CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Refugees of the Greek Civil War: Politics and Refugees oftheGreekCivilWar:Politics Thesis submitted totheCentral UniversityEuropean First Supervisor: Professor Constantin Iordachi Constantin Professor First Supervisor: Second Supervisor: AlfredProfessor J.Rieber Andrijana Teodorovic Andrijana History Department Budapest, Hungary Ethnicity 2007 By CEU eTD Collection with such instructions may not be made without the written permission of the Author. the of permission written the without made be not may instructions such with This page mustform a partof made.any copiessuch copies Further madein accordance librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the lodged and givenby may Author be inthe with full instructions the part, accordance madeonly or Copiesby in either process, with the Author. Copyright textof any rests thesis this the CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 65 ...... Bibliography 62 CONCLUSION ...... CHAPTER 3 – THE GREEK CIVIL WAR REFUGEES 46 IN YUGOSLAVIA...... INTO 23 THE CRACKS OF ...... HISTORY”* MACEDONIAN BORDERLAND“PEOPLE WHO ANDTHE FRONTIER, HAVEFALLEN GREEK CHAPTER 2 –CONTEXTUALIZING THE GREEK CIVIL WAR REFUGEES: THE IRON CURTAIN, CHAPTER 1 – ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK, SOURCES 10 AND METHODOLOGY ...... INTRODUCTION – THE CENTURY 4 OF THE REFUGEE...... h plge...... 61 The Epilogue...... 3.2 Buljkes – the “Greek 51 Republic ...... of Yugoslavia” 3.1 Why Did They Leave?- Refugees’ 47 Accounts...... 44 2.1 Conclusion...... 2.3 Macedonia as a “BorderLand” and the “Slavophone” 38 Greek Civil ...... War Refugees 2.2. The Peculiarity of the Regionand The Greek Civil War Refugees of Greek 31 Ethnicity...... 1.3 Frontiers, Borderlands 18 and Symbolic ...... Geography 17 1.2 Sources...... 10 1.1 Defining ...... the Refugee The Greek Civil War 7 Refugees...... TABLE OFCONTENTS TABLE 3 CEU eTD Collection 3 2 Perspectives during the Twentieth Century 1 of time” our hallmarks of the one alienation, collective of of a newvariety “the emergence contemplating Marrus, Michael before. ever than issue international and a political of more became and momentum unconceivable, farhistory, itinhad throughout gained thecentury was a,so twentieth existed they that Althoughmovements of wars, but well. as century great refugee, the population of of century the only not upheavals, and movement of period extraordinary an century, twentieth the call would historians future the that he claimed when right was Gryn Hugo John Berger seeing others,who were closetothem, disappear over the horizon is thecentury ofenforced travel…thecenturyofdisappearances. century ofpeople The helplessly emigrants, emigrating for either political oreconomic reasons butemigrating forsurvival. Ours Displacements ofwhole populations. Refugees from famine war.or Wave after wave of INTRODUCTION OF –THETHE CENTURY REFUGEE European European civilians hadbeen forced tomove during the war– ten times numberthe of of forced According migrations. Malcolm to calculations, million Proudfoot’s sixty states. between relations affecting seriously problemhave century refugees become European animportant international of politics, inonly twentieth Yetthe immemorial. since time continent theEuropean across tramped persecutionby obligedleave or to war have their dwellings and seekrefugee abroad, Ibid., p. 3. Marrus, p.13. In Tony Kushner and Katharine Knox, The Second World War and its aftermath brought about an unprecedented flow unprecedented an about brought aftermath its and War World Second The 1 Refugees in an Age of Genocide. Global, National and Local , p. 1. 3 2 arguedthat“Refugees, people . 4 CEU eTD Collection 6 Stola, PennsylvaniaPress, 1962, p.363, (Reference in “Forced Migrations in Central EuropeanHistory”, Dariusz 5 Stola, Faber & Faber, 1957, p. 340. (Reference in “Forced Migrations in Central European History”, Dariusz 4 them so dramatically and so uniquelyfrom civil “Unlike society”. vagabondsthe or War.Worldin First the refugees characteristic of 20 of the characteristic peculiar The wascreated. homelessness” of newform “a radically isthat difference due tonewly technicalissues citizenshipAnother defined regarding andnationality. much longer, lasted usually and then before stunningly theirdisplacement ever greater was number their all, of First times. previous the of those from them distinguished repeatedly. Refugees (UNHCR), which for HighCommissioner in The Nations United UNcreated (IRO) 1951, the 1948. In remained in existence Organization everrefugee International the by was replaced War and Cold onset of the the since with with itsconflicts in inter-governmental mandate embroiled became it as criticism under came which renewed helped seven Agency andReconstruction (UNRRA) relief Nations The United million displaced. million displacedRefugee Settlement in Commission NovemberWorld(RSC), Warleft 1923. II some 30 people sponsored Nations Leagueof -the governments national alongside agencies thatworked returnexchanged. to their or transferred, –expelled, people million displaced some twenty of wargenerated the countries. Replacing UNRRA, Marrus, pp.340-344. Joseph B. Schechtman, B. Joseph Malcolm J. Proudfoot, J. Malcolm International Migration Review International Migration Review Modern refugee movements bore some completely novel characteristics that characteristics novel completely some bore movements refugee Modern 6 5 This crisis brought about international responses in the form of the variety of variety the of form in the responses international about brought crisis This European Refugees: 1939-1952. A Study in Forced Migration Movement, Postwar Population Transfers in Europe, 1945-1955 th century refugees is the fact that “their homelessness removed , Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 330) , Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 330) 4 Joseph Schechtman argued in 1955 that the aftermath the in 1955that argued Joseph Schechtman , Philadelphia: University of London: 5 CEU eTD Collection 9 8 7 impose”. might burdens refugees economic particular the worriedabout fewfrom who people arrived affair,protect andstrangers obligation succor accepted to is reason wasno since that, Another “there generally refugees. usually welcomed and,therefore, population growth, favored andmilitary commanders governments central fact that the was in hisopinion, of affairs, astate such for reasons the of time. One 19 foundrefugees web themselves often entirely the outside national of community.” of (ofleast society,wandering wereseenaspart whoat previouscenturies), the poor observed: problem make aroundhow revolved to them again”. deportable refugee the about “all discussions the andthat thirties” the as as early camps interment had offer hadbeen the “the refugees theworld to the only ‘country’ War.She arguedthat of this is Hannah Arendt’s comment regarding the state of refugees after the First World responsibility, has made which legal often hazardous. refugees’ Quitestatus illustrative legal minimizing for a state’s regulations “exclusion”the and“self-protective” stronger aboutbrought control of has, of consequently, “problems”.constructthem It as of national identity influencedand) emergence of“fear” of refugees and the social strengthenedby reassertion imposedonthe for the (need accompanied states obligations leads to the conclusion that the rise of humanitarian concerns in the twentieth century Hannah Arendt, Ibid., p. 8. Ibid., p. 6. th century proves that this category atthe impingenot onEuropean that thisconsciousness did century category proves many respects verynew,inventing and itself reinventing thisover century Europe may seem to be a continent of old states and peoples, yet it is inIn his synthesis of the history of the twentieth century, Mark Mazower also Marrus argues that the absence of a general term to designate refugees until the Origins of Totalitarianism , p.284. 9 8 This, ironically, This, 7 6 CEU eTD Collection 11 10 playedYugoslavia innumber key the accepting highest the role of this process, Greek ideological reasons. for theiror safety wererepatriated who andchildren repercussions fearedfighters who block. were mostly Eastern Communist belonged These the to flee countries that the mostly whohadto to from Greece) Northern (40%), Macedonians includedsignificant (Greeks and population transferthat 90,000people (60%) some a bloody civillasted 1949.war that from 1946 to roleimportant infighting German and Italian Theconflict intooccupying troops. erupted most the played that movements Communist the and America and Britain Great by forces of supported aftermath royal governmental Warbetween SecondWorld the immune these processes. to was not Greece century. the twentieth it. toassimilatein Theseresultedpopulation massivetransfers population or throughout ridminority either of the state get to after in state attempts recurrent of absence meant the means practice, byno put to which to provedbe difficult toparticularly states” national In thisinextricably interspersed. region of“pure various were doctrine ethnicities the Redrawing its, map of perhapspolitical Europe’s in highest,toll took the Balkans, where The Greek Civil Refugees War See Richard Clogg, SeeRichard Mark Mazower, Mark Germans ruled Poles, the English Ireland, France Algeria. Triestegrandmother belonged through often convulsive and political transformation…When my to the was Habsburgs born in andWarsaw, Salonika it wasto the part Ottomans. of the TheTsarist empire, Greek refugees of the Civil War were a result of the confrontation in the Dark Continent: Europe’s 20 A History of Greece of History A , pp. th Century , New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999, p. IX. 11 One of the consequences was a 10 12 7 CEU eTD Collection Memory in the Wake of the Civil War”, inMark Mazower(ed.), After the WarWas Over,… p. 122. 14 13 European Refugees in the Twentieth Century p. 168, University of Washington Press, Seattle & London, 1993; Michael R. Marrus, 12 the states, between relations the to reference with involved, principally of policies issues in the been has historians by shown been has interest what Frequently, countries. international perspective andmostly focus on diplomatic relations of Greece with other whodeal with of authors in the works the peripheral is rather place people, their encounter with new countries and new cultures, establishing new social ties, etc. their of these psychology of the people, i.e.representation a microhistorical perspective”, the Cold War divide. The final possible level of observation of is from illustrative the “frog’scountry a time the at was which Greece, of position geopolitical specific of with its multi-ethnicity and multi-culturalism. Thirdly, can we regard them as a“product“ historical parcel” specificity legacyof of the Europe of of region the the Southeastern and them as “part we can perceive century. Secondly, in twentieth the movements population of trends perspective larger historical from regard these refugees a intobe different put intertwined andmutually frameworks. conceptual Firstly, can we years”. thirty after returned and days three for left “We them: of one by expressed succinctly was people these andin the 1980s for(Macedonians mostly Yugoslav opted Macedonia). The destiny of countries and others returned newhost settled inthe of Anumber refugees most of them were repatriated. Bureau, to Greece only when children,refugees only (morethan 11,000 they were allowed in the late 1970s Riki van Riki Boeschoten, “The Impossible Return: Coping with Separation andthe Reconstruction of Milan Ristovic, See Historical Atlas of East Central Europe Whereas there are quite a few microhistorical studies depicting the life of these life of the depicting studies microhistorical few a quite are there Whereas itcan and one complex very is a War Civil the of refugees Greek issue of The Dug povratak kuci 14 , Beograd: Udruzenje za drustvenu istoriju, 1998,p. 187. , New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. , Paul, RobertMagocsi, “Population movements, 1944-1948”, 13 ). After the confrontation with Information The Unwanted: 8 CEU eTD Collection Godisnjak zadrustvenu istoriju IV/2-3, 1997. 16 Mazower(90-104); S. Troebst, Evacuation toa Cold Country;. Mark and Dalianis Mando War”; Civil ofthe Wake the in ofMemory Reconstruction the and Separation with Coping Return: Impossible “The Boeschoten, example: for see, perspective microhistorical For Committee on the Balkans, 1947-1952 Amikam Nachmani, Studies in thehistory of theGreek Civil War, 1945-1949, 15 community emergedin that Buljkes and circumstances thatsurroundedits existence. exile. the peoplethese during livesdescribe the of madeto has been effort has tackled, been alittle Warconfrontation case.Although issue the of their in position Greek-Yugoslav andrelations in Cold the inup Yugoslavia using Buljkes, an exclusively Greekrefugees’ settlement, asa study conditions. goingas mere politicalrefugees,intoa deeper without analysisof background and their be regarded cannot people of mostthese Thus, region. Balkan the of legacy historical and peculiarity the dueto was present, component ethnical the fleeing war, the Macedonians that led these people toleave their country. Iwould argue that, in case of both Greeks and reasons the of web intricate the disentangle to so, in doing and, developments local and national narrower the understand to if wewant necessary is which a largerscheme, into the Greek Civil War refugees in their works mentioning them at best in a few sentences. of position the analyze to failed indiscriminately almost have changes global of context dealingAuthors a wider with being ofenterprise. refugees not academic focus their the Milan Ristovic’s is the only scholar who has dealt with this issue in his article “Eksperiment Buljkes” in For international perspective see, forexample: Baerentzen, Lars, John O. Iatrides, Ole L. Smith (eds.), In the second section of my thesis I deal with the life of the refugees that ended that refugees the of life the with deal I thesis my of section second the In The purpose of this thesis is to fill the gap placing Greek Civil War refugees International Intervention in Greekthe Civil War. TheUnited Nations Special , New, York :Praeger, 1990. 