An Introduction

AN INTROD UCTION »

D E SIG NED C H I EFLY FO R T H OSE CE LTS AND OT H E RS I N GRE AT BRITA I N WHO D E IRE A IT ERARY A C UA I NTA NCE S L Q , T HRO UGH THE E NG I H A NGUA GE WIT H L S L , T H E I R R E LATIVE S A ND NE IGH BO URS I N LITTLE BRITA I N

P E CY T E J. R R ASU RE

’ ’ M ember of M e Council of {be Cormsﬁ - Cellzc S ociety

456W

R M R EN : W S UR RE LL N CA A TH . P SO

M D CCCCIII .

P R E F A C E .

TH E principa l obj e ct wh ich inﬂue nce d the write r i n — bringing o ut th is sm all vo l um e was a n e e d adm itte d to e xist by n o t a fe w co mpe te nt to fo rm a n O pini o n f o r s o m e sim ple e xp o siti o n i n E nglish o f th e Gramm ar o f h e o a ua e wh h wo u be o f e v e to t e Br t n L ng g , ic ld s r ic th at large a n d rapidly gro wing se cti o n o f th e British race which de sire s a n acqua inta nce with th e lite rature a n d l a nguage o f the ir Arm o rica n re l ati ve s in Little

a Of h e o a o e ab e o o o h a Brit i n . t is s cti n c nsid r l pr p rti n ve be e n de te rre d by the ir i mpe rfe ct kn o wl e dge o f th e third h An d la nguage ithe rt o e sse nti a l to such a cqua inta nce . th is d e finiti o n o f its sco pe m ay be sa id to de t e rm in e th e ‘ ’ m o f S h e e o f ue e f o r th e w e m a e li its its p r infl nc , rit r k s n o pre te nce to h ave c o m pile d a tre atise by the m aste ry o f wh h the o o u be u e u o him ic , tyr c ld j stifi d i n s pp sing se lf fully e quippe d f o r th e pu rpo se o f s ust aining a co n ve a o th e e o a ua w a h rs ti n in Br t n l ng ge . It ill r t e r se e k — to d e m o nstrate by r u le a n d p a radigm m a ny o f the

' fo rm e r stra nge ly fa m ili a r o n t/zz s side o f the Ch a n ne l — th e high de gre e o f e xce lle nce att a in e d by th is a ncie nt o ue a n d a h u e to e t o a n d h a t ng , its f it f ln ss its C l ic rigin ; t t to o e e bo h o m e e o a , d spit t its c pl t is l ti o n fro m its co n

e n e rs G e a a as we as th e e e ff g in r t Brit in , ll r pr ssi ve e o rts

ut o h o m m e to me e a n d e to p f rt fr ti ti , dir ctly indir ctly , e ve h a ua e o f ve e e e d pri t is l ng g its ry xist nc . Th at the go ve rn m e nt o f a co u ntry wh ich ad o pts as 6 PREFACE . e mbo h h e o a a a o the m o o dying its ig st p litic l spir ti ns tt , ‘ ’ be E ua a n d a e ho u at Li rty , q lity , Fr t rnity , s ld the be ginning o f th is twe ntie th ce ntu ry be co mpassing the e xtincti o n o f a l a nguage ve rn acul ar to s o me two m o o f b ave a n d m o e vo e e to illi ns its r st st d t d citiz ns is , the m o e h a - um a e o a a r ppily circ st nc d Brit n , str nge ly a n o m alistic p o siti o n ! To ﬁnd a p aralle l to such a n arbitrary a n d aut o cra tic m e asu re as th at issue d by the e h e o f S ua Affa a n d a e Se Fr nc Minist r pirit l irs , d t d p e mbe 2 th 1 0 2 whe e b o ve o n e m o e o t r 9 , 9 ( r y r illi n Br t n

' pe o ple are de pri ve d o f all e ﬂe cti ve re l i gi o u s i nstructi o n by the insiste nce th at such instructi o n be gi ve n in e h on l h a n e e a f o r u s G e a Fr nc y), it is ppily c ss ry i n r t Brita in to go as f ar back as the tim e o f th e Re fo rm a ti o n ; wh e n the p arti ally- u nd e rst o o d Latin se r vice bo o was w h a w o m the o h h u h o n k it dr n fr C rnis C rc , the e xce lle nt ple a th a t all p ublic wo rsh ip sho uld be — ‘ o ffe re d in acco rd a nce with Ap o st o lic pre ce pt i n a — kn o wn t o ngue at th e sam e tim e w ith th e ut m o st i n

