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Introduction Chapter 1 Notes Introduction 1. 'The Intellectual Background of the Novel: Casaubon and Lydgate' reprinted in Watt, I. (ed.) The Victorian Novel, (London: OUP 1971) p.313. Chapter 1 1. GE wrote in 1861, 'Mr Trollope has returned and seduced us into prolonging our stay for another week, in order that we may witness the great national festival of regenerated Italy on Sunday;' (my italics). (Letters III, p.421). 2. Derek Beales in The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy (London: Longman [1971] 1981, p.l4) talks of a 'generalized myth'; Lucy Riall in The Italian Risorgimento: state, society and national unification, (London: Routledge 1994, p.2) refers to a 'mythology of national unification'. 3. G. Candeloro defines the Risorgimento as 'a movement which led to the formation of the Italian national unitary state' in Storia deli'Italia mod­ erna, Vol. I (Milan: Feltrinelli 1956) p.l4, cit. Beales, op. cit., p.14; N. Rodolico writes: 'The Risorgimento was the spirit of sacrifice, it was the suffering in the ways of exile and in the galleys, it was the blood ofltalian youth on the battlefields ... it was the passion of a people for its Italian identity.' Archivio storico italiano 1960, p.299, cit. Beales, op. cit., p.19. 4. Rial!, L., op. cit., pp.S, 9. 5. Ibid., p.9. 6. On this, see Wiesenfarth, J., George Eliot's Mythmaking (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitii.tsverlag 1977), which argues that George Eliot's novels present a 'mythology of fellow-feeling' which subsumes speci­ fic Hebrew, Christian and pagan myths into its structure; see also Bonaparte, F., The Tryptich and the Cross: the Central Myths of George Eliot's Poetic Imagination (New York: New York University Press 1979) which discusses Romola as a symbolic structure employing a complex series of mythological images to transform the realistic historical novel into an epic poem. 7. The British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston described the unification as 'miraculous as no one in his senses or in his dreams could have anticipated such continuous success'; lOth November, 1860, Claren­ don to Cowley (P.R.O. F.O. 519/178), cit. Beales, op. cit., p.13. 8. Felice Orsini, an ex-Mazzinian patriot, travelled to Paris where he threw three bombs at Napoleon, which, however, left the destroyer of the Roman Republic and the Empress unscathed. Sentenced to death for the assassination attempt, he repented and asked Napoleon 196 Notes 197 to listen to the appeal of 'a patriot on the steps of the scaffold'. George Eliot reviewed Felice Orsini's The Austrian Dungeons in Italy, in The Leader, August 30th, 1856, p.835. (See Chapter 2.) 9. Beales, D., England and Italy 1859-60 (London: Nelson 1961) p.8. 10. Piranesi, M., Reminiscenze (1852) cit. Trevelyan, G.M., 'Englishmen and Italians' in Recreations of an Historian, (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd 1919) p.218. 11. Beolchi, Reminiscenze dell'esilio (Turin 1852) cit. Brand, C.P., Italy and the English Romantics: the Italianate Fashion in early nineteenth-century England, (Cambridge: CUP 1957) pp.33-4. 12. This impression of Italian dishonesty was strengthened by 'the Queen's Affair' (1820) in which Queen Caroline, wife of George IV, was tried for adultery. Public opinion was strongly behind the Queen when Italian witnesses were called to testify against her: it was widely believed that they had been bribed, their testimony was revealed to be unreliable and they were lampooned in the press. 13. Edinburgh Review, October 1840, LXXII, p.161, cit. Brand, op. cit., p.22. 14. Russell had also translated the Paolo and Francesca episode from Dante's Comedy (Inferno V); Gladstone contributed a long article on Leopardi to the Quarterly Review (Vol. LXXXVI, No. CLXXII, pp.294-336) in March 1850. 15. A second edition appeared in 1819, and further editions were pub­ lished in 1831 and 1844. 16. Monthly Review, February 1828, n.s. VII p.258, cit., Brand, op. cit., p.211. 17. Trevelyan, op. cit., p.217. 18. For an extended list of works see Rudman, H.W., Italian Nationalism and English Letters, (London: George Allen & Unwin 1940) pp.419-32. 19. G.M. Young in Early Victorian England, Young, G.M., (ed.), p.248, cit. Beales op. cit., p.9. 20. Beales, op. cit., p.20. 21. Trevelyan, op. cit., p.213. 22. Saggio sulfa filosofia delle lingue [1785], ed. M. Puppo, Milan 1969, p.105, cit. Caesar, M. (ed.), Dante: the Critical Heritage 1314(?)- 1870 (London: RouUedge 1989) p.48. 23. Alfieri wrote: 'Dante wrote without any form of princely protection and he is supreme, he lives and will always live; but no protection has ever given birth, nor would it be able or worthy to do so, to a Dante. On the contrary, where such a man were born, princely protection would unfortunately only be a hindrance to him.' Cit. Mazzoni, G., 'Dante nell'inizio e nel vigore del risorgimento' in Almae luces malae cruces: studii danteschi (Bologna: Nicola Zanichelli Editore 1941), p.63 [My translation]. 