16 One of my aims is to depict the specific type of Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press, 1987; 15 9 CEU eTD Collection for establishing refugee status everfor refugee establishing Although since. status is it beyond time the of scope the benchmark a standard has as served that andthe one period one inthe post-war accepted Nations Convention of internationally ison thefirst Refugees in1951.It Status the United by the wasaccepted section with this I havestarted that definition refugee. The a of definition aprecise clear and for need faced apressing community international in WorldWarof Second aftermath the the the life and Specifically, between death. make since difference the they can often important, increasingly became “refugee” with. In the twentieth century framework and to define, as precisely as possible, the category of persons I am concerned analytical the willto offer try my I of mainthesis, section the to proceeding Before Everyone has theright toseek and to enjoy in other countries asylum persecution. from Socrates The rightto leave one’s country isanattribute of personal liberty. Refugees Article 2 inthe1951Geneva1A, paragraph unable, orowing tosuchfear,isunwilling to returntoit.” not havinganationality andbeing outside thecountry ofhis former habitualresidence, is who,of theprotectionthat country; of or avail himself owingis unwillingto suchfear to his nationalityandis unable, or group or the of country political opinion,isoutside race, reasonspersecuteda particular religion,nationality, ofmembership for social of shallapplyto...anyThe term“refugee” person who owingwell of toa fear being founded Refugee Defining the 1.1 M CHAPTER 1 ETHODOLOGY – A NALYTICAL definitions andlegislation regarding the ambiguous term F Convention andProtocol Relating totheStatesof RAMEWORK 17 , S OURCES A ND 10 CEU eTD Collection paragraph 2), all betested”. never of can after all creator is safety refugees which the fearforone’s of validity that“the admits asKunz interpretation, a subjective extent This migrants.” voluntary the from them distinguishes and decisions refugee all characterizes which settle elsewhere, to motivations original of positive and absence the uproot oneself, to is reluctance “Itthe of choice. have element same the not do refugees life, for abetter by anothermigrate country opportunities to luredimmigrants maybe to decision. migration influence the or stimulate i.e.factorsis that “push andfactors”, two toolspull examining in the differentiating main analytical the Oneof debate. political and lot of a academic to been subject a have andthey aresometimes very questionable immigrants and between refugees differentiate regrouping of migrant communities five components of migration”, in Nicholas Van Hear, 19 Forced Migration in Central andEastern Europe, 1939-1950, 18 17 go to decision the analysis final in the but return of myth the “cherish who immigrants, thus valid for the topic of fleeforce issettlement to thecountry permanentof Kunz’s undeniable. suggestions are my thesis, as well as Joly’s in wouldfear arguethat, caseof Warforthe life one’s Civil refugees, amotivational as and Cohen’s distinction between and genocide. cleansing, ethnic deportations, resettlements, migrations, which,from apart include populationthem, transfers, expulsions, time. formulated notion the at of experience and post-War Europe’s refugees prevailing of the aresult it as emerged because relevant israther it my still of thesis, subject See “Table 2.1: Force and choice in outward and return migrations” and “Table 2.2: Force and choice in choice and Force 2.2: “Table and migrations” return and outward in choice and Force 2.1: See“Table For ashort survey and definitions of these types of forced population transfers see: Alfred J. Rieber, Convention andProtocol Relating to theStates of Refugees As opposed to voluntary migration, refugees are classified under forced under classified are refugees migration, voluntary to opposed As The American Journalof InternationalLaw, , RRRR, p.42 and p. 44. New Diasporas. The mass exodus, dispersal and Vol.63, No. 2(April, 1969), p. 390. 19 (1951 Geneva Convention, Article 1A, E. F. Kunz argues that whereas F. Kunz arguesthat E. …, p. 3. 18 The criteria that 20 However, I However, is to an 11 CEU eTD Collection Crisis in the Developing World 23 international perspectives Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Migration Research.Interdisciplinary, intergenerational and Factors” in Andreas Demuth,“Some Conceptual Thoughts on Migration Research”Biko in Agozino (ed.), 22 1989, p. 6. 21 136. 20 for laws acceptinginternational political are. refugees the what is and refugee apolitical what and ethnic an what makeclear to need in accordingisstatus this was granted Yugoslavia there to classification. a Therefore, and andacceptance their as refugees formally political still they However, regarded were is more conspicuous. even ethnicity theissueof Macedonians 1920s; incaseof Slav in Turkey the between Greece and forced population transfer on Lausanne agreementthe and them between is continuity an obvious there fled country the who caseof Greeks the they were formally political refugees they can be interpreted as ethnic refugees as well: in though even instance, in specific this arguethat Iwill refugees. aspolitical were regarded stateless. the or minorities national due to being persecution are persecuted and thosewho political religious persecution, amongtypology refugees Weisof delineated. differentiate whoarevictims of refugees danger” “Safe factor and pull Haven:survival”. home is less feasible”. home “the remains within andrefugees,for whom their possibility control” returning of refugees are regarded as areregarded refugees leaving one’scountry,itis whether ethnic orreligious fightfor waror Civil power. War for reasons Waris one Civil of ofmigration, legitimate the causes man-made defined See Aristide R. Zolberg, Astri Suhrke, Sergio Aguayao, See “Figure 2.2: Forced vs. Voluntary Migration” and “Table 2.2: Forced Migration: Push and Pull Daniele Joly and Robin Cohen (eds.), E. F. Kunz, “The Refugee in Flight”, the which to according persecution of nature the isissue important Another , Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2000, p. 35 and p. 37. 21 de facto According to the Article 33 of Geneva Convention, which , New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 5-16. International Migration Review ReluctantHosts: Europeand Its Refugees inrefugees, pushfactor mortal their casebeing“War: 23 The main concern of my thesis are persons who persons are my thesis of concern main The 22 Escape fromViolence: Conflict and the Refugee , Vol.7 (Summer 1973), pp. 130- , Aldershot: Avebury, Aldershot: , 12 CEU eTD Collection International Law 27 26 25 24 origin”. of exceptionlaw some needed nationality different of persons untilthat institutions, legal of protection full or unless they were“only nationals couldbe citizens, only people of the samenational could enjoy origin the completely assimilatedShe argued that in the system nationof states it was implied from the very beginning that and divorced from their uprooted as a resultuprooted of militarypolitical, ideological or since dispute the FirstWorldWar of state”. any other protection diplomatic or nationality the acquired not have and protection diplomatic been forcedor left have who to“those one: leavefollowing the was in 1936 Conference Brussels the their at Law country for political reasons, who have misfits. political into turned only,werethus tonations minorities guaranteed the been deprived of theits doctrine of nationally guaranteed rights cameAs to be equatedcountry). with theneighbouring notion the of of rights nationality (often lived they in which state the of that stateless. and the minorities“victim the groups, two emerged of which generated enormous tension,out homogeneous political entities. The gap between the formula and the social realities inextricably interspersed thatit impossibleproved toform viable, ethnically so were ethnicities different in which states, Balkan the of case the not than often more Louise W. Holborn, “The Legal Status of PoliticalRefugees, 1920-1938, Ibid., p. 268. Ibid., p. 275. Hannah Arendt, myHannah Arendt’stheory of is study.ethnic to refugees applicable rather case International of Institute bythe adopted refugee political a of Legal definition 24 It proved very difficult to apply this formula in multi-ethnical states, which was which states, multi-ethnical in formula this apply to difficult very proved It , Vol. 32, No. 4 (October 1938), p. 680. The Origins of Totalitarianism 27 25 Wander claimed in at least 1951 that seventy million hadbeen persons The minorities were persons insisting on a nationality different from different anationality on insisting persons were minorities The , New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973, p. 290. p. 1973, Jovanovich, Brace Harcourt York: New , The American Journal of 26 13 CEU eTD Collection 31 30 1968), p. 822. 29 Review place and lays and place fundamental for it protection in surviveone sincehim enables of a refugee, theto first 28 1967: ArticlesThese supplemented byArticlewere 3,paragraph 2312in 2 of Resolution the Also Article 13, paragraph 2, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares: by adopted Generalthe Assembly in 1948. Article 14states that: basic human rights are embodied in the United Nations DeclarationThese of asylum. Human for Rights, right the or country another enter to freedom the and Carta, Magna in the law national into incorporated time first the for was which country, one’s leave emigrants”. as political but sense, narrower inthe as belonger displaced noupon refugees or persons and looked as “theycan that Ibid., p. 823. Ibid., p. 822. United Nations: Territorial Asylum, Wander 1951 in Gunther Beyer, “The Political Refugee: 35 Years Later”, Years 35 Refugee: Political “The Beyer, Gunther in 1951 Wander , Vol. 15, No. 1 / 2, Refugees Today. (Spring-Summer, 1981), p. 26. Asylum is one of the oldest institutions of the international law and the and law international the of institutions oldest the of one is Asylum be subjected topersecution be subjected seeks asylum, expulsionhe or compulsory inwhich return to any territory state wherethe he may entered already has if he or, frontier the at measures such to rejection be as person to…shall subjected No referred return to his country. Everyone has the right to leave any countryNations United the of principles and includingarising his own from andnon-politicalmay2. Thisbe not right invoked inthe genuinelycase of prosecutions to crimes or from acts contrary to the1. purposes to freedom the – fundamental is movement of freedom refugees political For asylum from from asylum persecution, countries other in enjoy to and seek to right the has Everyone ipso facto, ipso 30 and sometimes and The American Journal of International Law . 31 28 . 29 ipso jure, ipso the basis for any further action further for any the basis International Migration , Vol. 62, No. 3. (July, 14 CEU eTD Collection Issue onMinorities in German Culture. (Winter, 1989),pp. 141-154. 34 No. 4.(Winter, 1977), pp. 514-523. 33 Review the link between the individual and international law: international and individual the between link the as isconsidered nationality law international in classic that fact the to is due this view, complex and often impossible process. According to Paul Weiss, from the legal point of 32 people. acceptthesemassesof narrow a gateway haveto too been nation-states of institutions the that fact the been has policy asylum of determinant important other The with. deal to had one that individuals not and people of masses usually was it thus, and, expulsions violent of aresult been usually have refugees modern Firstly, century. twentieth the authors this discrepancy stems from important characteristics of refugee movements in some asylums Accordingnumber it numberof the seeking of those to andgranted. the between discrepancy huge a been has there that and enough often accorded been not vastof numbersof refugees. relief immediate the for basis beenthe has and practiced widely been has of origin state protection to politicalasylee. the to relevant refugees and refuse to expatriate them even on demand of their See Alfons Sollner, Brian D. Urquhart, “The Politics of Asylum”, Gaynor I. Jacobson, “The Refugee Movement: An Overview”, An Movement: Refugee “The I. Jacobson, Gaynor See Gilbert Jaeger, “Refugee Asylum: Policy and Legislative Developments”, Legislative and Policy Asylum: “Refugee Jaeger, SeeGilbert , Vol.15, No., ½,Refugees Today.(Spring-Summer, 1981), p.52. 34 Therefore, in practice, the fulfillment of the basic human right for asylum is a is asylum for right human basic the of fulfillment the in practice, Therefore, refugees and stateless persons who have been called have been who persons stateless and refugees in of case the would,therefore, It character. of their refugee element which isdetermining byastate a but of absence the protection status nationality their not is It not. or stateless be may broken…Refugees it notaffective,has linkbeen is this In caseof refugee, the the speak of to more proper flag’,be sailing not underany sea open the ‘a vessel on de facto 32 The right of asylum, by which a state can accord hospitality and hospitality can accord by which a state Theright of asylum, and 33 Nonetheless, it has often been asserted that this right has right this that asserted been often has it Nonetheless, de jure unprotected unprotected persons. International Migration Review New German Critique 35 flotsam, res nullius flotsam, International Migration , No. 46, Special , Vol. 11, , 15 CEU eTD Collection 35 Greece between role conciliatory of implementation and problems political of discussion forinstalling assembling, and operating the observation groups; secondthe onefor first the one wereappointed: subcommittees additional In December 1947three conflict. global a Balkanor into turn warand acivil remain would conflictthe guarantee that was supposedto UNsupervision the Greekguerillatheir forces.The to assistance Greece’s relations its with neighboring Yugoslavia, states Bulgaria andAlbania regarding was committee in active andits until period maintaskwasobservation the of 1952 General Assembly. The initiative came from America and it was tolerated by Russia. The Special Committee on the Balkans (UNSCOB) law. international tothe relegated that as amatter rather in October 1947 by a resolution beof solely,affair regarded couldinternal notof Yugoslav refugees the butas an state of the acceptance the United Nations of the members of the wasone since Yugoslavia However, of democracy. people’s astate for establishing “monarcho-fascists” struggle against communist the helping of obligation an as and solidarity communist international Greek of communistsgranting asagesture to regarded asylum Yugoslavia, therefore, andviceversa. persecution due states to European whofledEastern theiremigrants non-communistaccept to weremorethan countries willing sincetherefugees, Western of certain categories to be helpful to time proved at the existent West and the East the interests. geopolitical conflicting or legislations different to due asylum, consensus granting of territorial onthe the universal wasnothingthere close to fact that by the aggravated was additionally situation the with I am concerned that period Atthe Paul Weiss, “The International Protection ofRefugees”, Protection International “The Weiss, Paul The UN was introduced into the Greek Civil War by establishment of the UN In this situation, not surprisingly, the Cold War ideological ideological the Cold between notsurprisingly, War this situation, In cleavage The American Journalof InternationalLaw , 16 CEU eTD Collection pp. 32-44. Nations Special Committee on the Balkans, 1947-1952 36 Vol.48,No. 2. (April, 1954, pp. 193-221. time and involvementYugoslav in Greek the Civil War. atthe question Macedonian of the account detailed alsooffersIt arather Macedonians. Buljkesthe refugees sentto UNSecuritythe Council and statements numerous of Slav Buljkes settlement and the organization of social life in it, as well as the Memorandum of 1973.1944 Theto last fond be proved veryto useful since itcontainedinformation about importantly onAegean Materials and in Greek Refugees Macedonia from period the relations with the Yugoslav regime, documents on EAM and ELAS, and most Among these, there are the documents on the Communist Party of Greece and its relations. Yugoslav-Greek regarding Relations International for Commission the of Fond of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. Iused materials are of The primary Iuse documents The Archives of the Serbia andsources Montenegro, 1.2 Sources question refugeesof minorities.and minorities –its duty interrogatingwas refugees and preparing studies occasional of the andneighboring 3 Sub-Committee the countries. was and for refugees responsible For more details see Amikam Nachmani, Amikam see details more For 36 International Intervention in the Greek Civil War. The United , New York : Praeger, 1990 17 CEU eTD Collection 38 5. 