' co nse que nce the auth o ritie s i mpo se d a n E ng lz sfz s e r vice bo o h a o n e wo o f wh h was e b e to th e k , rdly rd ic int lligi l C o rnish pe Ople ! Th at pri vile ge wh ich th e We lsh we re p o we rful e n o ugh to se c u re to th e mse lve s by a u la E ab h xi h a e h e . . t e st t t e w ( v . liz t ; xiii v C rl s o h o n th e e o o f he A o h e e o n C rnis , p titi n t ir ngl p il g ntry ( c omme rci a l o u ro/z a ri ah / as we as o n a o u gr ndsp p V , ll cc nt M h o f he e a ve m a u mbe o . a t e e o t ir r l ti ly s ll n rs , l st y Br t n

e e a e the a e o f he o h o u fo r pe o pl sc p f t t ir C rnis c sins , ' / f a m p roxz m us a rde t Uc a leg on

’ Po lwhe le s L te rature rn wa . p . 4 i of Co ll PREFACE . 7

a o o w h Th e ge ne sis o f th is little wo rk is s f ll s . Wit

b e a e a e be th e w e o bu e the o j ct lr dy d scri d , rit r c ntri t d m o nth by m o nth a se ri e s o f p a pe rs to th e Ce ltic Ass o ’ ’ i n s o a Celtz a a n d h av h e a o m e ve ciat o rg n , ing rd s ry e e o o f a e a o h e was e o u a e kind xpr ssi ns ppr ci ti n , nc r g d the re by to h o pe th at with th e a dditi o n o f o the r re le va m a e he e a e m h e ve e t h h e u r nt tt r , t s p p rs ig t s r y ig r p b o o o m p o se if printe d i n k f r . m e h o h w o o o w m o e o r e o e the In t d , t is rk f ll s , r l ss cl s ly , t e a m e o f A m o G a m m a b Le Go n ide c a ve r t nt r ric r r y , ry m m a a V ille m ar u é h e o o f e o a . t e H ct r Br t n gr ri ns q , e a e h o a o n Le Go n ide c h as a o w h a l rn d sc li st , l id it d n t t ‘ the di a le ct o f Léo n is f o r th e Bre to ns th at wh ich th e ’ A was f o r th e G e e a n d b o u a h has ttic r ks , y p st l ting t is , re nde re d u nn e ce ssa ry a n y e xpl a n ati o n fro m fut u re w e o n e o a mm a as to wh tba t a e o f rit rs Br t n gr r y di l ct , a ll the va a e o f a h o u be e e e rying di l cts Britt ny , s ld s l ct d f r a a F a h b o e e e ve e . o r o u e r pr s nt ti pl c in Britt ny , it s ld

' re m e m be re d we h ave o u we - de ﬁ n e d a e a racti , f r ll r s (p c a di oce sa n o f a e a m e e u e Leo n lly ) di l ct ; n ly , Tr g i r , , C o o ua e a n d V a e a n d m a o f h e e ff e th e rn ill , n n s , ny t s di r o n e fr o m the o the r a s e xte nsi ve ly as th e y all do fro m

e h o r a o m S o h o r h Gae An . d W ls , M nx fr c tc Iris lic n o t o so bu t w h h e e a e a o m m u e va th nly , it in t s r s , c n s ry e d i o ce sa n ve rn acular a lm o st to th e e xte nt o f the diffe r e e be we e o h a n d So u h a a a n d e a e nc t n N rt t W li n , gr t r t h an th a t wh ich di vide s be t we e n N o rth a n d So uth - side

a o au h a n d u e - h o r e ve Caith M nx , C nn g t M nst r Iris , n

e a n d A e - S o h Th e me lli n n ss rgyl c tc . ge o u s spe e ch o f h t e V an n e to is m ay co nstitu te him the Ch ryso st o m o f

B a o r e ve o f e o m e th e e f ritt ny , n C ltd its lf; f r vo ur o the P R F E 8 E AC .

