meeting ends, Antonio Foscarini enters to speak with his father, Alvise. Antonio has been in Switzerland on a diplomatic mission. Alvise tells Antonio that during his absence, Teresa was forced to marry Contarini. Antonio is stunned, but decides that he must speak with her. The two meet in secret, and she explains how Contarini blackmailed her father into giving her hand in marriage. Their commiseration is interrupted by the arrival of Contarini. In order not to compromise Teresa’s honor, Antonio takes refuge in Spanish ambassador’s residence and tries to commit suicide. His shot backfires and he is taken to the tribunal. Antonio remains silent before the judges therefore Contarini demands the death sentence, but Badoero opposes him. Since the judges are divided, the Doge must cast the deciding vote. He tries to reason with his son, but Antonio stands firm. Then Teresa arrives and asks to speak. She confesses to the tribunal the reason for Antonio’s silence. Alvise and Badoero rejoice thinking that Antonio is saved, but they are too late because Loredano and Contarini have already made sure that their verdict was carried out. In desperation, Teresa kills herself. The tragedy also generated controversy. In , it was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books, and its representation was prohibited in Lucca. Some of his critics, especially Filippo Cicognani, accused Niccolini of plagiarism. Specifically, they claimed that Antonio Foscarini was derivative of, among 73 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO other works, Antoine-Vincent Arnault’s (1766-1834) Blanche et Montecassin (1797). In a letter to Salvatore Viale on 5 July 1828, Niccolini indicated that he was familiar with Arnault’s text; however, no irrefutable evidence emerged from these accusations. On 3 September 1827, Manzoni, who was in Florence, met with several associates of the including Niccolini, Giordani, Leopardi, Count Terenzio Mamiani Della Rovere (1799-1885), Marquis Cosimo Ridolfi (1794-1865), Gaetano Cioni (1760-1851), Baron (1809-1880), and Raffaello Lambruschini (1788-1873). The discussion focused on Manzoni’s novel, I Promessi sposi (1827; The Betrothed, 1968), and the author’s intention to rewrite the story using contemporary Florentine. Niccolini offered considerable linguistic advice, which Manzoni appreciated. Manzoni met regularly with Niccolini and others in the group over the course of the next three weeks. De Feo relates an anecdote from an evening when the two of them engaged in a heated argument on the artistic merits of Torquato Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata (1580; Jerusalem Delivered, 1970) in which Manzoni ridiculed Niccolini’s opinions mercilessly. Realizing that he had perhaps gone too far and offended his host, Manzoni apologized to Niccolini who had become rather morose. Niccolini, however, assured him that his silence was for a different reason: “I was just thinking to myself that if Tasso is as big a fool as you say he is, then I do not know who I am anymore!” Before returning to Milan, Manzoni left both Niccolini and Cioni copies of his manuscript for them to review and “correct”. He incorporated their changes into the 1840-42 edition of I Promessi sposi. Niccolini delivered the lecture “Della Imitazione nell’Arte Drammatica” (On Imitation in the Dramatic Arts) to the Accademia della Crusca on 9 December 1828. This oration represents Niccolini’s most significant articulation of his poetic theories. He takes up Metastasio’s distinction between copy and imitation and proposes that poetic material needs to be infused with only enough truth so that it can stand on its own. He critiques Romanticism for what he perceives as its inability to produce verisimiltude, but he attempts to conciliate his neoclassical formation with Romanticism by arguing that poetry is both imagination and creation. In another lecture, “Discorso sull’Agamennone d’Eschilo e sulla tragedia dei Greci e la nostra” (1844; Speech on Aeschylus’s Agamemnon and on Greek Tragedies and Our Own), Niccolini further develops his theses and affirms that there is little difference between the Classics and the Romantics. Although he resorts to the authority of Aristotle, Aeschylus, and Euripides to critique modern writers – in particular, Victor-Marie Hugo and Alexandre Dumas père – he concludes by arguing that Greek tragedy is Romantic tragedy.