37 isof conceptemerged.Amongmostby the prominentthe oneoffered the interpretations asdifferent one comparative and a multidisciplinary into since developed has filed of research The History”. inFrontier American of the essay “TheSignificance thesis. the throughout a brief survey of the maindefinition of the aforementionedtheories elusive concepts. My intention here is, therefore,and to offer interpretations come to and of this content the andbetween dialogue precise upwith exact an attempt an of these Myconcepts slightly that I rely unorthodoxon openingShakespeare Polonius of theHamlet: subchapterPolonius Hamlet is Polonius due to Hamlet the resemblance1.3 Frontiers, Borderlands andSymbolic Geography I find field has been the shift “from line and place to process, symbol and mythology”. in the development main the Thus, context. social and linguistic of in terms frontiers and latest between imaginary The trends arethose of space borders redefining of civilizations. approach stemmed from the emergence of the symbolic geographies,i. e. the construction Another model). Jacobin or French the to (it according developed state of centralized the with rise connected the concept spatial the emphasizes Febvre, who Lucien particularly Alfred J. Rieber, “Frontiers inHistory”, From George Schopflin, George From in frontiers Turner’s thefield wasFrederick Jackson studying of work seminal The : Methinks itis like a weasel. : Doyou seeyonder cloud that’s almost in the shape ofa camel? Or like a whale? : Very like awhale. like : Very weasel. a backed like is : It : By the mass, and ‘tis like a camel indeed. , Hamlet, III. ii.401-6 Politics in Eastern Europe: 1945-1992, 37 International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Social of Encyclopedia International Oxford, Cambridge: Blackwell, 1993, p. , pp. 5813-5817. 38 Annales 18 , CEU eTD Collection features of the three often overlapping. The common characteristic of is “the all of three characteristic common The overlapping. often three of the features 42 41 40 27.03.2007 Perspectives”, 39 frontiers” symbolic and settlements; advancing of frontiers dynamic frontiers; 3) 2) 1) heroic mission,of cradles ideological or myths”. frontier represents “the dividing line between civilization and barbarism, sites of religious colonization,through resettlement, anddeportation) symbol. and Symbolically, the peoples of movement (the process states), or empires rival lands between contested (the space linearsignifies whichboundary, to frontieropposed concept, asadynamic He sees linguistic,in religious or, nineteenththe and twentieth nationalcenturies justification.” ethno- lacking clear-cut migration, and exchange cross-cultural activity, military boundaries, moving rather than well established, shifting highly contested, sitesintense of Ibid., p. 5813. Rieber, “Frontiers in History”,p. 5815. Rieber, “The Comparative Ecology of Complex Frontiers”, p. 178. Cross-cultural and Comparative from of Borderlands Phenomenon the “Analyzing A. Mears, John Alfred J. Rieber defines frontiers as “broad bands and zones rather than linear than rather zones and bands “broad as frontiers defines Rieber J. Alfred state “consolidated – frontiers of types different three among distinguishes He was variable and potentially reversible… it because more stage complex latter, the and society of intrusive the representatives operational,the former of by opening process and closing, the the dated arrival of the and, intrusive; other the and indigenous one societies, previously distinct between two interpretation of the in cultural, terms the resources; and attractiveness capacities, carrying different line with than a rather asazone - conceived geographical-territorial the Rieber also identifies the three essential components of each frontier society: http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/mears.html#_edneref 41 40 , 42 – the – 19 39 CEU eTD Collection the political political the divide” regional elites, the common folk, and the two state governments whose authority meets at interaction between of by shaped in relationships transnational patterns part complicated of analysis”.furthermore, Theymaintain,“unique thatborderlands represent cross-border perspective, in which the region on both sides of a border is taken as the unit World History World 46 Vol.104,No. 4(October1999), pp. 1222,1224, Rieber, in and nineteenth century. They reject the reject They century. nineteenth and eighteenth in the nation-states modern of emergence the with “problem” a as emerged borderlands that argue They well. as useful, analysis Schendel’s Van Willem and 45 44 accessed on21 May 2007. Perspectives”, 43 context”. multi-national] more recently [or multi-imperial greater bya arebound together cultures “as peoplesof different aplace whereautonomous borderland a of understanding Haefeli’s Evan with agrees perception This states. national of different “frontiers” the among intersection of zones the designate to term borderland growth” has been the one represented by its name plus the attribute “Greater”. I use the limit and “optimal each states’ the of spacewhere Balkan the isto applicable This theory systems thatrepresented theirlimit optimal and growth’” as opposed borderlands. to distinction of frontiers as “the outer limit of zones on the margins of socioeconomic differentiated from that of a frontier. In the third chapter I use Owen Latimore’s divide them”. to presumes that line imaginary real the of sides both on exchange and influence of zones of existence Michel Baud and Willem Van Schendel, “Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands”, History aComparative “Toward Schendel, Van Willem and Baud Michel Evan Haefeli, “A Note on the Use of North American Borderlands”, Ibid. Cross-cultural and Comparative from of Borderlands Phenomenon the “Analyzing Rieber, J. Alfred A number of scholars argue that the concept of a borderland must be carefully bemust borderland a of concept the that argue scholars of number A , Vol. 8, No. 2 (Fall 1997), p. 216, in Rieber, op. cit. http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/mears.html#_edneref2 46 . 43 Annales Analyzing thePhenomenon of Borderlands. state-centered approach and adopt “a approach adopt and state-centered The American Historical Review 45 Ifound Baud Michel Journal of , , 20 44 CEU eTD Collection Europe du Centre-Est. Eine wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift 48 Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1994. Press, 1989; Michael D. Kennedy (ed.), Press, 1994; George Schoepflin and Nancy Wood (eds.), Europe. The Map of Civilization on the mind of theEnlightenment notions of symbolic geographies of Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe and the Balkans see: Maria see: Balkans the and Todorova, Europe Southeastern Europe, of Eastern geographies of symbolic notions Conceptions of theOrient, networks of meaning inwhichitplays different often andquite farfrom commensurate systems of categories. Thus, Europe can be arguesthat regions as perceived Maria should space. specific Todorova geo-cultural be thought of as “the nexus of several complex geographies”. sacred/mythical/eschatological of rediscovery neuro-sciences...the and cognitive inthe turn mental mapping,facilitated by on collective identities…discussions a social and cultural andlocality, spatiality, in (dis)location, the and territoriality individual study of and 47 Other” the knowing scholarly monographs with political open tracts…forced authoritativethe modes of andcross-hatching events, as literary historical and theorethical readingtexts Occident, ones. concept the upon of symbolic geographies, which all encompasses aforementionedthe briefly touch need to I frontiers, symbolic the and Balkans” “the Europe”, “Southeastern in 1978. field in the work seminal Said’s Edward influenceof theworld the andunder of forrepresentations hegemonic previous claims all whichthe shattered of latecritiques moderndiscourses andpostmodern influence of Sorin Antohi, “Introduction: Symbolic Geographies, Comparative Histories”, in For the literature on the notion of notion the on literature the For 47 Symbolicnamely, geography, developed asatransdisciplinary field under the delimita to is geography symbolic with dealing scholars of aim primary The Before I proceed to the next chapter in which I deal with notions of notions with deal I which in chapter next the to proceed I Before 48 Imagining the Balkans Said’s book by“unsettling Said’s book between and the Orientthe oppositions received 49 . The latest trends have been dominated by “the insistence onspace by“the insistence beendominated have . The latest trends Penguin Books, 1978, as the seminal work inthe field.For specificmore , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997;Larry Wolff, symbolic geography Envisioning Eastern Europe. Postcommunist Cultural Studies Orientalism. WesternOrientalism. Conceptions oftheOrient 50 , Vol. 32, 2005/ 1-2, p. 1. see: Edward Said, Edward see: In Search of Eastern Europe , Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Stanford Calif: Stanford, , Orientalism. Western Orientalism. East Central Europe/L’ , Cambridge: Polity Inventing Eastern , Ann 21 CEU eTD Collection and its discursive sub-division to fit the European vision. scholars –“textualizing the world” –which refers mental tothe construction of globe the a largeterm tothepost-colonialist term extentwith coincides coined bynon-European http://abimpero.net/scgi-bin/aishow.pl?state=showa&idart=636&idlang=1&Code= 54 53 52 Centre-Est. Eine wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift apparatus by which facts are ordered”, andis by which “implicit are facts shaping device” ordered”, an apparatus which well. as moral, or political meaning tothe andorder world”; only mathematical, arenot maythey but bespiritual, which impressionswe putour inthe ofthe life-longcourse human give attempt to circumstances. ideological politiciansspecific and “Western” maps” of “mental the interplay with their of results the and Balkans the of legacies historical specific the into detail more of conscious choices of the elements from the past. In the following chapter I will look in lack the by and history by bequeathed is that bad the and good the both of encompassing from are in distinct andlegacies.Legacies traditions historical traditions periods, their overlooked. Todorova sees a region as a complex product of the interplay of different 51 50 55 2007. 49 ideal” an of increasingly, and, idea, intellectual and historical of powerhouse, andalso administrative economic of areabut roles:geographic of symbolic geography is that of mental maps, seen as “ seen maps, mental of is that geography symbolic Rieber, “Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers: A Comparative Historical Approach”, Historical Comparative A of Frontiers: Constructions and Concepts “Changing Rieber, Ibid. Ibid. Maria Todorova, “Spacing Europe: What is a Historical Region?”, in Antohi, op. cit. p. 2. Todorova, “Spacing Europe”, pp. 66-68. pp. Europe”, “Spacing Todorova, Gyan Prakash, “ Nevertheless, there is the notion of actual historical legacies, which cannot be cannot which legacies, historical actual of notion is the there Nevertheless, 55 Orientalism Now”, 52 Hayden White characterizes a mental map a mental Whiteasa“conceptual characterizes Hayden History and Theory, , Vol. 32,2005/ 1-2,p. 64. Vol. 34, No. 3, 1995, p. 199. recipes 54 East Central Europe/ L’ Europe du 51 , . An important concept in forms , accessed on 21 May , or schemata 53 . The . into 22 CEU eTD Collection assumed to set this region apart from Europe as “the Balkans”. The most important most as“theThe Balkans”. from Europe apart set this region assumed to traditions uniquelyconfrontationaland with nationalism legacies is ethnic that often is, Southeastern interplay of indeed,Europe historical its acomplex the product of Emil Cioran cataclysms past or imminent; theirs is theidleness of insomniacs or assassins… devastation, for internal chaos, aworld likea bordello in flames; their sardonic perspective on And what abouttheBalkans? I don’t mean to defend them, norignore their merits. Their tastefor Each fifty years a war breaksout. And everybody can be avillain or a brother, An utter enigma to the whole world, This is the Balkans, a sweet-smelling flower, And bydifferent Gods alike. This land was created bywarriors and poets, And each fiftyyears a war breaksout. Here everybody can beavillain or a brother, Among thestrong walls,between thegoodand the evil, This is the Balkans, aland of dreams, F M R London: Weidenfeld andNicolson, 1989, p. 21. 57 differently) specified unless text, the in elsewhere as well as mine, is Serbian from (translation world”. whole “the from apart set it which Balkans the of specificity 56 * The phrase is taken from Jane Kramer, C – 2 CHAPTER Emil Cioran, reference form “Russia and the Virus of Freedom” in Jacques Rupnik, Jacques in ofFreedom” Virus the and “Russia form reference Cioran, Emil Lyrics of the song ALLEN EFUGEES ACEDONIAN I NTO : T Ovo jeovde Balkan T HE B HE ORDERLAND ONTEXTUALIZING I RON C RACKS 56 C by Unsettling Europe URTAIN Bajaga Bajaga i instruktori O A F ND H , G ISTORY T T , New York, 1981, p. xiii, inMarrus, p. 12. REEK HE HE emphasize the antive’s notionof the “P G F ”* REEK EOPLE RONTIER C W IVIL The Other Europe 57 HO , W H AR AVE , 23 CEU eTD Collection the Second WorldWar. Second the additional burden to the region was the emergenceThe territory. of with thematched be Cold should War divide ethnicity which to in theaccording model wake of nation-state European Western the according to space political shape Southeastern to the attempts populationmassive about brought intervention, foreign and transfers region the of dynamics internal during of interplay the The eversince. conflicts ethnic be of toasource numerous proved the two world worlds and their aftermaths, as a result of to incorporate all of emerged nineteenth-century in model Europe, nation-state the a diversity to compared of the Ottoman and Habsburg ethnic with expandedgreater WarnewWorldfive states or After First the on side. either territories. other and too far from the Ottoman or Habsburg cores for a single administrative regime from each disconnected imperial acollection of borders, represented period early modern 59 Europe (eds.), Mazower Mark and 58 intolerance” and religious advantages, political with connections, its Atlantic Europe from Northwestern tolerance, –“Ottomanof legacy Europe military political corruption,domination, religious and of The Ottoman elements are usually perceived as the ones which distinguish it from the rest legacies. andthe Byzantine Ottoman inhistory were the region the factors of shaping the Ibid. JohnR. Lampe, “Reconnecting the Twentieth-century Histories of Southeastern Europe, in John Lampe , Budapest: Central EuropeanUniversity Press, 2004. Ideologies and National Identities.The Case of Twentieth-Century Southeastern 58 . Another important factor is the fact that this region in the 59 The ethnic divisions have divisions ethnic The 24 CEU eTD Collection 61 Committee on theBalkans, 1947-1952, New York :Praeger, 1990, p.6. 