Bret o n C o rnish m a n a n d the c o nte m pl ati ve spirituality o f the Tre co rro is h as fu rnishe d E mile So uve stre with abu nd a nt m ate ri al f o r his u nri valle d ske tche s o f Bre t o n life ; b ut it is to th e re ﬁn e d la nguage o f Leo n ais that th e am m a a m u e ve u f o r his m a e a o o w gr ri n st r t rn t ri l , f ll th e a o f Le P e e e o e e a n d Le ing i n tr cks ll ti r , R str n n , i ( i o n de c . It is to the se Fath e rs o f Bre to n gra mm a r th at the w e a e u a o w e e h is e b e e but rit r gr t f lly ckn l dg s ind t dn ss , e e a to the a e fo r h ad n o t Le Go n ide c e e o sp ci lly l tt r , st r e the a ua e a n d b o so ave o m typ d l ng g , y d ing s d it fr

o m e e e a o we e a u e h to - da c pl t disint gr ti n , it r f til t ing y to pr o vide a n a id to u nd e rsta nding th at wh ich n o l o nge r The o o w e a o m the A h ad e xiste nce . f ll ing xtr ct fr p ’ ‘ pe n dix to N o rris C o rnish Dra m a will n o t be with o ut int e re st (a n d p o ssibly i nstruct i o n) to th o se wh o are m e t o a u h bo o a fe w wo a n d o st lik ly t ke p t is k . In rds

m - h a a e o b o e e e e we o e . y s xc dingly ll c s n p r ll ls , Mr N rris ’ ' h as u e e e h o w c o u d ce z l the e e e a s cc d d i n s i ng , p , pr cis r l ‘ tio n ship o f th e Cym ric cl ass ; wh e re in th e We ls/z di ff e rs as m u ch fro m th e two o th e rs C o rnish a n d Bre t o n)

’ as e h o m S a h wh Garm sir an d B re ton Fr nc fr p n is , ilst st a nd i n a cl o se r re l ati o n ; th e se re se mble e ach o the r m o e ha u h a n d Ge ma as m u h e h a as r t n D tc r n , c p r ps P o u e e a n d S a h b ut n o t so Co e as S o h rt g s p nis , l s ly c tc ’ a n d h f m h o a the . e o a e e to t e Iris In spit st t nts c ntr ry , w e o o f o o h a a e o rit r Mr . N rris) is pini n t t Br t n , w h the h o a e e e o f the two a e o u it in ist ric l xist nc di l cts , c ld n o t h ave u nde rsto o d a C o rnish ma n sp e a king at a n y

’ ‘ ’ 8 N rr s rn s Dra ma O r . p . 45 o i Co i h , xfo d F C P RE A E . 9

e h o r o n a n but th e m o v a ub e h e l ngt , y st tri i l s j cts ; is h imse lf u n able to re a d a se nte nce in Bre t o n o f m o re th a n h alf- a - do ze n lin e s with o u t th e h e lp o f a dictio n hm a a h o e o f ar . . Scawe n a o e t e y Mr ( C rnis n), n r cl s th e e ve e e h e u m a e a m a e m a as s nt nt c nt ry , d si il r r rk ’ P V o b a He o b q uo te d in the pre face to ryce s ca ul ry . ‘ ’ e ve : o o f o n e a o he ue h e e o o f s r s W rds n t r , tis tr , t r s rts e o e do u e a a e a e n o t all but m o p pl nd rst nd lt rn t ly ; , stly a o o u e o f o n e a o h e h e do su ch as are radic l . C ll q i s n t r t y ’ ’ ’ P hm a n o t e o . o o r . e e nj y . Mr N rris Dr ryc s W ls n m h o f o u e h ave e e ve a le tte r w e the ig t , c rs , r c i d ritt n in ve rn acu l ar o f Britta ny o r C o rn wa ll a n d re tu rn e d a nswe r hi s o wn w h ou e h e a e e e m u h in , it t it r p rty xp ri ncing c fi u e at th e m e a o f th e o h e but dif c lty i n g tting ning t r , le t such a n o n e atte m pt a c o n ve rsati o n o n th e basis o f u h e v o u u e a a n d h e w mme a e s c pr i s nd rst nding , ill i di t ly be co nvince d o f the co mple te ne ss o f th at pro ce ss o f e a o wh h o m me at abe disint gr ti n ic , c ncing B l , is still i n acti ve o pe rati o n to - day ! I 0 AN INTRODUCTION

ER I CHAPT .