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Niccolini continued to explore medieval Sicily’s theatrical potential by revising a tragedy, Giovanni da Procida, on which he had first begun working in 1817. The play’s elaboration continued for several years and entered an especially fervid period between 1828 and 1830, following the publication of Casimir Delavigne’s (1793-1843) Les Vêpres siciliennes (The Sicilian Vespers, 1821). Niccolini wanted to restore dignity to the characters that he felt Delavigne’s text abused. He liberally assimilated Giovanni Villani’s Cronica (Chronicles, 1537-54) – primarily, book seven, chapter fifty-seven – into the historical foundation of his narrative. In order to avoid accusations of historical inaccuracy that had been leveled against Antonio Foscarini, Niccolini researched the history of the event – his notes were published posthumously in Vespro siciliano (1882). The tragedy exalts Italian independence and unity. The play is set in 1282, at the time of the Sicilian Vespers. Imelda, Procida’s daughter, loves a Frenchman, Tancredi. Only after their secret marriage and giving birth does she discover that he is the son of Eriberto who had killed her brother. Everyone thinks that Giovanni is dead, but he returns and tries to organize a revolt against the French. He wants to avenge himself on Tancredi and to have Imelda marry Gualtiero. Tancredi intervenes and tells Giovanni about their marriage. Procida admires Tancredi’s courage, but locks him up with Imelda. She begs her father to have mercy on her husband so he explains to her the reason for his hatred: Eriberto had violated her mother who died before she could reveal a horrible secret. Then Procida receives a message that the rebels intercepted from Eriberto to Tancredi. It states that Tancredi is Imelda’s brother. While Procida is calling the people to arms, one of the conspirators, Palmiero, kills Tancredi. Giovanni da Procida’s reception was generally positive. Even after its première in Florence at the Teatro del Cocomero on 29 January 1830, Niccolini continued to work on the play, which did not achieve definitive form until its publication in 1831. While it shared the aesthetics and thematics developed in Nabucco and Antonio Foscarini, Giovanni’s private drama lessened the impact of the tragedy’s political representation. Nevertheless, the Florentine Censors prohibited its publication as a separate text, but permitted it to be anthologized with other works by Niccolini. In order to circumvent this ruling, the first edition of the text bears the false provenance of and publisher Riccardo Masi. In 1830, in the midst of the its theatrical production, his mother died. Niccolini completed the five-act tragedy Lodovico Sforza in 1833. Set in fifteenth-century Milan, this historical drama addressed the political organization of early modern Italy with the underlying themes of independence and unity. Lodovico Sforza, known as “Il Moro,” has usurped the rule of Milan from the legitimate heir, his nephew Giovanni Galeazzo Sforza, and imprisoned him with his wife Isabella d’Aragona. Lodovico calls 75 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO

Galeazzo’s cousin, Charles VIII of France to Milan. To secure the latter’s support, Lodovico and his wife Beatrice d’Este accuse Isabella of plotting against Charles VIII and of committing adultery with the Neapolitan Corrado Bisignano. Isabella is proven innocent of these charges, and Charles VIII restores Galeazzo to power. After Charles VIII’s departure, a missive from the Emperor Maximilian arrives that grants Il Moro the investiture as Duke of Milan. While he is being crowned, Galeazzo is dying, poisoned by Lodovico. The political drama’s patriotic tone caused the government to prohibit both its representation and its publication. The play did appear in print in 1833, but in order to evade the censorship, it had to be published abroad, in Capolago, Switzerland. The tragedy’s première, however, was delayed until 7 October 1847. It was staged at the Teatro del Cocomero in Florence and featured the actors Adelaide Ristori, Luigi Domeniconi, and Tommaso Salvini. Deemed rather didactic by both the public and the critics, Lodovico Sforza achieved limited success. Niccolini’s next tragedy to reach the stage was Rosmonda d’Inghilterra. He derived the plot from English legends. Under the false name of Alfredo, the King of England Arrigo II seduces Rosmonda Clifford, daughter of Baron Gualtiero and absconds with her. He has not yet revealed his true identity to her when he receives a marriage proposal from Eleonora II of Guienna. By means of this action, she seeks to avenge herself on her former husband King Luigi VII of France who repudiated her. Because Arrigo is in love with Rosmonda, he refuses her offer. Eleonora, however, has set a trap using Arrigo’s counselor Tebaldo. She pretends not to have received his response and comes to meet him. While Arrigo is distracted, she has her messenger take Rosmonda back to her father. Gualtiero is furious with his daughter, but recognizes the messenger as his missing son, Edmondo. Rosmonda can only tell her father that her seducer’s name is Alfredo, so he decides he must go to the king to seek justice. She and Edmondo rally the people to their father’s cause. Too late she realizes that Alfredo is the king. In the midst of the confusion that follows, Eleonora kills Rosmonda, and Edmondo kills Arrigo. Rosmonda d’Inghilterra premièred in Florence at the Teatro della Pergola on 30 August 1838. Because of the play’s poor public and critical reception, Niccolini made selective revisions, which he completed in 1839. This sentimental drama is somewhat convoluted and is derivative of Romantic French theater – in particular, Marion de Lorme (1831) and Le Roi s’amuse (1832) by Victor-Marie Hugo (1802-1885) – that Niccolini claimed to disdain. In 1838, he completed another tragedy, Beatrice Cenci. It was a rewriting of The Cenci (1822) by Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822). The setting of the play is near in 1598. Francesco Cenci is a man of inhuman cruelty. During a banquet he announces with pleasure the death of two of his sons and then decides to take his wife Lucrezia and their two children (Beatrice and 76 PIERO GAROFALO