60 Greek northern tothe ELAS retreated and of EAM The remnants weapons. all surrender be known as “whitecommitment to pardon the members of EAM and ELAS and unleashedterror”. what has come to itsabide failed to to government the However, February 1945. of Varkizathe agreement Nor didwith a massive thesupport from the British, crushedLeft ELAS. The conflict was to be settledfully formedby in inMay1944,but the civilwarDecember openly The Greek army,erupted. compliedwas government in Greece.Acoalition takeover feared Communist who British, the with its by was EDES) Syndesmos,supported Dimokratikos Ellinikos Greek League or (Ethnikos obligation Republican National resistancebody,the right-wing 1943 arival From were established. to National People’s LiberationArmy (Ethnikos Laikos Apelevtherotikos Stratos, or ELAS) Liberation(Ethnikon Front Apelevtherotikonor EAM) andbody,Stratos, aguerrilla the Greece (Kommounistiko Komma tis Elladas,country. or KKE). Under its umbrella, theThe NationalBulgarians in May 1941. After the occupation, King the anditsleft government the first resistance and the Germans theItalians, between partitioned and wasoccupied Greece Balkans, the movementafter Germanforces hadbut the invasion repulsed, Italy. sweptthrough Italian was The was in by intheWorldGreece became October WarII1940when it embroiled attacked was organized by the Communistincapable of managing their own affairs. The establishment of UNSCOB was aproduct of the USconviction that the Greeks were Party of wayoflife. Greek Apparently, only when they accepted theabnormalas normal were they abletounderstand the Context Ideological and - Political War Civil Geek The 2.1 Ibid., p. 37. Special Nations United the War: Civil Greek inthe Intervention International Nachmani, Amikam 60 61 25 CEU eTD Collection 1996. (ed.), 62 Hungary,in 75 percent Bulgaria and 90percentin Romania. be known as the percentagewhat came to to According influence. spheresof postwar the sharing when earlier years agreement he offeredline was, with with sketched himselfStalin by an together four of air ease, Churchill Stalin 50 percentAndthe establish“totalitarian were society. over tryingcontrol” troops, to by Soviet the in Yugoslavia and backed in Communists, which all states “The were Other” beyond line. the “the Other” with along created was frontier ideological symbolic Thus,a of States Europe”. Eastern divided themitdarken was landsthe in to possible behind, or “theseChurchill’s words EuropeandBycamps –Eastern Europe. Western line drawing curtain the the on that ideologically Europeas opposing two mental/symbolical of re-mapping the encapsulated 1946 speech Winston Churchill Inhisfamous Continent.” the descended across hiscut supporttotheGreekCommunists. 1948clashclosedthe Yugoslavia and between and Tito theafter USSR and borders the Greek right-wingfrom British.the The war ended KKE after the sidedwith Stalin during by andminorities,over aiding or Americans enacted pressure” took outside the was forfree resisting “support by subjugation Doctrine whowere of attempted peoples armed was of onset the bloodiestthe third of Civil round Greek the War.In1947 Truman It Albania. and Bulgaria Yugoslavia, of regimes Communist the by assisted were They themselves the Greek Democratic Army (GDA) and were renamed 1946they under In December from there. warfareguerrilla conduct mountains to the control of the KKE. 63 126-141. Richardand Clogg, See John O.Iatrides, “Civil War, 1945-1949: National and International Aspects, inJohn O.Iatrides See John Lewis SeeJohn Gaddis, Greece in the1940s: NationA in Crisis has iron curtain Adriatic, an in Trieste the Baltic to inthe “From Stettin A Concise History of Greece of History A Concise We Know Now: Rethinking Cold War History , Hanover :University Press of New England, 1981, p. 207 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press,c1992, pp. 62 , Oxford: Oxford University Press, University Oxford , Oxford: 63 High in percentages 26 CEU eTD Collection 64 and simplified West’s” “the of illustration excellent an is It “civilizations”. two the of tobe British,proved the atdiscrepancy reality with the duringmeetings of theactual cause. theirsupport had to one no very and forgotten quickly they were andGreece, Yugoslavia between thawing the yet,after of relations Yugoslavia; blackmailing a meansof could beusedas they as long as affair international an as regarded were they respect: in this example carelessness partof the on Western politicians. TheGreekCivil Refugees areagood andresponsibility Balkans’realities basicthe of understanding lack of the concerning my to argument which isconnected sofar and beenneglected believe, has I that, have been substantially analyzed. In the following,free.” I would likeIn 1946 Churchill maintained that:“Athens alone – Greece with its immortal glories – is to point to one aspectpolitical traditions Western and of Europe the Communist countries in its surroundings. symbolic between frontier Wara Cold became Greece Consequently, in state. power the The over policy inbe Communists period. couldnot allowed the after-war totake the foreign Britain’s of main oneof preoccupations the Warwas GreekCivil outcome of the escape Sovietcontrol, withThe to together andTurkey Yugoslavia. countries European fewSoutheastern the wasamong Greece importance, its geostrategic Thus, dueto intheMediterranean. lineinfluence its of strategic political and military continuity the of for the andzone Britain’sinfluencewas important which Great traditionally represented in“payment”Bulgaria forChurchill’s 90percentsGreece, were Romania and which Winston Churchill, “The Iron Curtain”, 64 In this subchapter, I argue that Churchill’s idealization of Greece, so characteristic so of Greece, idealization Churchill’s I arguethat subchapter, In this War intheCold place Greece’s War and intheGreekCivil intervention Foreign Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat: The Speeches of Winston 27 CEU eTD Collection Intervention in the Greek Civil War 65 Churchill of British and American officials being appalledwith “inherentGreek defects” onwhich me.struck that account ofthis matter-of-factness sheer the was hardship.Nachmani Greekmentality as evidencetheir It of theiron comments takes people metwith during the Commission’s in work Greece, the historian Amikam these obstacles the mentality. Describing of Greek perception theWestern of evidence stunning across comes one documents, these through Going in Greece. observers in sense. and tentatively a metaphorical quite term “barbarian” “barbarian” world. Aware of the possible connotations, line civilized andthe conditionsthe between –the to European differentiating I want to point out that I use the ideological one –the frontier understood in the F. Turner’s sense of the word, but applied War from Cold the different frontier, of type an older of the role played country the of Greece, representation in symbolic that, Western the I argue legacies. historical with its specific state asaBalkan Greece and perception Western Greece as between implementation by it Western simpleinfree”of putting andon Europe themapof symbolic attempts the of a Western political immortal “theof process the landglories setting of hindrance to aconsiderable presented system. I in case Greece, this of region, the legacy historical specific Ifindthatthe Namely, will try to document interesting. bestill can but aminor role, which played theaspect out point like to rather the discrepancystake duringWar. Iwould ideological were clearly political the Cold at gainsthat and uninformed notion of Balkans.the My isattention not tobelittle the primacy of the See Chapter 3, “The Observers Reports and the Hardships of Observation”, in Nachmani, in of Observation”, Hardships the and Reports Observers “The 3, SeeChapter In order to document this perception, Iwill use the records to the UNSCOB , ed., David Cannadine,Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989, pp. 303-5. , pp. 59-76. 65 There ismany evidencean International 28 CEU eTD Collection controlled only only controlled by a dictatorship: one British ambassador to contemplate on the possibility thatit maybe couldbe world” high by competence forthe GreekGovernment the this partof standardsthe of too or methodsor onthismercurial and semi-Oriental standards people” British impose to try we if “wrong be may it that conclude to officials British a politician”. from statesman distinguishes the that matter of gray 10percent extra “thatlacking as was characterized Konstantin Tsaldaris, the leader of the Greek Right and the minister of foreign affairs 371/66994/R143,Nachmani, in p. 7. 70 69 68 Athens, to Ernest Bevin,25 February 1948,FO 371/72240/R2576, in Nachmani, p. 6. 67 66 country during the Civil War. Amikam Nachmani states that: they blamed theinefficiency and,Greek politicians of subsequently crisesthe in the Sir Clifford Norton, British Ambassador to Athens, to Ernest Bevin, 3 January Paul Porter1947, PRO, to FODept. of State, Athens, 17 February 1947, Ethridge Papers, no. 3842,AmbassadorNorton in to Bevin, Nachmani, 3January 1947, PRO, FO p. 371/66994/R143,9. IN Nachmani, p. 9. British Embassy, Athens, to Foreign Office, 2April 1948, PRO, FO371/72241/R4690; British Embassy, Nachmani, p. 6. 69 Nevertheless, the shock caused by the encounter with the Greek mentality led mentality Greek the with encounter the by caused shock the Nevertheless, . defects of the Greek character beminimized. of defects Greekcharacter the agree with those who hold that only under a totalitarian regime can the such evidencebe be suppressed. Irefusesuch to a pessimist asto Communists…Only Left under atotalitarian regimeor Right of could lesser degree, and this is all to the advantage of the or in greater exist will things these democratic truly Greece remains political persecution lack of andlong planning andcontrol. So as corruption, evasion, incompetence, muddle, of who seekevidence hunting-ground those its for bestEven atGreecewill afford ahappy problems were attributed to inalterable Greekcharacteristics. to problems wereattributed the of many and improvement, of chances slim the and in Greece situation the regarding shibboleth prevalent the was Incorrigibility officials. American and British among distaste, and dislike as well despair, as helplessness moveand asense of government produced in manifest each incompetence the internal and politics Greek 67 Disappointment with Greek political reality led some led reality political Greek with Disappointment 70 68 and thatthey “may be judging 66 29 CEU eTD Collection 71 standards. Western the to ascompared Balkans of the “primitivism” and backwardness the also but wasnot only Communist “darkness”behindthe curtain threat, out turned that the the world,the amission of bringing into“darkness”. “light” Perhaps, totheir surprise, it case of the US officials, this was in accordance with its white-and-black Puritan vision of the aswell. In “side-effect”, asa mission, acivilizing they were conducting that belief interests. this, political Western bythe for fighting noof matter a means, as simply not involvement their wasperceived the primary they aim, culture, and mentality Greek but with interaction it their and seemsGreece in officials their to me that they held the country. normal British exercise in duty and Americanof representatives the politicalto control it in would be be the Greece, sincecrises will always there political well. However, patronizingly concluded thatGreekshave qualities such freedom as and individualism, as isauthoritarianism theonlycureforis “barbarians” stunning.the Theambassador “hold”fact that they the in with way,this coupled matters discuss can position, inahigh andsomeone that someone, fact “barbarians”. The towards andAmericans of this passageI believe attitude the British suggestively short “civilized” the that depicts Ibid. My personal point of view is that, for the West, due to the practical of experience practical for theWest,dueto view isof that, My personal point 71 30 CEU eTD Collection 1) higher levels of repressive transfers in the region than in the rest of Europe: influencedmajor Alfred four factors indicates the that Europe, Southeastern J.Rieber and Eastern transfersinCentral, population of historical overview repressive that shook the region of Southeastern EuropeGreek-Turkish population exchange andthe Greek Civil War refugees. recurrently in themovements twentiethin the twentieth century Greecepopulation – the two the refugees between century. that continuity the were show to a resulttry would I of the section this 1920s In connected? In a are how flee two CivilSo, these War. villagehad during the refugee who to his Greek by a real uttered was sentence second The century. half twentieth firstthe of the herother whole Aggelopoulos history depicts life,tragic Greek and its in refugee odyssey the to moves place from one who (Ellada)), Greece for metaphor sheis a that indicates name (whose Eleni of destiny the through tragedy, Greek a of form the In thesis. the in section topicthe of of This filmillustrates this 1919. refugee from BlackSeacoast the Aggelopoulos’ film Theo from is one first The randomly. chosen been not have quotes two above The years. thirty after returned and days forthree left We Angelopulos’ in Theo Spyros, Then theman said: “A cloud of smoke rose and the beloved citydisappeared”. As they left onthelastship,they could stillhearcries ofdesperation, namesinthe wind, gunfire. Ethnicity 2.2. The Peculiarity of the Region and The Greek Civil War Refugees of Greek nomadic incursions from Asia well into the seventeenth century; seventeenth the into well Asia from incursions nomadic a longer of period instability by which was caused region exposureof the the to Both groups of abroader Both groups wave of refugees belongrepressive population to transfers The Weeping Meadow Trilogia: Tolivadi pou dakrizei , and is pronounced by Spyros, a Greek 72 31 CEU eTD Collection Civilizations” inSoutheastern Europe”, in 74 Cass, 2000,pp. 1-27. 73 72 in regionunfair tothe time...is with itethnicand…carries assumptionthe that pluralism which isEurope breakoutinto inherently hatred atany ethnicandunstable liable to point for instance, claims Westernthat European model of nation-state.