THE A PHABE T L .

Th e o rth o graphy o f th e Bre to n Language is m o re e a h a h a o f o wa but no t so o e as h a x ct t n t t C rn ll , c rr ct t t o f a e w h bo h o f wh h b a h e o f h o W l s , it t ic r nc s Bryt nic e e h o he w e o e e e mb a e o m a sp c it is in t r is cl s r s l nc , idi a a n h a tic lly d p o n e tic lly . o u are a e b th e o o w 2 e e 1 8 Its s nds indic t d y f ll ing 4l tt rs , of wh h ar o a 6 r Th e va ue o f e o a e vo we . ic c ns n nts , ls l

' e a h e e ve E h as we as e the c l tt r is gi n i n nglis ll i n C ltic , grada ti o ns o bse rve d by pre cise Gae lic o rth o graph e rs be h o b e ing give n w e re p ssi l .

‘ ’ E h o e e ve . B C ltic B . nglis xpl si B e o e b u a o o to b o a K C ltic C . M diﬁ d y j xt p siti n r d o r e e vo we as i n sl nd r l , ‘ ’ ‘ ’ 1 E h K k k e e . . nglis in ing , p ‘ ’ ‘ 2 E h h a c o u c ar co m . nglis rd C i n ld , , ’ o f rt . E ‘ ’ e h a h e o ve . D C ltic rd D . nglis xpl si D h ff E h e o . F C ltic p , . nglis str ng f

‘ ' ’ K i s re ue n t wr tte n u the lzttera mena zca sine u ta n ua m f q ly i Q , , q ' ' ' ' — oa czllo mﬁzl otest cl ca m 11 7217117 va let a m /{us ua m k . Fa rra r o n p , p g

re e S nta . I I . G k y x , p I I TO BRETON GRAMMAR .

e G E h h a G ubm to two C ltic . n glis rd , s itting m o diﬁ catio n s

‘ ’ ’ 1 i ‘ . e t . g ft , g ‘ ’ ‘ ’

2 . ua o . g rd , g ‘ ’ Th is le tte r h as bee n Ga llicize d a way u ntil its pre se nt val ue is n o g re a te r th a n the Gre e k spi ri tus le n i s; it se r ve s to pre s e r ve o rth o

a h b u t h as n o o h o e a e . gr p y , rt pic sig nific nc ‘ ’ h o w S e h si arad e S w e e v e . C ltic it sl nd r l i n W ls , ‘ i ’ ‘ ’ n a E h S su e . a d in G e lic s n n . nglis i n r The E h a u a e i s u n f o rtu C e ltic CH . n glis l ng g a e n o t o e h ou Th e e o n t in p ss ssing t is s nd . Br t n ’ e h is at pre se nt in a state o f tra nsiti o n o wing to Gallic infl ue nce : a t th e beg i n n i ng o f wo rds e ue o e e to a s i ri tus a s e r a s it is fr q ntly s ft n d p p , ‘ ’ ’ ‘ in c h o as (pr o n o u nce d h o as whilst at th e ‘ e n d o f a wo h a e o a s P e n rd it rd ns int k , in ’ ’ m arc h (pr o n o u nce d This is a e e h o we ve wh h h o u m e e w h t nd ncy , r , ic s ld t it th e sca nt co nside ra ti o n it de se r ve s at th e h a nds f m o Ce ltic pe o ple re o te fro m th is infl ue nce . It is n o te wo rthy th at th e di sti n c ti ve s o und o f ’ e h h as e h e o m the a e o f V a e p ris d fr di l ct nn s . a o e e e h av n o e a e u va e Is f r ign l tt r , ing lit r l q i l nt

E h o r e but o m m o e h i n nglis C ltic , c n i n Fr nc , ‘ ’ a A l th e wo n o h a s in j rdin . l rds w spe lt w it j a s initi al le tte r a re fo u nd in o lde r wo rks w h th e vo we i a e o f wh e e it l in pl c j, r its ’ h o e va ue h a o f th e e b oa p n tic l is t t H re w y .