Bernardo) to his Petrella fortress in the Abruzzi. Fearing for the safety of Lucrezia and her children, Monsignor Guerra pays Marzio and Olimpio, two ruffians who work for Francesco, to kill their master. Lucrezia lets them in at night, and they fulfill their duty. They tried to make his death look like an accident, but they were soon arrested. Bernardo was spared, but Lucrezia and Beatrice were found guilty and beheaded for their involvement in the crime. In addition to Shelley’s text, Niccolini also relied on Beatrice Cenci romana: storia del secolo XVI (Florence: F. Benci, 1839) by Agostino Ademollo for the historical background. He published the play in the collection of his works in 1844. Between 1840 and 1842, Niccolini composed Arnaldo da Brescia, the tragedy that secured his fame during the Risorgimento. In 1843, he published it in Marseille with the assistance of Felice Le Monnier and later in Capolago in order to avoid any possible censorial interventions. Then, by means of Le Monnier, the text entered Italy clandestinely through Leghorn, and generated immediate interest and controversy. The tragedy relates the monk Arnaldo’s efforts to battle the temporal power of the Pope, Adriano IV. He wants the Church to return to its founding state when spiritual and political power were separate. Arnaldo also opposes the Emperor Federico Barbarossa whose invading armies have razed Lombard cities and are now coming to Rome. Adriano IV hopes to use Arnaldo against the Emperor, but he is unable to convince the monk to join him. Federico Barbarossa enters Rome and meets with the Pope. Although he and Adriano IV loathe each other, they agree that their common foe is Arnaldo because of his defiance. The monk has taken refuge at Count Ostasio’s castle in Astura. The Countess Adelasia, however, is worried about the safety of her husband and children, so she goes to ask the Pope for forgiveness. Through her, Adriano and Barbarossa discover the whereabouts of Arnaldo. He is captured and burned – his ashes thrown from the top of Castel Sant’Angelo into the Tiber. Arnaldo’s story provided Niccolini with a narrative in which to express both his anticlericalism and his hatred for foreign domination. The play is difficult to stage because of the large cast of characters, the length of the dialogues, and the frequent use of the chorus. Niccolini’s didactic exposition has limited its representations to a few select scenes. In fact, Arnaldo da Brescia’s lack of dramatic action make it less a tragedy than a political treatise in verse. The publication of Primato morale e civile degli Italiani (The Moral and Civic Preeminence of the Italians, 1843) by Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-1852) generated increased interest in Arnaldo da Brescia because both texts articulated conflicting points of view regarding the political role of the Church in Italy – the former neo-Guelph and the latter neo-Ghibelline ideals. Between 1846 and 1848, Niccolini completed a number of editorial projects. He curated an edition of Machiavelli’s Le istorie fiorentine and co-edited an annotated edition of Dante’s Divine Comedy. Meanwhile, the political 77 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO situation in Italy was evolving. After Pius IX ascended to the Holy See in 1846, he promulgated several reforms that increased neo-Guelph enthusiasm. Niccolini, however, remained intransigent in his political – not spiritual – opposition to the papacy, and this led to the dissolution of several friendships. While he remained close to Antonio Ranieri, Francesco Silvio Orlandini and Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi (1804-1873), Niccolini severed all contact with Gino Capponi in 1847. Emotionally and physically distressed, he suffered a nervous breakdown and went twice to Genoa for rest. In the midst of this trying period, he composed Filippo Strozzi. He considered the completion of the tragedy in 1847, to mark the end of his dramatic production. Filippo Strozzi addresses the Florentine struggles for freedom against the despotism of Cosimo I. The play reflects Niccolini’s discontentment with the neo-Guelphs and the consequences of factionalism. The first act is set in Filippo Strozzi’s rooms in sixteenth-century Venice. Lorenzino de’ Medici has come to see Filippo. Lorenzino explains that he has fled Florence because he killed his cousin Alessandro. The Florentine exiles ask Filippo and his son Piero to lead an army to Florence in order to establish a republic. He accepts their charge. In Florence, however, Cosimo de’ Medici has already assumed control of the city. He defeats Sforza’s army and takes him prisoner. The Emperor Charles V recognizes Cosimo’s right to rule Florence. Thus, having legitimized his power, Cosimo orders the execution of Filippo out of spite and revenge. Filippo Strozzi is similar to Arnaldo da Brescia in that its lack of dramatic intensity make it difficult to perform. Disillusioned by the political mood and feeling ostracized, Niccolini withdrew from public and social engagements to lead a quiet life divided between his home in Florence and the Popolesco villa in 1849. Through the efforts of Giovanni Valeri in 1855, Niccolini did agree to publish his Lezioni di mitologia, which were based on the lectures he gave at the Accademia di Belle Arti in 1807-1808. These lessons consist primarily of translations of representative passages from Greek and Roman myths. He also composed his final tragedy, the historical drama Mario e i Cimbri in 1858. Apparently, Niccolini had hoped to stage the play with Tommaso Salvini in the leading role. To this end, he consigned the manuscript to his friend Corrado Gargiolli; however, Salvini turned down the script because he did not consider the drama appropriate for performances. Gargiolli, on his own initiative and without Niccolini’s consent, kept the manuscript and published Mario e i Cimbri later that same year. Following its release, the play was banned in Austrian territories. Set in ancient Rome, the play draws facile parallelisms between the barbaric invaders and the present Austrian occupation. The action begins with the patricians and the plebians arguing over who should lead the Roman army against the Cimbri who are threatening to invade Italy. Much to the patricians’ 78 PIERO GAROFALO anger, Mario is chosen. The Cimbri send an ambassador to Mario requesting permission to farm Italian land undisturbed, but he replies that Italy is for the Italians – a declaration of war. King Boiorige of the Cimbri repeats his demands but Mario rebukes him. A battle ensues at Vercelli – a messenger narrates the action – and Mario triumphs. In 1859, Niccolini published an edition of his poetry and designated that all the proceeds go toward funding the war for independence. These poems are primarily patriotic in subject matter and rhetorical in tone. They failed to generate interest and have retained a secondary status in his literary production. In 1860, he published a collection of poems, Pensieri poetici. These compositions are in general madrigals written in a medieval style and did little to enhance his reputation. Of Niccolini’s remaining literary production, his historical treatises have also not attracted critical consideration because they are generically moralizing and deficient in research. His critical writings suffer from similar defects: they lack originality and resort to specious arguments by appealing to classical texts as unquestionable authorities. His correspondence reveals his relative disinterest in the staging and the production of his plays, but is otherwise less than compelling. Toward the end of his life, he received several honors including the renaming of the Teatro del Cocomero as the Teatro Niccolini on 3 February 1860. The ceremony included the unveiling of a bust of the dramatist and a performance of two scenes from Arnaldo da Brescia. After fifty-seven years of service, he retired from his teaching post at the Accademia di Belle Arti in 1860. As a leading citizen of Florence, he was also able to meet Vittorio Emanuele II in Florence in 1860, and gave the King a copy of both Arnaldo da Brescia and his Canzoniere. Although he had always been an ardent republican, Niccolini readily accepted the monarchy of Savoy because he realized that it was the only way to unify Italy. He died in Florence on 20 September 1861, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce. Interest in Niccolini has waned considerably since the beginning of the twentieth-century. The general critical consensus is that his success as one of the most renowned dramatists of his time is in large measure explained by the patriotic content of his tragedies. Following his death, critics sought to provide a more balanced assessment of Niccolini’s artistic merits and have concluded that his works are of greater historical than literary interest. Despite the limitations of Niccolini’s production, Arnaldo da Brescia remains a significant contribution to Italian literary historiography.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