“seeing it as a the specifically according to Europe Southeastern of reorganization and cultural economic political, Balkan – “ancient the civilizations”hatreds”, of one mayrelatethem takingto inthediscourse grounded place in a part than ofattributing the origins of the ethnic conflicts in the Balkans to the so-called “clash of rather by elites. Hearguesthat, international theresultare usually of agreement an ruling artificiality thatcutacrosslastingpoliticalof borders ethno-cultural andwhich divides, contested by a number twentieth century previousthe drew on traditions in ideologies. creating their ofall,because all the radically nationalisticauthors. movements spawn in the Balkans in the above important, beenofredrawing. Theyare inthe mappolitical process hascurrently For example,ethnicwhere and different religionsgroups havemingled forcenturies and whose factors areTheseill-defined whenconsidering important the Balkanspace and transient Victor4) Roudometof3) stresses the 2) V. Roudometof, “Nationalism, Globalization, Eastern Otrhodoxy – “Unthinking” the “Clash of See Alfred J. Rieber (ed.), Boeschoten, p.122. the relatively late formation of nation-states fostered exclusionist historicist myths. historicist exclusionist fostered of nation-states formation late relatively the warsof became expulsion; conquest wars of created in Europe, ageof the conflicts; fornationalism serious potential the Western of nation-states emerging the in to contrast ethnic, nor that natural were neither frontiers with period modern early the in empires multi-cultural of formation nevertheless has been region the instability inherentof the of This perspective Forced Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, 1939-1950 European Journal of Social Theory 74 In analyzing the Kosovo crisis, Tony Kushner, 2(2), pp. 233-247. , London: Frank 73 32 CEU eTD Collection Hunts: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003. migrants, migration and European societies since 1945 (ed.), et al. Ohliger in Rainer Germany”, West and Greece in Incorporation 76 75 by powers. Civil Western War,were actually the generated in division SecondWorld andafterthe War, whichculminated the of eruption during the social sharp the Greece and interwar of instability political the is that His argument bottom of the society, generating deeper polarization of the society in the interwar period. arguesthat foundTriadafilosCivil War. people Triadafilopoulos these atthe themselves Left and fought on the Communist side during the war, and thus those who had to flee the the from mostly belonged to disillusioned Turkey anddissatisfied refugeeswho came andin Turkey the 1920s under the approving eyeof internationalthe community. The between Greece transfer forced by population the aggravated society cleavage inGreek a deep of a result Warwas the Civil fact that by the be substantiated can refugees transfers. its caseof population Greece and to the theory in toapply historical substantiated the reality.try Iwill Rieber’sandRoudometof’s Roudometof’sis argument inhistoricalgrounded reality,Kushner’s fails position be to divisive.” become to likely always itself of was forward the main arguments of its proponents. its of arguments main the forward although spoken some twenty years laterin a speechin the inHouse of Lords 1944, bring Winston of describeChurchill, thewords unmixing”. which, thisuse To policy, Iwill ensued of “engineered astheproduct policy conflict that Western the of ethnic Triadafilos Triadafilopoulos, “The Political Consequences of Forced Population Transfers: Refugee Transfers: Population Forced of Consequences Political “The Triadafilopoulos, Triadafilos Kushner, Kox, p.XXVIII. The argument of continuity between the two above mentioned groups of be most satisfactory bemixture of will There no lasting. beand most satisfactory will se, to able been have we as far so which method the is Expulsion , Hunts” Rainer Ohliger et al Rainer Ohliger et al, 75 Whilstitmight be arguedthat 76 European Encounters: Triadafilopoulos sees the 33 CEU eTD Collection population exchange”, as noticed by Zayas. by noticed as exchange”, population Greek-Turkish of the results the of appraisal a rather optimistic to in part “attributable conceptual the over “euphoria asthe subchapter of this topic tothe are connected they Furthermore, simplicityThese statements of the solution” among leaders of Western democracies was 78 77 result, inapproximately Asiaresult, addition to from Minor to who came 900,000 refugees agreementsigned byboth states at Lausannethe Conference on30 January 1923. Asa Populations. Thenegotiations were supervised by Leagueof the Nations and the Turkishafter victory, bytheConvention Concerning the Exchange of Greek-Turkish This policy applied in was caseof the conflictin Greek-Turkish 1922, which was settled, stream: this of proponent peace.of Kaufmann, Inthewords aleading inter-state Chaim by disputes establishing settlingpeoples, means provides territories, surest andstates ethno-nationalist of the Ibid. Ibid., p. 98. The idea behind mass population transfers is that the process is that the process matchingof ideabehindmasspopulation transfers The ever before. than conditions inmodern more possible are which large transferences these by even nor populations, the of disentanglement of prospect Lorraine. populations tocauseendless ashasbeen trouble, casethe inAlsace- A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by the create true national homelands. national true create states. Instead it must facilitate and protect population mustcommunity movements abandon torestoreattempts war-torn multi-ethnic to international the genocide, by threatened lives save enclaves…To opposing aredefensible demographicallyinto groups separated civil of Stable resolutions ethnic only wars arepossible when the illustrate the Western simplistic understanding of the Balkan region Balkan the of understanding simplistic Western the illustrate 77 79 78 34 CEU eTD Collection 81 80 1996, 136-175, and “WhenAll Else Fails”, 79 inserted and Turkishwere asbelonging culture themselves (and,thus, perceived to refugeesidentify Greek that from Turkey in unit not did with whichthey political the factthe to many testimonies are a Thus, there place.to commitment anemotional tied to geographically and politically space.definable, physical Collectiveis, belonging rather, aspecific, within community” homogenous “imagined an abstract than to rather belongs, and and social one’sconstruct identity defined bytheculture and which society to one of belonging” that overcomes the previous one. Nationality theconcept of limits andsubstantiates clearlya “cultural within space defined politically is to a large extent a cultural had been already by strained words: war.In the Triadafilopouls’ that put structures an social It burden the on and political process. additional complicated in settle aswell). to were forced Turkey, of Greeknationals Conferencein Muslim the of remaining (350,000 the religion Greece Greece in wake the to from Turkey religion were transferred Orthodox Greek of nationals Greece in weeksfollowing the the fall of an additional Smyrna, 150,000 Turkish Ibid., p. 103. 115. p. Triadafilopoulos, See Chaim Kaufmann, “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Wars”, to Ethnic Solutions Impossible and “Possible Kaufmann, Chaim See belonging being nation as as defined of notion a the study casechallenges This rather a be to proved society Greek into group “kin” of incorporation The were quite different from the Greeks of of Greece”. “Old from Greeks the different were quite Sea Black of coasts the Thrace andthe Minor, Asia of arriving Greeks the that evident became soon It revealed. were community” “imagined blurred by anddistance in submerged fictionthe of a homogeneous hadbeen differences that Consequently,and linguistic state. cultural of bound borders inhabited by a single samecountry the and were the As a result of the exchange of populations, the vast majority of Greeks International Security 2, 1998, 120-156. 80 81 International Security 4, ). 35 CEU eTD Collection Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1997, p. 145. 84 to beto force finally a to in theHellenizing inGreece’s demographic scales Macedonia tip They were deemed in theurban areas. settled of better those than people wererelatively 83 Hague, p.211, reference in Triadafilopoulos,104. p. Thrace. andWestern Macedonia of inthe regions concentrated Turkey. of in 578,844refugeesthe 1930 90percent Greecewere By settled rural for left who Muslims by the owned been had once that lands of abundance an and newly incorporated lands of Macedonia, which had a relatively low population density to be republicanliberal, and well. as affiliation morewith Leftthe appealing. Thosewhohad beenwell-off in Turkey tended society (usually in secluded regions), and their social and spatialmarginality made the periphery of majority the lived on of the Asthem the aresult, infrastructures. on the population. total country’s the percentof 21.3 from percentto increased12.6 largestcities five population Greece’s of Accordingjobs.Mark Mazower, from in to 1928 period the combinedthe 1920 to material conditions ofliving, refugees the having problems finding housing proper or 82 deniedatthe essentially by time largelocals”of proportion a the interests and purity the Greek nation…indeed,of ‘Greekness’ of refugeeswas the “threattheir asforeigners economic to anda them nativeperceived Greekpopulation their homelandmany hoped return and andto be buried there. In addition the that, to was felt Turkey they Greek nationality, Although they wereof Greek. than space), rather Anastasia N. Karakasidou, Mark Mazower, Mark Dimitri Pentzopoulos, Dimitri Apart from the “urban refugees”, a majority of these people was settled in the settled was people these majority of a refugees”, “urban from the Apart and by economic dire wasaccompanied areas in urban alienation “cultural” The Greece and the Interwar Economic Crisis The Balkan ExchangeofPopulations and Impactits Upon Greece, Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood 83 Thismassive afflux of refugees represented a great strain . , Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 47. Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia 82 84 . Experiences of these of Experiences Paris and the 36 , CEU eTD Collection 85 Macedonia. of inhabitedProvince GreekNorthern the were theSlav who part Macedonians other nationality. The CivilWarof from part of refugees Greek the the a great consequently, by forces people, was and, these constituted mainCivil War,partof Communist the the status of “outsiders”.the Thus, Axis duringthe occupation of Greece and thesubsequent mostly drew on their that their cardof the dissatisfaction appeal tothem, on playing and, to their for accordingly,opportunity programme wider gainingsupport adjusted asaunique whoseleadersrecognized this CommunistGreece (KKE), of Party the to allegiance their shifting started mainly they monarchy, of restoration the and 1935 March of coup failed Venizelist After the more.even society Greek polarized the andneighborhoods derided by locals for their cultural heterogeneity. society beexclusively and into they shunted continued to villages andrefugee urban Greek of bottom the at lodged remained rural, and urban both of bulk the Commission, favor. However, despite the work of the League of Nations sponsored Refugee Settlement Triadafilopoulos, p. 112. p. Triadafilopoulos, Consequently, most refugees sided with the Venizelos’ Liberal Party, which Party, Liberal Venizelos’ the with sided refugees most Consequently, 85 37 CEU eTD Collection outer demarcation line by annexing the Yugoslav part of Macedonia and vice This versa. part of and Macedonia demarcation line Yugoslav the by annexing outer itsmove to wanted Greece frontier zone. makes ita is what mixed population area of and an ethnicities different two between areaof rivalry was acontested province northern its from by factthat butthe a borderline, wasseparated Albania.Yugoslavia Greece bordering areas AegeaninhabitedYugoslavia and and central western with Macedonia, Macedonians Slav The it. to applied be can Rieber by defined as “frontier”, of notion the Iwould influences intersected, political and Yugoslavia arguethat Bulgaria of Greece, Northern Greekinhabited who the were Slav Macedonians, 40 percent of Greek ethnicity, approximately Province of Macedonia. from CivilWar.refugees the Sinceimpenetrable”. this was a spaceand orsocial“in belines whether boundary territorial rather practice to porous than tend where process is maintenance ofboundaries However, the an these ambiguous potential threat”. cultural andother’ on the far side of the identity,group stability and security” thus creating by of process the demarcation “’the real or imaginaryfor needs basic the reflect polities and societies line collective and individual of limits outer that by its very nature constitutesApproach”. The author starts by stating that from thea earliest times “efforts to fix the Historical AComparative ofFrontiers: andConstructions Concepts “Changing article J. Rieber’s Alfred from came in particular, Greece in and Europe general, Southeastern The impulseuse to notionsthe frontier of andborderlands in analyzing the specificity of Refugees 2.3 Macedoniaas a “Border Land” andthe“Slavophone” Greek Civil War As already mentioned, among the refugees of the Civil War, apart from those 86 This wasmypoint of whendeparture analyzing Slav Macedonian 38 CEU eTD Collection History Communism and MacedonianNationalism in theCivilWar inGreece,1943-1949”, Greek Allies: “Incompatible example for (See Rossos from study ofAndrew works Barker’s recent more () and 1950 Elisabeth are complexity of its wholeness in problem the grasp to tried that works Ristovic, mention the Macedonian question and NOF only in passing or ignore it altogether. Examplescommunist of parties on the the Balkans. among the relations Other in it played writers, role the on such precisely as more or, John O.problem, Iatrides, Macedonian ofthe Jozeaspects Pirjevec and Milan Dominique Eudes, Edgar O’Ballance, Peter Stavrakis and Haris Vlavianos, touch upon the international organization, a blind or mindless inspired instrument Yugoslav essentially of as an Front) the Communist Liberation National Party NOF(the of perceive Yugoslavia.and Others, minority” conscious such as forBalkan Studies, 1964.). They dismiss Macedonians who sided with the communists as “an alien Macedonians” consciousness and identity and refer Macedonian to them separate ofthe as to existence Slavophones, the deny who Kofos, as such Slav-speaking historians, of Greek Greeks,number or“Slav of a approach nationalistic the is There extent. great a to differs It War. Civil Greek inthe Macedonians The literature that falls within the scope of my thesis, however, deals with the involvement of Slav Macedonian Question: the Politics of Mutation Poulton, (eds.), Veremis Thanos Macedonia: the politics of identity and difference culture, historiography, politics literature on the topic is vast. See, forexample: Victor Roudometof (ed.), 87 Approach”, p.1. 86 of Constantinopole, Patriarchate Ecumenical the with ties ecclesiastical severe the least its countries. since1860,when Atthree desirecommunity Bulgarian declared to the Bulgaria has, and byhistorians been answered differently therefore, and officials of the andby in marked region of Greece, Serbia importance of thenational the agendas the historiography.has been “Macedonia”modern “Macedonians” definition and of The culmination. eliminated. During the CivilWar they were awakenedandbrought them to their nevercompletely but larger degree, or a smaller to dormant sometimes present, always were ethnic orthe groups beginning. nationalities between the very animosities The with from population of GreekandSlavethnicitieswascapricious a co-existence of the Macedonia of Province GreekNorthern the of The dichotomy borderline. an artificial by wereseparated sameethnic group the fact whopeople belonged to was duetothe that My intentions are not to delve into the intricacies of the Macedonian question in Historical this thesis, butComparative A the ofFrontiers, Constructions and Concepts “Changing Rieber, J. Alfred , Vol. 69, No. 1. (March 1997), pp. 42-76). The Macedonian question Macedonian The Who Are theMacedonians? (See Nationalism and Communism in Macedonia Modern Greece: Nationalism &Nationality , Boulder:, East European Monographs, 2000; Jane Cowan(ed.), , London: Hurst & Company,1995; Evangelos Kofos, 87 has been one of the most controversial issues of issues controversial most the of one been has , Salonika: Institute forBalkan Studies, 1987. , London: Pluto Press, 2000; Martin Blinkhorn and , Evangelos Kofos, Thessalonike : Institute , Athens:, ELIAMEP,1990; Hugh The Macedonian Question: The Journalof Modern The 39 CEU eTD Collection Blinkhorn, 89 Quarterly 1830-1880”, Perspective, Comparative-Historical in Serbia and Greece Europ: Southeastern 88 in applied wasdecidedly SlavMacedonians of and acculturation assimilation policy of of in youngGreece. The the nation-state minority “problematic” as only the remaining was in part aimed at assimilation of the Slav Macedonians to correct what was interpreted of The in largeinflux of Slav influenced Greece. Greek refugees the status Macedonians in provinces. pattern Macedonian three the one. The FirstWorld War andits aftermath brought about a reshaping of the ethnological fourin to of partitioned proportion andBulgaria, Slavicthe among Serbia contenders, was part northern The Macedonia. ancient of territory assumed the to corresponding was asroughly zones.mostperceived It central the andincluding of the southern alittleoverregion, 50percentof wholeMacedonian the andof comprised 1912-13 speaking alanguagehad sameas the that Serbian. roots claimed them to be Bulgarians Greeks andthem to officially referred Slavophone Greek,whileas the Bulgarians and Serbs saw them as consistentlySlav people related denied to them community. recognition and of the imagined their respective Slavto population the acculturate to instruments as churches Macedonians Orthodox local the and system educational the used which as nation-states, a separateneighboring people the all by claimed fiercely was region fromthe century, nineteenth the of half second the nations. amongIn the “appleof rival the Balkan discord” Macedonia hasrepresented See “National Heritage and National Identity in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Macedonia”, in Macedonia”, Twentieth-Century and Nineteenth- in Identity National and Heritage “National See See VictorRoudometof, “Invented Traditions,Symbolic Boundaries, and National Identity in The aforementioned exchange of populations between Turkey and Greece and Turkey between populations of exchange aforementioned The Wars Balkan the of aftermath in the wasannexed of Macedonia Greek part The , Vol. 32No. 4 (1998), pp.429-68 and Kofos, “National Heritage and National Identity”. Nationalism and Nationality, 88 Ever since the foundation of modern Greek state, the Greekauthorities the modern Greekstate, of foundation Eversince the pp. 106-13 and Poulton, Who Arethe Macedonians? 