Has th e two o u o m m o to Gae e o m s nds c n lic C ltd , alth o ugh in Bre t o n its p o we r is n o t in va ri ably 1 2 AN INTRODUCTION

de cide d by co nt act with bro ad a n d sle nde r h e e w vo we ls . T s t o so u nds o ccu r in E nglish ‘ ’ ‘ ’ I lo t lu m . , p . ‘ li ’ m lli ’ 2 va a ve o . . nt , r i n N e ith e r h e re n o r in C o rnish ca n the We lsh ﬁnd su pp o rt fo r the ir characte ristic aspirate d u liq id Ll .

As e as E h but o a o a i n C ltic , i n nglis , cc si n lly ’ a a e a wa a e e e o as n s liz d ( l ys t nd ncy i n Br t n), h o u h vo u a b o u to the t g i n l nt rily , y pr pi nq ity o o w e e f ll ing l tt r , Has th re e distinct so u nds ‘ r m a a E n n n I Th e o o we s ; a o . . n r l p r , i n g g , ‘ ’ ‘ ’ 2 A E h m n i o n i s o o . . i n nglis i n , n A o u i rre ro du c able o m a n E h 3 . s nd p fr y nglis wo but ufﬁ e e o e bo h rd , s ci ntly r c gniz d t i n

S o h Gae a n d e h a n d a m o c ttis lic Fr nc , l st th e h ighly n a salize d po we r fo u nd i n We lsh ’ f n lza y d . II This le tte r is the distingu ish ing fact o r o f e o e e h as m u h so a s th e o f the Br t n sp c , c Ll ‘ ’ e h a n d th e e u e w a w o f the W ls , r c rr nt , h C o rnis . E As e h e o ve . i n C ltic , nglis xpl si the e b o a a m o o u E h Is C ltic r d R , l st f nd i n nglis ‘ ’ r r S h e e wo ve v u e . rds , y i l nt lig tly l ss trill d ‘ ’ h a e h a n d e ve the a e o f th e t n W ls , n r r gr ss yé

h Th u li t e ra ca ni n a e . e e t Fr nc tr . a b a o f e a e o r e o we but h as Is si il nt gr t r l ss p r , n e ve r the lo w va lue pro p e rly re se r ve d to th e 2 le tte r . 1 TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 3

n h Gae l e e to u a As i n E glis . ic t nd ncy ling l

pro tru si o n sh o uld be avo ide d . h V h F Bh . Gae . We ls . lic E nglis E h Z whe i n i ti a l but be o m m o e nglis n , c ing r o b a the mi ddle o f w o a n d str ngly si il nt in rds , o b at th e te rmi n a ti on o f a wo h o u h p ssi ly rd , t g it is a n o pe n que sti o n wh e th e r 2 co m ing as a te rm in a l le tte r i n dissyllabic a n d p olysyl l abie wo rds sh o u ld be pro n o u nce d a s We lsh ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ = i e E n i h h . h th dd C o r s d ( . nglis in ‘ withe r to wh ich c o nn e cti o n i t m ay i n a Th e m e o u a vari ably be tr ce d . ﬁr r pr n nci h a a e o f No he a ti o n is c r ct ristic rt rn Britt ny .

Th e abo ve cat al o gue o f co ns o n a nt le tte rs is n o t with o ut e e to the o b e va f o r e ve to ho w h o w int r st s r nt , it s r s s a Ce ltic l an guage w he n in a p o siti o n o f iso l ati o n o m o h e a ua e o f o wn am a n d v fr t r l ng g s its f ily , li ing side b e w h a a s e e h ha s th e a e a y sid it L tin p c , , in ﬁrst pl c , m arke d t e nde ncy to su rre nde r s o me distincti ve ly Ce ltic o u the e o a e to a o m a e o he s nds ; in s c nd pl c , ppr xi t t r n ati ve so u nds to the st a ndard o f the ir n e ighbo urs ; a n d th e h a e to a o a e an d e mbo o u i n t ird pl c , ppr pri t dy s nds wh h o a o u n o a e a habe a n d ic rigin lly f nd pl c i n its lp t , wh h e e a re o e to th e e u o f the a a ic ind d f r ign g ni s l ngu ge . V e ry fe w su ch ch ange s h ave ta ke n place whe re th e Ce ltic Race h as fou nd itse lf d we lling side by side with th e e u o u h a a e h e e n o h a e o f o u T t nic ; in s c c s t r is c ng s nd , ‘ ’ a n d e o f o m n o e m o f ve a n d a e : the littl idi , syst gi t k