79 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO

WORKS BY G.-B. NICCOLINI:

Polissena. Tragedia di Gio. Battista Niccolini fiorentino, Florence: Niccolò Carli, 1811. Nabucco. Tragedia, edizione corretta dall’autore, London: John Murray, 1819. Ino e Temisto. Tragedia, Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1825. Edipo nel bosco delle Eumenidi. Tragedia, Bastia: Fratelli Fabiani, 1825. Medea. Dramma tragico, Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1825. Matilde. Tragedia, Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1825. Antonio Foscarini. Tragedia, Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1827. Giovanni da Procida. Tragedia, Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1831, printed under false provenance, Bologna: Riccardo Masi, 1831. Lodovico Sforza, detto il Moro, Capolago: Tipografia e libreria Elvetica, 1833. Rosmonda d’Inghilterra. Tragedia, (Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1839. Opere di Giovan Battista Niccolini, 3 Volumes, Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1844; comprises Volume 1, Discorso sulla tragedia greca, Polissena, Ino e Temisto, Edipo, I Sette a Tebe, Agamennone, Medea, Matilde, and Nabucco; comprises Volume 2, Antonio Foscarini, Lodovico Sforza, Rosmonda d’Inghilterra, Beatrice Cenci, and Poesie varie; comprises Volume 3, Prose and Iscrizioni; Filippo Strozzi. Tragedia corredata d’una vita di Filippo e di documenti inediti, Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1847. Lezioni di Mitologia ad uso degli artisti, dette da Giovan Battista Niccolini nella Reale Accademia delle belle arti in Firenze nell’anno 1807-8, 2 Volumes, Florence:Barbèra, Bianchi e Comp., 1855. Mario e i Cimbri. Tragedia pubblicata per cura di Corrado Gargiolli, Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1858. Poesie nazionali di G.-B. Niccolini, pubblicate a profitto della guerra dell’indipendenza italiana, Florence: M. Cellini, 1859. Pensieri poetici di G.-B. Niccolini, Florence: G. Barbèra, Bianchi e Comp.,1860. Opere edite e inedite di Giovan Battista Niccolini, 8 Volumes, edited by CorradoGargiolli, Milan: Guigoni, 1862-1873; comprises Volume 1, Tragedie nazionali: Arnaldo da Brescia, Giovanni da Procida, and Lodovico Sforza (1862); comprises Volume 2, Tragedie nazionali: Filippo Strozzi, Antonio Foscarini, Nabucco, and Mario e i Cimbri (1863); comprises Volume 3, Tragedie: Polissena, Medea, Edipo, Ino e Temisto, Matilde, Rosmonda d’Inghilterra, and Beatrice Cenci (1865); comprises Volume 3 appendix, Tragedie d’Eschilo tradotte da G. B. 80 PIERO GAROFALO