89 East European , pp. 78-89. 40 CEU eTD Collection 92 91 opposed to the idea of “United Macedonia” than before. than Macedonia” “United ideaof tothe opposed violently more even became they Consequently, anti-Bulgarian. bitterly and power, foreign a by ruled more once being to hostile be very to proved They Turkey. from came who were refugees suffered whoMany was enforced.Greeks the of of regime terror in powers byBulgariaportion eastern Greek Macedonia anda 1941, the of wasoccupied repression them increased.against was Following defeat the of Greece by Axis the 1940,the in October GreeceandItaly between beginning of war the Atthe assimilation. establishedin hardonSlav 1936,wasparticularly Macedonians,continuing the policy of Warsjust 1912 of before Balkan the Greek sources 90 Party ideology Greece andboth of Communist shared the with Macedonians common National Liberation Front (Naroden Osloboditelen Front, or NOF) comprised of Greek animmense whichbore andcharacteristics, impacton its progress outcome.the Though Communistcause, was struggle the regional for by shapedalso delineated above at and I wouldWar, that, East the West of Coldonset the argue represented that camps Communistin propaganda and theirattract for attempts to more support their cause. mid-1930s,until forces the non-Communistheavilyin thisfact theiranti-relied on in inthefollowingdiscussed was infavorforce idea of only section, up the Greece this and others) 93,000 Greeks(anumber Aegean whichmust (1,237,000 Macedonia havebeen exaggerated) only in “Slavophones” 82,000 official of 1928 recorded the a result, Greek census As neighboring period; fledinter-war many states. and went to as a the country the result Ibid., pp. 108-11. Ibid., p. 85. Poulton, Although the Greek Civil War was an ideological confrontation between two between confrontation ideological an was War Civil Greek the Although Who Arethe Macedonians 90 , as 326,426opposed whichto wererecordedby some Bulgarian and , p. 87. 91 . The Metaxas regime, which was which regime, Metaxas . The 92 Since the KKE, as will be 41 CEU eTD Collection However, in the course of the Second World War, with the KKE with continuously the War, World Second of the in course the However, . twentieth atthe in part).43 demographic (estimated population of total time Greece the moreof their inmid-1949,which than April farout proportion to 1947 to two-thirds was tisinDSE), rangedfrom more or Stratos than Elladas, of a quarter Greece (Dimokratikos Army Democratic initsarm, military the representation their estimated Andrew Rossos, Macedonians. 1949 was a policy of supporting for equality all national minorities in Greece, including early to 1935 from line official basic The time. to time from minority Macedonian the to concessions play alongcertain offer and hadin to they cause communist Greece, the if that, helpbethey from wanted which to proved thesupporter strongestYugoslavia, of KKE realized officials CivilWar the Throughout periods. atdifferent needs different opportunity as seizing of possible,power andit kept adaptingits policies according to the KKEperceived whenthe retracted, Theywerelater movement. political insignificant War inGreece, 1943-1949”, 93 Cominform. in future Balkanfederation, direction of Macedonian a state underthe the communist ethnicity and First the after WorldWar showed even official for aunitedsupport with the KKE.inindependence toachieve and, only this,order the them availableoption to was siding This was the only partyby issuesnationalism. wascreated the of two that recognized between cleavage the democracy, system of with monarchy people’s a replace wanted to Macedonians as a separate See Andrew Rossos, “Incompatible Allies: Greek Communism and Macedonian Nationalism in the Civil According KKE.to the insupport to turn,gave theirMacedonians, unrestrained Macedonians perceived the Civil War as a primarily national struggle for struggle national primarily a as War Civil the perceived Macedonians 93 94 These promises were easy to give at the time when theKKE arather give was time when atthe to wereeasy Thesepromises The Journal of Modern History, Vol.69, No.1.(March, 1997), pp. 42-76. 42 CEU eTD Collection 95 Studies, 1964. 94 number the that believable is it still,but, time, atthe attitude official the due to very cautiously, beshould regarded “Slavophones” onlysome47,000 recorded of 1951 census As aresult, the In thewords of a KKE official GrigoriadesSolon of 1946: countries. neighboring communist the seek refugeein tofleeGreeceand to Macedonians high: was pay to had they price The Greeks. themselves considering not for nation, the to traitors butas ultimate notonly the “sinners”, asideological Theywere Macedonians. perceived “whitebeginning against andparticularly signaled Left, terror” of the the so-called the forces. Macedonian disarmamentbeginning the of by in the of KKEaccepted communist the1945, which leadersits thesigningAgreement peakafter of reached dissatisfaction The Varkiza alienated. the saw thisdownplaying its promises, Macedonian the beganfeel morepopulation to andmore act as a shameful capitulation. The Agreement Rossos, 56-57. See Evangelos Kofos, The post-Varkiza conditions influenced the decision of a great number of inhabitant left. a single not is there some in and away, run have villagers the from which 90% of men havethe run 60%-70% of others from away; villages seen Slav Ihave inYugoslavia. mountains orseekrefuge the a mass of exodus begin.Macedonians will villages into Entire escape on freedom of movement and so on. Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) aid; restrictions andUNRRA taxes use of discriminatory expulsions; (United homes and entire villages; economic blockades villages; forcibleof exile; confiscation burningandof property movable of equipment; jail, and trials, arrests, murders, villages, on their …armed attacks Nationalism and Communism in Macedonia 96 was much lower much than in pre-war period).the In August 1953, 95 , Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan for Institute , Thessaloniki: 97 (thisfigure 43 CEU eTD Collection Institute for National History, 1954, p. 17. 98 97 96 possessing ahealthy national consciousness” new “with colonists territories settle northern the was to enacted 2536 no. Decree the ethnicalter to its attempts and Government Greek by the implemented discrimination composition “policy of with ethnicof Greeks.Aegean There was a campaign populateYugoslaviarefugeeshad theterritory Warandto Civil who fledto duringthe inMacedonia”. the Yugoslav press at the time against Yugoslav maintaineddelegation the that the aimlaw prevent was of returnof the to the As a result, Greece. betweenYugoslavia and thathinderedcooperation oneof issues territory the was a media campaignof 1953 the above-mentioned law colonization regarding border of Greece’s northern half second in the Alliance Balkan a common of establishment wasthe regarding Turkey and Greece,Yugoslavia negotiations among the For example,during politics. international blockreappearingin across ofthe Eastern countries kept scattered whowere refugees and were denied visas toenter the country. During the Cold War period the issue of these by theirits in aftermath property 2536/53 Decree anddeprived them their Greekcitizenship ended. of confiscated GreekGovernment The itlong after War ofthe GreekCivil legacies continuing of one the Refugees remained 2.1 republics. Macedonia which was established after the Second World War as one of the six Yugoslav fled toYugoslavia and a greatnumberof settled permanentlythem inits Republic of Lazo Mojsov, Lazo 161. p. Poulton, KPG Conclusion , No. 150, p. 341, in Rossos, p. 57. Okoly Prashenjeto na Makedonskoto Natsionalno Maltsinstvo vo Grtsija, 98 . Many of . Many SlavMacedonian the of refugees 99 ; thus, they could not return to Greece Skopje: The Skopje: 44 CEU eTD Collection 100 p. 196, reference in Poulton, p.167. of this interaction. werearesult refugees The confrontations. ColdWar the complicated additionally social rafts inter-ethnical and already the existent The international involvement the aggravated pre-existing problems in the country and time. the at inGreece situation complex arather creating other with each interacted and levels overlapped two These in existence. still were rivalries inter-ethnic and frontiers “local” national the frontier, War Cold a symbolic movement, Communist International by “a newland”the Greeceatthe time attacked represented though frontier”, legacies of historical the rolethe catalyst, of the played certainly circumstances political although the region proved to be extremely wasforgotten. refugees important. War Civil Greek theissue of the block, andtheWestern Eastern the between relations To use the notion of “the 99 parts. its northern towards its aspirations of because Yugoslavia was attemptingin existnot didMacedonian question, Macedonians, aswellSlav Greece andthat to interfere with was maintainedininlaunched of Greece Government’s policy.the the defense that It the internal affairs of a sovereign country Tosho Popovski, Tosho See Dragan Bogetic, See Dragan I would argue that in the case of the Greek Civil War refugees it seems that, Makedonskoto Natsionalno Maltsinstvo vo Bulgaria, Grtsija I Albanija Jugoslavija i zapad 1952-1955 , Beograd:, Sluzbeni list SRJ, 2000, pp. 86-89. 100 Nevertheless, with the thawing of thawing the with Nevertheless, , Skopje, 1981, 45 CEU eTD Collection influence inhabitants of the Greek colonies in Yugoslavia to help cause, communist the to inYugoslavia of Greekcolonies influence inhabitants the makinghelp, the Yugoslav to membersof organizing KKEonthe the territory, to efforts to promoting theirstruggle bymeans forof propaganda, channels organizing sending also military material Tito coordinate actions. insurgents, to sending help consented the to would they where from in Belgrade Ppolitbureau KKE’s the of asection stationing ithiswas meeting agreed upon well.During with Tito KKEthe Belgrade,as visited leaderof the Zahariades, Nikos 1946, in of spring the Block Eastern ofthe countries the particularly overwhelming during theof thirdround CivilWar.the Duringhis to visits Y ideological and military force in force region. the andmilitary ideological also markedby ambitions leadership’s the tomake Yugoslavia theleading political, in the specificity andsuccess importancethe CPY had in the World War II and in getting to power,of as wellits as to the belief great position the its members,dueto of by an self-confidence shaped growing the to extant for the Communist position Yugoslavia insurgents.Thepolicy the Communistthe of of Party of (CPY)was movement. It was GreekLeftmaterialimpact the was manifoldpolitical helpon and had to the and agreat Yugoslavia was involved in GreekCivilWarfrom the beginning. large-scale very the Its Grcija Tusculanum Press, 1987; Risto Kirjazovski, 101 T – 3 CHAPTER Greece 1947-1949”, in rata UGOSLAVIA See Milan Ristovic, “Jugoslavija i gradjanski rat u Grckoj (1945-1950), in , Beograd: Institut zasavremenu istoriju, 1996, pp. 71-85; ElizabethBarker, “Yugoslav Policy towards , Skopje,, 1998; Iatrides, “National and International Aspects”. Studies in theHistory ofGreek Civil War 1945-1949 HE G REEK Makedonskoto nacionalno prasanje igraganskata vojna vo C IVIL W 101 Its help to Greek Communists was AR R EFUGEES , Copenhagen:Museum Balkan posle drugog svetskog I N 46 CEU eTD Collection 1997, pp. 179-180. 102 in settlements Serbia refugee Croatia.and People’s Front, etc. Organization, Youth Communist Women’s Organization, Antifascist organizations”, A large number of the “mass local and authorities bylocal offered was andmedical protection clothes refugees were afterwardsKumanovo, Teotovo, Bitolj, Veles, Prilep, etc. First helptransported regarding accommodation,food, in to – Macedonia of Republic People’s of territory the were on of them Most theestablished. were refugees, accepting for camps astemporary aswell settlements, Numerous as War early from 1945. as Civil the acceptingGreek refugees Yugoslavia started 3.1 Why Did Leave?