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Joodse Stadjers J OODSE STADJERS GRONINGER HISTORISCHE REEKS Onder redactie van: prof. dr. P.Th.F.M. Boekholt, voorzitter dr. IJ. Botke, prof.dr. A.H. Huussen dr. J. Kossmann-Putto, dr. C.P.J. van der Ploeg 26 Voor eerder in de reeks verschenen delen zie pagina 236 Verschijnt tevens als deel 11 van de serie Bouwstoffen voor de geschiedenis van de Joden in Nederland, die de Mr. J.H. De Vey Mestdagh Stichting uitgeeft Dit werk is uitgegeven in opdracht van de in 1986 in het lev en geroepen Stichting Groninger Historische Publicaties. Het bestuur van de Stichting bestaat uit: mr. T.R. Hidma, voorzitter; prof. dr. P.Th.F.M. Boekholt, secretaris; mr. J.D. Meerburg, penningmeester; drs. J.W. Boersma, drs. J.F.J. van den Broek, G. During, R.H. van der Sleen. JOODSE STADJERS De joodse gemeenschap in de stad G roningen, 1796-1945 S TEFAN VAN DER POEL 2004 = KONINKLIJKE VAN GORCUM Opgedragen aan Inge Apt-Joseph en Jan de Vey Mestdagh © 2004, Koninklijke Van Gorcum BV, Postbus 43, 9400 AA Assen. Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige v orm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch,mechanisch,doorfotokopieën, opnamen, of enig andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever. Voor zover het maken vankopieënuitdeze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16B Auteurswet 1912 j0, het Besluit van 20 juni 1974, St.b. 351, zoals gewijzigd bij het Besluit van 23 augustus 1985, St.b. 471 en artikel 17 Auteurswet 1912, dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 882, 1180 AW Amstelveen). Voor het overnemen van gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloemlezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (artikel 16 Auteurswet 1912) dient men zich tot de uitgev er te wenden. NUR 693 ISBN 90 232 4015 4 De uitgave vanditboekismedemogelijkgemaaktdoordefinanciëlesteunv an de Stichting Erven A. de Jager. Grafische verzorging: Koninklijke Van Gorcum, Assen I NHOUDSOPGAVE INLEIDING . 7 1 BESTUURLIJKE INTEGRATIE EN CENTRALISATIE . 15 VAN NEDERLANDSE JODEN NAAR ISRAèLITISCHE NEDERLANDERS 2 ARMOEDE . 29 OVER ‘SJNORRERS’EN ‘BRUTALE BEDELAARS’ 3 ONDERWIJS . 37 ‘TER VERBETERING DES HARTEN, DE VERLICHTING DES VERSTANDS EN DE BESCHAVING VAN ZEDEN EN MANIEREN’ 4 A FSCHEIDING . 55 HOE DE INVOERING VAN KOORGEZANG TOT ‘TWEESTEMMIGHEID’LEIDDE 5 VERANDEREND JOODS LEVEN: DE JOODSE BUURT . 73 ‘SPOREN VAN ASSIMILATIE EN JOODS VERVAL’ 6 ZIONISME . 103 PALESTINA ALS ‘GEESTELIJK VADERLAND’ 7 VLUCHTELINGEN . 121 ‘MEVROUW SPEELT GRAAG DE GROTE DAME’ 8 OORLOG . 131 ‘DE EIGENLIJKE BEPROEVING DER KARAKTERS’ E PILOOG . 149 ‘EN RACHEL BEWEENDE HAAR KINDEREN’ B ESLUIT . 161 BIJLAGEN . 167 6 G EBRUIKTE AFKORTINGEN . 187 NOTEN . 189 ARCHIEVEN . 213 LITERATUUR . 215 INTERVIEWS . 227 VERANTWOORDING BEELDMATERIAAL . 229 REGISTER VAN GEOGRAFISCHE NAMEN EN PERSOONSNAMEN 230 SUMMARY . 237 I NLEIDING Elie A. Cohen (1909-1993) gr oeide op in de F olkingestraat, de straat die lange tijd het centr um vormde vande‘joodsebuur t’1 in Groningen. Een straat waar z owel joden2 als niet-joden leefden en waar zich niet alleen de synagoge, het rabbinaatshuis en een joods leerhuis ( Ets Haïm) bevon- den, maar ook een christelijke lagere school. De bewoners van de Folkingestraat waren vooral klei- ne middenstanders: bakkers, slagers, poeliers, kledinghandelaren,eenenkelecafé-enhotelhouder. Een wat opmerkelijker etablissement was het bordeel, of Ð zoalshettoenheette–‘cafémetdames- bediening’,vandeniet-joodse‘ moeke Niemeijer’3; ook dit v ormde een onder deel van de straat. Elie woonde er schuin tegenover en schreef over‘moeke’: Ook wij jongetjes stonden op goede v oet met moeke N iemeijer en de bij haar inwonende vr ouwen. We deden graag boodschappen voor ze, en ieder jaar mochten wij met Kerstmis cadeautjes halen, die bij de stralende kerst- boom op ons lagen te wachten. Wij vonden dit de meest normale zaak v an de wereld.4 Dit beeld vanjoodsejongetjescadeautjesuitpakkendonder‘moeke’s’kerstboomstondmijbijhet schrijven geregeld voor ogen. Het symboliseertinmeerdanéénopzichtdematevan integratie die de Groningse joden rond 1920 hadden bereikt. Een integratie die, staatsrechtelijk gezien, aanving met het emancipatiedecr eet uit 1796 Ð waarmee de politieke gelijkstelling v an de joden in Nederland een feit w erd Ð en die abr upt werd onderbroken door de D uitse inval in 1940 en de daarop volgende anti-joodse maatregelen. Na 1796 be woog de joodse gemeenschap zich eigenlijk tussen tw ee polen, integratiestreven ener- zijds en identiteitsbehoud anderzijds. Het laveren tussen beide polen leverde regelmatig spanningen en conflicten op. In Groningen ontlaadden deze zich bijvoorbeeld in de vorm van een afscheiding en de stichting van een nieuwe gemeente. Geleidelijk aan kreeg