Niccolini: I Sette a Tebe, Agamennone, and Le Coefore (1871); comprises Volume 4, Canzoniere nazionale and Poesie varie (1863); comprises Volumes 5-6, Storia della Casa di Svevia in Italia (1873); comprises Volume 7, Prose varie e iscrizioni (1870); comprises Volume 8, Lezioni di mitologia e di storia edite e inedite (1871); Vespro siciliano (Milan & Florence: Brigola, 1882).

Opere di Giovan Battista Niccolini, Volumes 3, edited and revised by Giovan Battista Niccolini, Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1852). Poesie inedite di Giovan Battista Niccolini, edited by Corrado Gargiolli, Milan: Guigoni, 1868). Poesie inedite di Giovan Battista Niccolini raccolte e pubblicate da Corrado Gargiolli con Prefazoine, Note e Appendice. Canzoniere civile (1796-1861), edited by Corrado Gargiolli, Florence: Barbèra, 1884. Poesie di Giovan Battista Niccolini, edited by Augusto Alfani, Florence: Landi, 1888. Arnaldo da Brescia, in Il teatro italiano. Vol. V. La tragedia dell’Ottocento, Volume 5.2, edited by Emilio Faccioli, Turin: Einaudi, 1981, pp. 61-244.

OTHER:

Sulla somiglianza la quale è tra la pittura e la poesia, e dell’utilità che i pittori possono trarre dallo studio dei poeti. Orazione letta nella R. Accademia delle Belle Arti nel giorno del solenne triennale Concorso del 1806, Florence: Niccolò Carli, 1806. Quanto le arti conferir possano all’eccitamento della virtù, e alla sapienza del viver civile. Orazione letta nell’Imperiale Accademia delle Belle Arti il giorno del solenne triennale Concorso del 1809, Florence: Niccolò Carli, 1809. Elogio di Andrea Orgagna composto da G.-B. Niccolini Segretario dell’Imperiale e Reale Accademia delle Belle Arti di Firenze, e letto da esso nel giorno della solenne distribuzione dei premi maggiori, l’anno 1816, Florence: Niccolò Carli, 1816. Discorso in cui si ricerca qual parte aver possa il popolo nella formazione di una lingua, e considerazioni sopra alcune correzioni proposte dal Cav. Monti al Vocabolario dell’Accademia della Crusca, Florence: Stamperia Guglielmo Piatti, 1819. Del sublime e di Michelangiolo. Discorso letto in occasione della solenne distribuzione dei premi nella R. Accademia delle Belle Arti in Firenze, il dì 9 ottobre 1825 Florence: Guglielmo Piatti, 1825.

81 GIOVAN BATTISTA NICCOLINI’S LITERARY AND POLITICAL ROLE IN THE RISORGIMENTO

PLAY PRODUCTIONS:

Polissena, Florence, Teatro della Pallacorda, 15 January 1813. Medea, Florence, 1821. Edipo nel bosco delle Eumenidi, Florence, Teatro della Pergola, 17 March 1823. Ino e Temista, Florence, Teatro Nuovo (formerly Teatro della Pallacorda), 16 February 1824. Matilde, Florence, 1825. Antonio Foscarini, Florence, Teatro del Cocomero, 8 February 1827. Giovanni da Procida, Florence, Teatro del Cocomero, 29 January 1830. Rosmonda d’Inghilterra, Florence, Teatro della Pergola, 30 August 1838. Lodovico Sforza, Florence, Teatro del Cocomero, 7 October 1847.