- They Refugees’Accounts emerges from documents. the onethat plausible whenjuxtaposing settling inYugoslavia theofficial amore of events representation with Moreover, I will try toissue inleave briefly chapter. which the Greece,an touched previous upon I only depict a picture of thewill circumstances give a brief account these lives peoplethese lookedof actually likeparticularly,of before and, the exile.First, I during thepeople repression encountered these the what upinYugoslavia whoended people Warrefugees a casethrough Greek Civil of study suffered before theylocal one and toamicro-level approach.decided The aim of this chapter is toshow in more detail to political refugees. from forGreek andMacedonian fighters and,finally,he recruiting permission gave 103 SeeKirjazovski, See Milan Ristovic, “Eksperiment Buljkes”, In this section of my thesis I turn from a global and a regional perspective to a Makedonsko nacionalno prasanje 102 Godisnjak za drustvenu istoriju, 103 , pp.114-116. Vol. IV, No. 2-3, Beograd, 47 CEU eTD Collection 27 January 1947 inKumanovo, goes as follows: mother a a housewife Mara Catkova, thirty-fiveyear old of and children, given three on narratives, the dissolution of families. The statement of one of the Macedonian refugees, cruelty arethe in of persecution Macedonians’ the statements and, especially women’s in detailedmakes anddepicted a way them that credible. very forcesplaces areinmost by about Greekright-wing the data their persecution factual Still, authorities. Yugoslav toplease say inorder had to they what knew people they entered the country. It is obvious from the recurrent phrases and formulas that these by after (mainly collected Macedonian authorities statements Macedonians) the Slav of are part other The Council. UNSecurity the sent Greeks) (mainly Buljkes from refugees a file containing statements of CPY– the documents of in collection the statements their containing material archival of 121 refugee. They were a part of the Memorandum the from the Greece left people which these for reasons the about judge can We T o eurn ad ot rmnn tee i ohGek’ n Slav and Greeks’ both in themes prominent most and recurrent Two village were hiding. Children were threatened that they they be that were threatened would hiding.village Children were whoflew the peasants confess wherethe to in beaten and order were naked were stripped children Santov’s two example, severely. For them During their visits,they were taking people whocouldhide not from to the center house our – a donkey hundredand two kilograms of wheat. they that and of away run could would people the that so far from the shooting were plunder village more village, the When his soldiers to couplethey were coming friends. of easily. with a partisans together apartisan hejoined one, as stigmatized Everything and was whole village because stay the home, not at As hecould we hadthey was stolen were from soldiers. by the bitten and imprisoned been had he because market, the to beating nor mill the neithergo not to could Myhusband plundering cattlegroceries. and them visitingA year EDESfighters]started ago[the village our 48 CEU eTD Collection Problem of Greek ChildRefugees 1948-1956”, Battalion her of occupation, Security soldiers the organization pioneers’ village. During the of of member a been had she occupation fascist the During brother. a and mother a only had Ioannidon,before describesherlife Herfatherwas shecame toBuljkes. andshe killed argues that “a shadow of the ideological“fightfor souls” the lurked behind the actions of ‘gathering’ and War:Civil Today’s Adults” and Riki vanBoeschoten, “The Impossible the Return”. during Onpage 194, Ristovicin Turmoil “Children Mazower, Mark and Dalianis by Mando a text in depicted are lives Their Greece. in homes care foster into placed and warzones the in government royal by the gathered also were to Yugoslavia of and their destiny after break-up the between Tito and Stalin.On theother hand, children 1998, pp. 97-109, givesextensive an account of the life of the refugee children sent by Greek Communists 107 106 collaborated with them. 105 Council of the UN. file 250 , Memorandum of Greek political refugees inYugoslavia sent to Commissionof the Security Party of Yugoslavia(CPY), Commission forInternational Relations (CIR), 507,Greece, IX/33/ V,box 15, 104 Buljkes. to days transported and three after Veletovo to was taken she where her village, near to was which border, intosoldiersprison. and down. thrown Shefledburnthouse Their the Yugoslav was to in by Guard mother werearrested National brother1945 andthe people. Her killing children were “collected” and sent to Yugoslavia and other communist countries. andothercommunist and toYugoslavia children were “collected” sent partly organized bythe of rebel’s Provisional AroundGovernment Greece. 24,000 however,These two, probably were apartof of groups children deportations were whose Milan Ristovic in his book Long ASM,Ibid. Security Battalions were organized by the occupying forces,which was comprised of Greeks, who Communist of the Committee(CC) Central of the Fond (ASM), Montenegro and Serbia of Archives The In the Memorandum to the UN, a Greek fifteen-year old refugee girl Ana 105 they raped. The girls from the villagewomen…whom were four raped as well… caught they village our to came they When for thehead. coins seven golden got They Stafe. commander partisan hadcaught the they sayingthat were They of Gumenica. town the to taken head was hanged…One of villagers,the TanasNaste, wasbeheaded his and of of wereAnton Tasos frequently visiting village,the plundering groceries and 106 Journey Home Savas Consantinidi, a14years old boy had a similar story. Godisnjak za drustvenu istoriju, and in an article “Yugoslavia, the Cominform, and the and Cominform, the “Yugoslavia, article an in and Vol. V, No. 2-3, Beograd, 104 107 49 CEU eTD Collection 111 110 109 108 families, their from separated in a childhoodof living full years of in the traumatical own, experiences oftheir ”. guilt without suffered ‘saving’…children Civil War: hostorical study dealing with refugees a village,of Ziakas,left who Greece during the The experience well. as countries, communist other to fled Many Yugoslavia. to coming before suffered of these people wasmen in village. the described other of most and Fenifanos Georgios as well as fighter, EAM an been had he because by Riki van Boeschoten mothers. Buljkes with their andcameto forces communist in a micro-in the fathers fighting had Both Clara Georgiadu. aswell EPON), Greece (the for the Yugoslav border and I was sent toBuljkes.” taken to prison. Their house was burnt. “Being unable liveto under such conditions, Ileft women’s husbands and herand other arrested on They the village. imposed terror aterrible Right the weapons, threw them to jail. HerEAM during the war,asmost ofherfellow-villagers. After ELAS surrendered the brother was also savagely tortured and Boeschoten, “The Impossible Return”, p. 122. Ibid. Ibid. ASM,Ibid. The twenty-year old Caterine Constantinodou from Kavaleri was fighting in fighting was Kavaleri from Constantinodou Caterine old twenty-year The It is obvious from the accounts of these people that most of most of that hadthem people of greatly It isobvious from accounts these the life, his for fearing Varkiza after left Konstantinidis Savas old year forty-five The youth of Communist the member Kukasof wasa Lazaros old The nineteen-year village behind amidst the scattered ruins of the material and social body of the reunion of beloved ones, the difficult survival of those who stayed without feelingstheir of parents, poisoningestrangementhappy the for decades,Husbands and livingapart up growing children wives 111 110 108 109 50 CEU eTD Collection 115 114 113 nalaze u Vojvodini uselu Buljkesu, srez Backa Palanka,okrug novosadski,29 jun 1946,Novi Sad 112 of the KKE. members 3,500)were (around inbeen Mostof whom refugees hadthe born Yugoslavia. living 161women werearoundchildren, 4023refugees1947, there there, and 30 22of houses leftempty. were someexpulsion 625 previously inhabited by Germansbeforethe theWorldWar II,andin which after their in of invillagethedistrict settled Buljkes, Novi Sad. came to Vojvodina of first group numbers.inrefugees andon The greater inFebruary later groups, 1945 small May 1945, first to in whoof in Buljkes asettlement was arriving Yugoslavia began Greek refugees, village Sivac and, after3.2 Buljkes –the“Greek Republicof Yugoslavia” ten days, they were availability housingof and the labor needs of the host countries. Eastern of countries in different up ending family, a same from very often, or, a sameplace from Europe, severed, people the werewith family ties community Duringand sense of the exile the as refugees were sent into different countries depending on the a unique “Greekcommunist ideological experiment”. making 1949 from collectivist,communiston the concepts, intheperiod Buljkes 1945 to were based activities All economic and social of type a settlement. peculiar Soviet-utopia asa and organized wasenvisioned The village commune. “exteritorial” (Board) of this into a transformed Greek specific “autonomous commune”, organized by“Government” ASM, CC CPY, CIR,507, IX,33/5 –box 15,file 252. Ibid., p. 200-201. Ristovic, “Eksperiment Buljkes, p. 180. ASM, CC CPY, CIR, 507, IX, 33/5 – box 15, file 252, Izvestaj o zivotu i radu grckih emigranata, koji se 115 113 During and was 1945Buljkes after 114 112 According to the estimates from estimates the According to It was It avillage whichhadbeen 51 CEU eTD Collection 117 dinar” used for internal payments in for internalpayments village. dinar”the used schools, hospitals, its pigs). specific waycows, (horses, cattle life them gave hemp, weaving for andfactory a built it land, laws. the on working It even had its own currency plough,land machinery machines 3.500 acresof agricultural for to tractors, and tools and “Buljkes gave refugees the state wasestablished the and Committee of Greek refugees People’s isBuljkes in described idealistican fashion: 116 Ibid. “Buljkes, selo grckih izbeglica”, grckih selo “Buljkes, 117 Buljkes was organized according to the Soviet collectivist model. In 1946 a 1946 In model. collectivist Soviet the to according organized was Buljkes newspaper Yugoslav the in article an In Buljkes was, thus, a small Greek republic with its own self-management, itsown with republic asmall Greek was,thus, Buljkes such avillage of which they are proud today. People’s was Board itorganized and made for them build possible to a when later, year a receive would they that help the of part one help clothesfood, shoes, accommodation, regarding was and only friendship andlove of meant... peoplethe of Yugoslavia firstthe what felt they since…Here constantly growing been has number The exhausted, poorly dressed andhungry settledrefugees in Buljkes. of group first the when day the since passed have years four Almost one in Yugoslavia. Now, ithas 7,000 members. refuge in He leftYugoslavia. hisfamily in Greeceonly findto anew leavehadflee he Athens. Inan to to from foundattempt terror, inJune 14,1945…After Dekemvriana as afighteroELAS,1944, he Novi Sad. The of oldvicinity teacherin the in Vojvodina, came village a with Bujkes, the to first came refugees refugeesof to Buljkes on children the Greek border.crossed inThus, June 1945a new group Fustani… men, February Since and 1945, thousands of women a Kostur, worker from Thessaloniki, oldseven-year from girl a from peasant from aGreek Florina, student aMacedonian Athens, from man,abureaucrat wasaGreek there from terror, away the hidingwoods or in cities.the On Yugoslavia, roads the to running peoplemonarcho-fascists andsupporters, the wererunninginto their acountry into for the hatred As Greeceturned andof tears people’s Borba, ( 25 June), 1949, p. 4. Borba 116 of Jun 1949 the settlement of 5 2 CEU eTD Collection 121 120 119 118 its worth and to wasawardedaccording their work skillsjobsdifferent their or to professions included.were relegated according to People life. A kolhozmaking orit possible,a collective in such a fashion, for the refugeesfarm to, establishwas established a rich, decent social in which the whole village was which feeds out of the canteen”. The food was received from the Third Yugoslav Army Yugoslav Third the from received was food The canteen”. the of out feeds which the state of affairs in Buljkes, the author proudly asserts that “there is not a single family on In one report wereestablished. meals, in had which their villagers and all the kitchens, supplying the village with textile, shoesandmaterials for workshops. The executive Committee of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina was in charge of and workshop. acobbler’s atailor’s arope-weaver’s, blacksmith’s, a carpenter’s, hada Buljkes inworkshops. worked other the in agriculture, engaged people the was of Whereas stations, onepart workers. experts-agronomists agricultural experienced and had farms for poultry and rabbits. They received help from surroundingthe mechanical exceptfreedom,work, istaught that value in theultimate lifeand of al source goods”. writes the author, “all the people capable of working do work. And children are being Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. In the above-mentioned article, the author praises the Yugoslav state “for state Yugoslav the praises author the article, above-mentioned the In All spheres of life were organized according to the collectivist model. Canteens the collectivist to lifewereorganized according All of spheres alsothey horses andpigs; 150 cows, 250 round for builtstieshad village The for various necessary articles. necessary for various exchanged aresoldfarms surroundingcollectiveor the products to These nets. and ropes quality, excellent of bridles make cars, of parts hands together laughter and crafty put hammers, of songwhile evening have workshops threeshifts) (some onecanhearsound of till morning From street. long in awide a row in placed are They 121 118 . “There is. “There in onerule Buljkes”, 122 120 119 53 CEU eTD Collection Greece. totheliberated they after theirbuilding inknowledgeandreturned socialism country that it was a greatactions, such as building railways Brcko-Banoviciexperience, and Samac-Sarajevo. They claimed appreciated thehelp part by offered state.They Yugoslav invariousthe took labor youth since they intended to transfer the acquired skills and 124 123 122 as (Pioneers). well amonthly etc, as Tejtopula Geography, People, such textbooks, as History literature, in well,publishedGreek of Greekas scholarly andVarious brochures books were issueslife. and cultural of political, economical all the about people andinformed in Greece, especially events, daily all the covered It published. Buljkes” was newspaper “Foni ton aweekly house, In thevillageprinting hospitals and ambulances”. in bethe encountered can is atmosphere same food excellent…The enough sheets, “Homes are clean, roomsage offour. into -therewere400children children up children’s homes were placed large and freshly partyoung of village the separate the In village. month of the existence of firstthe the painted, furniture simple whichbuilt with during There alsoschool a theatera grammarwas 1.500 seats, and was and tidy there Childrenwere inGreek educated in printed andtextbooks villagewere house printing the are Vojvodina. of Commission Agricultural the rationed from suppliesthe which by they themselves produced on working fieldsthe by ofmade Wheat, bread,was they which beans, sugaretc). fat,oil, such as (basic groceries “Buljkes, selo grckih izbeglica”, grckih selo “Buljkes, ASM, CC CPY, CIR,507, IX,33/5 –box 15,file 253. Ibid. in text the of author The students. around600 with well, were organized as courses and different Schools 124 Borba Borba 123 concludes that Greek refugees greatly that concludes 125 54 CEU eTD Collection Everything did not seem workEverythingnot soperfectly in did to although practice, Yugoslav the officials 128 127 126 125 country, which offered them brotherly help in the harshest times.” neighboring Tito’s friendly Yugoslavia, the towards gratitude of as eternal a token give everything for its building.