het integratiestreven de overhand. Zo traden grote veranderingen op binnen de bestuurlijke verhoudingen, het onderwijs, de religie en INLEIDING 8 het dagelijkse leven van de joodse bev olking. Wat eens de joodse identiteit z o typeerde ging in de loop van de negentiende eeuw steeds meer v erloren. Eigenlijkwasdesituatievóór1796r elatief overzichtelijk, aangezien toen de begrippen joden- dom en joodse identiteit nog geheel samenvielen. Werd iemand uit een joodse moeder gebor en, dan behoordehijofzijtotdejoodse‘natie’,wasmenlidvan de joodse gemeente, leefde men vol- gens de joodse w etten en geboden, en tr ouwde men binnen eigen kring. H et onderscheid tussen volk en r eligie w erd toen nog niet gemaakt. O nder invloed v an de modernisering v erloor het jodendom daarentegen veel van zijn bindingskracht. Joden werden na 1796 door de overheid niet langer beschouwd als behor end tot een apar tenatie,maar‘ slechts’alsledenv an een r eligieuze gemeenschap. N et z oals er katholieke en pr otestantse burgers war en, bestonden er v anaf dit momentookjoodseburgers,ofbeter‘Israëlitische’burgers,aangezien het woord‘jood’altenega- tieve associaties opriep. Van‘Nederlandse joden’veranderden zij zoin‘IsraëlitischeNederlanders’. Blootgesteldaande‘stralen der Verlichting’verloren de joden meer van hun traditionele levens- stijl. Zo werd het Jiddisch na verloop van tijd niet meer gespr oken, werd de band met de joodse godsdienst en gemeente steeds losser, paste men de synagogedienst aan naar protestants voorbeeld en werd via het onderwijsgetracht‘beschaafdeburgers’van de joodse onderdanen te maken. Deze ontwikkelingen roepen de vraag op of er sinds de Verlichting nog wel sprake is v an een gemeenschappelijke joodse identiteit. D e twijfel en dubbelzinnigheid hier omtrent blijken soms reeds uit de boektitels die aan de ze problematiek zijn gewijd: The non-Jewish Jew and other essays van Isaac Deutscher, ÜberZwang und Unmöglichkeit,Jude zu sein van JeanAméry en Le juif ima- ginaire van Alain Finkielkraut. Beperken we ons tot Nederland dan springen de opmerkingen van Jaap Meijer in het oog. H ij concludeerdedathet‘J oods gezien’inN ederland al afgelopen was ‘vóórdat de moffen kwamen’.5 Wanneermen‘joodseidentiteit’gelijksteltaaneenleven dat wordt gedomineerd door de strik- te naleving van overgeleverde religieuze wetten en voorschriften, dan valt er voor Meijers uitspraak ook voor Groningen veel te zeggen. In mijn ogen dient men het begrip echter in een br eder kader te plaatsen. Joodse identiteit is, net als iedere andere identiteit, een dynamisch begrip dat in de loop der tijd v oortdurend een ander e invulling kr eeg; het laat zich w el omschrijven, maar niet nauw - keurigennormatiefdefiniër en. Sinds de Verlichting is de traditionele joodse identiteit v ervangen door verschillende joodse identiteiten, uiteenlopend v an seculiere zionisten tot or thodox levende joden, tot degenen die het ge zamenlijk nuttigen van kippensoep op vrijdagav ond beschouwen als het restant van hun jood-zijn. Voor velen betekende de D uitse bezetting en de daarmee gepaar d gaande anti-joodse maatregelen een gedwongen confrontatie met hun joodse achtergrond. Op basis van zogenaamde raciale criteria w erd men plotseling w eerals‘jood ’geklassificeerd en gescheiden van de gemeenschap waar van men dacht deel uit te maken. D eze traumatische oorlogser varingen bepalen tegenwoordig in belangrijke mate de joodse identiteit. 6 In die zin zou je zelfs kunnen spre- ken van een lotsgemeenschap. Imre Kertész,deHongaarse schrijver en Nobelprijswinnaar, stelt dat hij pas in Auschwitz‘jood’isgeworden en spreekt in dit verband van een negatieve identiteit. INLEIDING 9 Ik heb er nooit aan gedacht dat ik een jood ben, behalve op momenten dat ik in gevaar was. Mijn joodse iden- titeit manifesteerdezichdanechternietalsiets‘innerlijks ’,maaraltijdalsietsnegatiefs,alseenbeper king, als een uiterlijke determinant.7 Gezien dezekanttekeningenmogehetduidelijkzijndatikhetbegrip‘joodseidentiteit ’binnen mijn onderzoek in een zo breed mogelijke context plaats, en w el als een product van traditionele waarden,houdingenenideeën,endeinvloedendiehetmoderniseringspr oces hierop uitoefende. Deideeëndietengrondslag lagen aan het streven van joden naar verdere integratie, kwamen voort uit algemene opv attingen die in de loop v an de achttiende eeuw war en ontwikkeld omtr ent de gelijkwaardigheid van mensen en de tolerante houding w elke ten aanzien v an andersdenkenden zou moeten worden betracht. Waren het de F ransen die in ons land v eranderingen van politieke en bestuurlijke aard initieerden waarbij de autonomie v an de joodse gemeenschappen steeds v er- der werd ondergraven, het was de D uits-joodse Verlichtingsbeweging rond Mozes Mendelssohn
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