LETTERS:

Lettere familiari inedite e quasi inedite, edited by Gherardo Nerucci, Pistoia: Tip. Niccolai, 1900. Vannucci, Atto. Ricordi della vita e delle opere di G.-B. Niccolini, 2 Volumes, Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1866, comprises Volume 1, Life, Literary works, and Letters dated between 1798 and 1823; comprises Volume 2, Letters dated between 1824 and 1857.

STUDIES ON G.-B- NICCOLINI:

Alfieri, Luigi. Giambattista Niccolini trageda del Risorgimento italiano, Milan: Oberdan Zucchi, 1939. Baldacci, Luigi. “Nel Centenario di Giovan Battista Niccolini”, in Rassegna della letteratura italiana, 66.1, January-April 1962, pp. 39-62; reprinted in Letteratura e verità. Saggi e cronache sull’Otto e sul Novecento italiano, Milan-Naples: Riccardo Ricciardi Editore, 1963, pp. 3-36. Baldini, Massimo. Il teatro di Giovan Battista Niccolini, Florence: Galileiana, 1907. Bianchi, Dante. “La teoria e la realtà dell’arte di Giovan Battista Niccolini”, in Giornale storico della letteratura italiana, 246, 1923, pp. 245-324. Adriano Bozzoli, Adriano. “Giovan-Battista Niccolini”, in Dizionario critico della letteratura italiana, Volume 2, Turin: UTET, 1973, pp. 682-83. Cofano, Domenico. “La questione del rinnovamento linguistico e la proposta moderata di G.-B. Niccolini”, in Annali della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia. Università degli studi di Bari, 19-20, 1976-1977, pp.295-328.

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De Feo, Italo. Manzoni: l’uomo e l’opera, Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1971. De Rubertis, Achille. “Giovan Battista Niccolini e la censura toscana”, Giornale storico della letteratura italiana Supplemento 18, Turin: Chiantore, 1921. Faccioli, Emilio (ed.). Il teatro italiano. Vol. V. La tragedia dell’Ottocento, Volume 5.2, Turin: Einaudi, 1981, pp. 65-66. Giotti, Napoleone. Giambattista Niccolini, Turin: UTET, 1860. Guastalla, Rosolino. La vita e le opere di Gianbattista Niccolini, Leghorn: Raffaello Giusti, 1917. Howells, William Dean.“Niccolini’s Anti-Papal Tragedy”, in North American Review 237, October 1872, pp. 333-66. Kennard, Joseph Spencer. “G.- B. Niccolini”, in The Italian Theatre, Volume 2 (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1964, pp. 166-95. Piromalli, Antonio. “Bibliografia [di Giovan Battista Niccolini]”, in Letteratura italiana. I minori, Volume 3, Milan: Marzorati, 1961, pp. 2342-2343. Studi su Giovan Battista Niccolini. Atti del Convegno San Giuliano Terme 16-18 settembre 1982, Pisa: Giardini Editori e Stampatori in Pisa, 1985. Tenca, Carlo. “Giovan Battista Niccolini”, in Rivista Europea (1845), reprinted in Saggi critici, Florence: Sansoni, 1969, pp. 181-203.

TRANSLATIONS:

Arnaldo da Brescia. Tragedia, Marseille: Feissot, 1843, translated by Theodosia Garrow Trollope as Arnold of Brescia, A Tragedy, London: Longmans, 1846.

Aeschylus, I Sette a Tebe. Tragedia di Eschilo recata in versi italiani, Florence: Tipografia all’insegna dell’Ancora, 1816. Aeschylus, Agamennone in Opere di Giovan Battista Niccolini, 3 Volumes, Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1844. Aeschylus, Le Coefore, in Opere edite e inedite di Giovan Battista Niccolini, Volume 3, appendix, edited by Corrado Gargiolli, Milan: Guigoni, 1871, pp. 185-242.

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