e wh h e a a e u a be we e e a n lin ic s p r t s ling istic lly , t n C lt d e u o aw as h a an d a as h o u h h T t n , is dr n rd f st t g t e y I 4 AN INTRODUCTION h ad but o me o e he e e a c t g t r y st rd y . In this co u ntry

he e n o bo e a whe e e o e e a h a - t r is rd rl nd , r p pl sp k lf We lsh h a - E h h a - h - ha - E h as th lf nglis , lf Iris lf nglis , i n e case o f

o me o w o f a wh e e the i di om s t ns Britt ny , r is wh o lly

e o wh th e voca bula r wh o e h a n d Br t n , ilst y is lly Fr nc , e ve r a e e we m e e h n n vi c s . H r t wit o o e wh o a ddre sse s u s a m e me e o f e h a n d E h in ix d dl y W ls nglis , in Brit

a u h a n o n e is e ue m e t be t h e so n o f t ny s c fr q ntly , ing h o e e e the e m o n e w o so sp k . H r C lt ay spe a k th e a o o n ue m a his a ve o a o u h S x n t g , i p rting n ti int n ti n i n s c a m a e a s to o a m his a o a h o u h e ve n n r pr cl i n ti n lity , t g n r co nsci o u sly a n d o f se t pu rp o se m e rging e ve ry idi o m o f

n e a ua e o t h a o f a o h e but he e a ffi o l ng g int t n t r , t r is n ity a n d a e e e o f u o be we e h m a a n d S a a d gr f si n t n Iris n p ni rd , hm a a n d e hm a e o a n d F e hma o . Sc tc n Fr nc n , Br t n r nc n

he Gau o - a a n d the a o - a v o i m T l L tin Hisp n L tin isit r ,

a o f his o wn h a a e e e h to th e e p rting c r ct ristic sp c C lt , le a ve s be hind trace s o f the ir alli a nce l o ng a fte r such a lli a nce ce ase s to be a m atte r o f c o m m o n kn o wle dge ; but wh e re sh all we se e k f o r si mila r lite ral o r ve rbal inte rch a nge be twe e n Te u t o n a n d Ce lt ? We h ave the so lit a ry e xce pti o n to pro ve o ur r ule i n the case of Gae a a ua e wh h h as o o a e a M a nx lic , l ng g ic i nc rp r t d ce rt ain n u mbe r o f Sca ndin avi a n wo rds within itse lf

‘ ’ a n d be co m e h abituate d to th e m ; but h o w u tte rly insigniﬁca nt th is Te u t o nic e le me nt is i n th e Manx

a e at o e a a e o m a e u a o f P o . la ngu g , is nc pp r nt fr p r s l r f ’ Rhys sch o larly a n d e xh austi ve tre atise o n Manx ‘ w h h ob e e w h a all u h P h o n o lo gyﬂ it t is j ct in vi . T t s c

' M a n c t R s a n d M re s B . S e o l. V xxxiii x o i y , hy oo ook of mm n Pra e r Co o y . TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 1 5 re ce pti vity o n the p art o f Ce ltic is n o t e n ti re ly due to the partly Ce ltic e xtracti o n o f the Fre nch a n d S a h a o b ut h a u h u o a he due to p nis n ti n , t t s c f si n is r t r the a ff inity wh ich e xists be twe e n th e Lati n a n d Ce ltic speec lz m ay be de m o nstrate d by th e l a rge n u mbe r o f Latin wo rds re ce i ve d into th e We lsh la nguage at the m f h m o u a o o f a ti e o t e Ro a n cc p ti n Brit in .