“And Buljkes will instay thememories of peoplethese day believefirmly the that comewill liberated whencountry will totheir they to return inBuljkes Greekrefugees the that asserts author The slave. foreign be a to how learnt freedom for invincibleand whowere belonged becausethey a to people whohad not fought who GDA the of fighters the with were refugees the all of thoughts Nevertheless, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Nevertheless, it the reality was at discrepancy with this idealized account. idealized this with discrepancy at was reality the it Nevertheless, victory Greece. more ahappier and to build beautiful victory a it foreasier them because itwill the make as fastas possible, after plough for a tractor – all of them want Yugoslaviaboy to build socialism who loom, atthe the woman Yugoslavia Theteacher, the old and told us. just whatenters everybodyis That toldfrom is us. bureaucrathave. Thessaloniki whatthe That who life,felt the life, inas the exactly children andone inwholeBuljkes Yugoslavia beauty and of for childrenforhappy Weand whom careless we want work will buildinga peasant socialism in Tito’swho exchanged wooden that beautiful sunny country, now soaked in blood… in soaked now country, sunny beautiful that of their thoughts the children, Greek refugees in areconstantly Greece, saved who bless those mothers and for Yugoslavia feel people these and happy life inthe thevillage is, how nomatter much gratefulness strugglesimilar against No how enemies andtraitors. beautiful matter of hardand glorious democratic traveled the road country, which A life like this can be offered to the refugees only by a true 128 127 126 55 CEU eTD Collection 130 129 from the Commission. children villagelightfood, in eggsand milkand people theyother sick the received many were there Since muchhadspent. they on how submit reports regular had they to vegetables, but totake oneof produced the allowed part 1946 andthe them Commission changedin thiswas be However,policy sold. market Novi tothe to Sad was transported fieldsthe thesettlement, around they were notallowed into useit beginning,the sinceit on grewvegetables Although refugees the scurvy. of werecases lack there the vitamins of also very small perperson) andthe (30 grams they oil received wasoften spoilt. Dueto fat were of rations The all villagers. the for in largecaldrons meals the were prepared that, from and, basicnumbers apart of articles, of same limited rations theyreceived consisted tasks. given fulfilled they so disciplined, and organized well were who village, in the members party seemshavetheir to official been were3.500 work there the since concluded, satisfactory, However, work. educational andother Marxism to teaching dedicated was of their time complains.high, author the perday Thesewereemployed for 5-6hours only and therest employed. However, the number of the refugeesnames the existing problems inthe village. in Buljkes who couldwanted to representinit way.this a report which In inwas written official 1946, an not work is too Ibid. ASM, CC CPY, CIR,507, IX,33/5 –box 15,file 252. One of the problems the refugees were faced with was that of food supplies. The He says that, apart from those who are incapable of working, all the others are 129 130 56 CEU eTD Collection enough itself. enough havesupply medicines,not Third Army did wassupposedto villagethe with which and other diseases should be given medicines,if possible. The difficulty was that even the malaria with those climate; tothe adopt to iteasier find would they where country, the enhancing situation:the those with tuberculosisbe shouldto the mountain sentof parts used to the new climate. On the margin of the report, an official wrote his suggestions for getting haddifficulties the refugees since rapidly spread also Tuberculosis were needed. them,quinine of cure all 90,000pieces village around to of doctor, estimations of the even inwork, According malaria with wereengaged people work. the to agricultural were around 300-400ill inJune 1946.Accordingto doctrinethe everybody that should plot of land from which they were able to sustain themselves on their own. a and they received however, be collective, village had apartof the to still firms. They bewould bestif number a certain of bethem employedinfactories andwould other it that was suggestion The employment. incorrect due to force, working of the waste employed infactories and firms in Novi Sad received money. This was regardedas a salary for their work in Buljkes, since they had no contracts. Only those who were 133 132 131 wherewoods, they could bythemselves acquire wood. who wrote his comments on the margin of the report suggested that they be given a part of Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. The greatest problem, however, were diseases - tuberculosis and malaria. There malaria. and tuberculosis - diseases were problem, however, greatest The An unresolvedissue was also that of working permits. The refugees received no which forWood, heatingwas needed mill, and the lacking. also The official was 133 131 132 57 CEU eTD Collection teaching at the academy. The list isasfollows: academy. The teaching atthe high of tomaintain instandard materials Heasksfororder necessary work. school’s one or two Yugoslav officers,the KKE and some military subjects. He states that the most important thing isemploy to who would teachHistory, them Geography,military Mathematics tacticstheirin like They participation the movement. Greek study resistance subjects general and andMarxism, examine as well theas History they had aswell their hadbeen beenrecruited membership into Party account, taken as of the USSR and of of the CPY that 140 officers are taking the three-month military course at the time. When Heinforms Central the Committee materials. “teaching” Academy necessary alistand of In of the 12 JuneCPYofficial anaccountof a report state the affairs1946, agives at andpropagandabut leaflets brochures, aswell. soldiers of GDA. Thematerialsby published printingthe housewerenotonly textbooks, for the making uniforms women were –there, for makingtextiles factory an ordinary things extraordinary disguise,quite this under lives. However, andorganizetheir tobuildnewties social make meet, ends specific, revealsnothing extraordinary this about village – wesee whostruggle to people The above depicted picture of everyday life of the refugees in Buljkes, albeit 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Academy. aMilitary its umbrella had under education” for general “School The A brochure on chemical A brochure on warfare of parachuters Setof activities rules of the Anti-tank defense Anti-aircraft defense Set of rules of sabotage fight guerilla on A brochure weapons A brochure on military of tactics previous twothe wars regarding all of kinds Military rules of infantry exercises). topographic for is (it necessary Greece maps20 strategic1/100, r maps of of of Greece, proportion some regions were hidden.The hemp-weaving factory justwas not 58 CEU eTD Collection Beograd: Narodna knjiga, 1987, pp. 87, 188-190. 137 servedfor alsomakingtraining officers, uniforms and propaganda materials. It Greece. to andsent recruited were fighters guerilla whereexiled wasacenter Buljkes is that contrary. the substantialaccounts and from documents It to obvious the evidence was Army, there Greek Democratic helping serveof the purpose didnot in Buljkes is halted moment”. training atthe military “the in meantthat which Buljkes, wereencountered of signs such an occurrence capable capable leadingof in guerilla actions Greece”. make to them inorder refugees Greek for of training theoretical and practical meant All existence them of refuted “special courses of held by officers, whichwere partisan suggested by five Yugoslav the andofficial which by were chosen delegate. Greek the Buljkes onApril 2 investigate theallegations.1947 to six Theyinterrogated witnesses the Greek delegation in the UN a group of UNSCOB Subcommittee observers was sent to of accusations the Dueto Greece guerillaofficers. to and dispatching trainingrecruiting, for base a as used was it that complaining were officials Greek the Namely, Yugoslavia. 136 135 134 comrades the Besides these, should following be weapons: given the Dragan Kljakic, See Jadranka Jovanovic, Jadranka See ASM, CC CPY, CIR,507, IX,33/5 –box 15,file 251. ASM, CC CPY, CIR, 507, IX, 33/II – box 12, file 8. Despite the fact that the Yugoslav officials maintained that the military military academy the that officials maintained theYugoslav factthat the Despite The Academy became a bone of content between Greek Government and Government Greek between content of bone a became Academy The 11. 10. 3. 2. 1. A brochure on organization of intelligence work… History of classic battles bombs, guns, anti-tank weapon, 2 telephones and 2cables. 5 automatics jackets 20 soldiers’ Izgubljena pobeda Generala Markosa. Gradjanski rat u Grckoj 1946-1949. i KPJ, Jugoslavija u Ujedinjenim Nacijama 136 135 The Commission concluded that no that concluded Commission The , pp.71-76. 134 137 Top 59 CEU eTD Collection 140 139 furthering the Communist cause in the Greek Civil War. Vojvodina. It was,in a way,a revolutionary cell in which everything was subordinated to 138 organized. Greece was also fighters ofAegean to Macedonia Macedonian sending 240demobilized to Buljkes. They are transportedinformed Healsotowns). Rankovicthateach20-25people for day transportation arrives to Greece (Macedonian Bitolj and Dojrane Djevdjelija, in of regions wereorganized roads three without delay the samesending people the side,other to aswellall services”. courier the thatpurpose For night. An action of Rankovic in November1946,he complete histhat states agency“took control over comprised of (510of Macedonians Slav 4,030). battle formations of GDA were formed onlyin1946. One August partof forcesthese was playedinsurgenceMacedonia, the inwest roleorganized first the key inraising an since group on4July.Gramos This battlefield of the 1946andreached Buljkes on1July Greece. to and officers weapons the State Security by implemented andtheywere Rankovic Aleksandar was of projects these coordinator Agency (UDBA). General Jovo Kapicic was in charge of sending through Bulgaria,through they after finished training. Greece, usually months. sentto lasted for Theywere three that people courses passed the in“students” military the academy of Buljkes and until beginningthe of 1947 around 600 Iatrides, “National and International Aspects”, pp.205-207 Kirjazovski,and pp. 118-120. Ristovic, “Eksperiment Buljkes”, pp. 179-186. Bojan B. Dimitrijevic, B. Bojan Thus,much more Buljkes was than a peaceful,though unusual, village in In the report of UDBA lieutenant-colonel Voja Biljanovic sent to Aleksandar to sent Biljanovic Voja lieutenant-colonel of UDBA report In the 141 JNA odStaljina do NATO pakta 138 In middlethe werearound 112 of 1946, there 140 139 , Beograd, 2005, p.p. 128-9. The first group left Theof people group firstthese 60 CEU eTD Collection 141 were disrupted again ones odyssey continued. and their refugee entire population to Czechoslovakia via Hungary. In that way the lives of these people leadership disband decided to “the GreekRepublic” in September 1949by sending the inhabitants in village,the were openly pro-Stalinist andanti-Yugoslav, Yugoslav the outnumbered them by large. Since the majority of the KKE members, as well as of other caused conflicts between a small group of “Titoists” and the “Stalinists” who disbanding of Buljkes “commune” in summerthe of 1949. Thenew political context The clash between Yugoslavia andtheSovietUnion in about1948, brought the The Epilogue ASM, CC CPY, CIR,507, IX,33/VI-1-48, 18 November1946. 61 CEU eTD Collection conclusion isconclusion thatthe disillusionedrefugees anddissatisfied who came from Turkey refugees of Greek and Macedonian ethnicity respectively. In the case of Greeks, the Greek Civil War refugees to flee their country, Ilook into the case of the Civil War In illustrating the complex interplay of ethnicity politicaland factors influencedthat the interaction. this of werearesult refugees The War theCold confrontations. complicated additionally rafts already existent problems in the country and the already existent inter-ethnical and social the aggravated involvement in time. international Greece of The the complex situation still existent. These two levels overlapped and interacted with each other creating a rather were rivalries inter-ethnic and frontiers “local” national the frontier, War Cold symbolic a movement, Communist by “anewland” attacked International the the time represented proved to be extremely important. To use the notion of “the frontier”, though Greece at region the legacies of historical the catalyst, roleof the the played certainly circumstances fates. people’s important partininfluencing the eruption of GreekCivilWarthe andinshaping these perspective of population movementsEurope’s and regional specificities playedthat an a broader into them putting refugees these contextualize to aims mythesis of part The first passed. was Reconciliation” “National Law onNational the life,when refugee totheirreturn home inThey decadesof country the1980safter only were allowed to inlive Block. of exiledandforced of thousands to countries the Eastern were the people As a result of a bloody Civil War in Greece in the aftermathCONCLUSION of the World War II, tens of It seems that in the case of the Greek Civil War refugees, although political in although seems War refugees, It caseof that GreekCivil the the 62 CEU eTD Collection suffered before they decided toleave Greece and Itry to depict the circumstances they exile.giveparticularly, the during I account abrief people of these repression the ended upin Yugoslavia, what the lives of these people actually looked like before and, one trying to show in more detail, through a case study of Greek Civil War refugees who In the second part of my thesis I turn from a global and a regional perspective to a local part of the Right, but raptures within the Communist movement, as well. formerof the on the harsher only treatment not influenced, Greeks andthe Macedonians awakened and brought totheir thatexisted culmination. cleavage The between Slavthe larger degree, but never completely eliminated. During the Civil War they were nationalities or the ethnic groups were always present,sometimes dormant toasmaller or ethnicity was capricious from very the beginning. between animosities The the and Slav Greek of of population co-existence with of Macedonia Province Northern area of mixed population is what makes it afrontier zone. The dichotomy of the Greek andan ethnicities different two between area of rivalry wasacontested province northern its factthat the but by from borderline, a Yugoslavia Greece wasseparated intersected. a space whereinfluences of Greece, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria and cultural political The Slav Macedonians inhabited the Northern Province Greek of Macedonia, which was 1920s under approving the eye international of the community. by extent population transferin forced agreedupon between the Greece and Turkey the war, itself, was a result of a deep cleavage in Greek society aggravated to an explosive and thus they were among those who had to flee the country during the Civil War. The Left refugees mostly tothe adhered andfought on side Communistthe war, during the played partin animportant Greeksociety polarizing in These period. interwar the 63 CEU eTD Collection circumstances that surrounded the fate of fatesurrounded of refugees of the the War. that GreekCivil the circumstances the of web complex the extant, an to disentangling, by field the to contribute to managed period from 1960s to 1980s and afterwards. Nevertheless, Ihope that, by this thesis, I and that is left tonew scholarly works on the topic is the destiny of the refugees in the which should be covered in the future. One of the issues that has been largely neglected lacunas, many has still it on literature existing the that and one, complex a very and vast In the end I should, perhaps,mention that the issue of the Greek Civil War refugees is a documents. emergesfrom the one that morewith plausible a events of representation official the juxtaposing in Yugoslavia settling when encountered 64 CEU eTD Collection The The Borba, 1946-1949. IX, 33/II–1-8, box12; IX/33/III –1-30), box 12; IX, 33/IV-1-19, box12. forCommission international Greece,EAMrelations, (1945-47)and ELAS (1944-50), The Archives of Serbia and Montenegro, Fond of the Central Committee of the CPY, boxes 2-6. forCommission international Greece,therelations, KKE,1946-1949, IX/33/ I – 101-711, The Archives of Serbia and Montenegro, Fond of the Central Committee of the CPY, Greek Refugees, IX, 1944-1973, 33/V-1-267, boxes 13-15. 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