24. Caesar, op. cit., pp.68, 56. 25. Cesare Balbo sets his Vita (Life of Dante) within a rhetorical frame aimed at heightening the importance of his subject. The biography is prefaced by the rhetorical statement that, unable to 'portray the life of the whole nation, [he] will attempt to portray at least that of the Italian who more than any other gathered in himself the talents, 198 Notes virtues, vices and fortunes of the country'. Moreover, Dante 'is the most Italian Italian there has ever been.' (p. 3). The same rhetoric reappears at the end of the book: 'We began by saying that Dante was the most Italian of the Italians: but now that we know the doings of his life ... we can further conclude that he was the best of Italians. If I am mistaken it is merely the rude error of the biographer; but how or why could the whole of our generation be mistaken?' (Vita di Dante Alighieri, Unione Tipografico - Editore Torinese, 1857 p.444). [My translation.] There is a copy of Balbo's Vita di Dante Alighieri in the GE/GHL Library. Eliot likens Daniel in Daniel Deronda to the 'spiriti magni' (see Chapter 8). 26. Published in Paris 1839, (revised edn. 1845). George Eliot possessed a copy of Ozanam. 27. Caesar, M. (ed.) op. cit., p.60. 28. Toffanin, G., 'Cio che Dante rappresento nel risorgimento italiano' in Perche l'umanesimo comincia con Dante (Bologna: Zanichelli editore 1967), pp.186-7. 29. De Monarchia, Bk. II, Ch. 5. 30. For Gioberti in his Primato, Dante 'was the condition necessary for the resurgence of Italian thought and genius' which was to bring the country into the modern age. Part of Dante's importance was to discover the political function in the laity and identify this with the national function. Thus, Gioberti says: 'When a people comes of age and realizes its own strength, a highly gifted layman often appears in the ordinary world who, through some great work, makes clear the meaning of the change which has occurred, lays the foundation of a new literature and begins an intellectual movement which is destined to last for many centuries. Such a man may be identified as the embodiment of that national consciousness and personality which is already burning in the breasts of the many.... From the inspired lips of this man come those hitherto unheard notes which will soon be repeated and echoed on thousands of lips. [... ] The Italy of the thirteenth century was happier still in giving to the world the found­ er of the lay Catholic civilization of the modern age who began for his class that which the greatest medieval pope had done three hundred years earlier for the clerical orders.' (cit. Toffanin, op. cit., pp.196-7); it was in this sense that, for Gioberti, 'Dante created the Italian nation'. (cit. Mazzoni, op. cit., p.64). [All translations from the essays by Toffanin and Mazzoni are mine.] 31. This image of Dante derives largely from the writings of Foscolo and was popularized in particular by Byron's poem The Prophecy of Dante (written 1819, translated into Italian the same year, and published in 1821). 32. Toffanin, op. cit,. p.191, refers to a 'religion of Dante'. 33. Scritti di Giuseppe Mazzini, Vol. 1 (Letteratura Vol. 1) (Imola: Coop­ erativa Tipografico-editrice Paolo Galeati 1906) pp.3-23; the image of 'Italia' as a statue was also a common topos in Risorgimento icono­ graphy. 34. Ibid., p.21. Notes 199 35. In Cacciaguida's long speech, he tells Dante that 'it shall be to thine honour to have made a party by thyself' (Paradiso XVII, 68-9). All translations are from The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, with Translation and Comment by J.D. Sinclair, 3 vols (New York: Oxford University Press 1961) except where otherwise indicated. 36. Purgatorio VI, 76--8; in 1849, for example, when Daniele Manin was defending the newly created Venetian Republic, a medallion was minted bearing the winged lion of Venice and the inscription 'Here must all cowardice be ended' (Inferno III, 15). Caesar (op. cit., p.64) cites a Danish journalist's account of a conversation with a Roman waiter who had fought with Garibaldi in 1847 and who produced a copy of the Comedy in which he had underscored the 'Come, see your weeping Rome' passage (11. 112££) from Purgatorio VI. 37. Mazzoni, op. cit., p.68. 38. Ibid. 39. cit. ibid., p.70. 40. cit. ibid., p.71. 41. cit. ibid. Balbo makes a similar comparison between Dante and Alfieri, thus mythologizing Alfieri in the same way as Mameli had Mazzini, and drawing him into that magic circle of 'spiriti magni' of the Risorgimento.
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