WE S VO L .

he e are umbe A E O U o f T s six i n n r , , , I , , , W , wh h the ﬁ ve h ave a o u b e va ue a lon ic ﬁrst d l l , g

ua n ti t a e b th e u m e a e a n a u e q y, indic t d y circ ﬂ x cc nt ( c t a e th e a e o f vo we E a n d a snort ua n ti t cc nt in c s l ), q y , which is the n o r mal co nditi o n o f the le tte r a n d is u n

b a ua o distingu ishe d y cce nt ti n . The so u nd o f the se vo we ls is th at co m m o n to m o st ‘ ’ e a n d o e a a ua e h o u h th e U f C ltic C ntin nt l l ng g s , t g o the e o o e n o t o o w the U o u o f the e h Br t n d s f ll s nd W ls , but th e n o rm al va lue o f th at vo we l th ro ugh o ut Ce lt m do .

The val ue o f th e diphth o ng ve ry re adily re so l ve s e e a h e e m a e ua o wn u va its lf, c l tt r i p rti ng q lly its n rying

o u so h a h e e n o o a o to bu e s nd , t t t r is cc si n rd n the

e a e w h u e f o r h e o e o u a o l rn r it r l s t ir pr p r pr n nci ti n . The s o u nds qu ite n atu rally ble nd w ith o n e a n o the r i n a m a e wh h a o be o h e ha a u a e nn r ic c nn t t r t n cc r t . The We lsh re ade r o f Bre t o n (a n d to a ce rta in e xte nt the E h e a e m a f o r all a a u o e nglis r d r) y, pr ctic l p rp s s , e a th e o mb a o OU as his e e b wh tr t c in ti n l tt r W , y ich pla n AN INTRODUCTION h e w ill be sa ve d m u ch tro uble i n the n ot u nco mm o n e e o f th re e o r o u vo we o o a o v nt ﬁnding E f r ls i n c ll c ti n . As wo u a e a to h a ve be e the a e o h ld pp r n c s in C rnis , a n d as is u nd o ubte dly th e case in E nglish (le ss in a mm a a e a e rovi nc i a l E h the va ue gr tic l , gr t r in p nglis ), l o f the vo we l i n e ach p articu lar district is n o t abso l ute ly e a n d the e a e m a a o w h m e a e a e ﬁx d , l rn r y ll i s lf gr t r de gre e o f latitude i n th is m atte r tha n wo uld be safe i n m a the at te r o f We lsh o r G e lic . TO T M 1 BRE ON GRAM AR . 7

CHAPTE R I I .

THE A T C E R I L .

‘ h is e e e G a mm a o f th e o h a ua e In xc ll nt r r C rnis l ng g , Je e u e the h o f ha a ua e to a n Mr . nn r disp t s rig t t t l ng g i e e a e be o f o o h a u h u a e nd finit rticl , ing pi ni n t t s c s g is trace able to a Sax o n so urce a n d is fo re ign to the m ve a ua e an d h o e o he a m o pri iti l ng g , in t is c nt nti n is l st But use e e e i ce rta inly c o rre ct . its is l ss xt nsive n o h h a e o wh h a ua e wh a e ve C rnis t n in Br t n , i n ic l ng g , t r o va ue a o be o e n o r e va its rigin , its l c n n t ign r d , its pr l e nce de nie d . It m ay be we ll f o r u s he re to re co lle ct th at i n this la ngu age we fi n d th at ch aracte ristic te nde ncy o f Ce ltic spe e ch which m ake s f o r pe rfe ct e uph o ny a n d u n i n te r ru te d flue n ce be we e wo a n d wo e e e an d p t n rd rd , s nt nc e e e a e to h he h o f e ve o me s nt nc , c rri d its ig st pitc d l p nt .

To u h a n e e o e h e e o th a n o t on l s c xt nt d s t is t nd ncy g , t y do we ﬁnd a syste m o f i ni ti a l mut ati o n carri e d to a o be o o h e e a ua e but a o a p int y nd t r C ltic l ng g s , ls syste m o f e uph o nic te rmi n a l m u tati o n (u nco nne cte d with a e a a e wh h be e o e ccid nt l sign iﬁc nc ) ic , ing r c gnis d i n part b o he am e o f e o m h as the e o l y t r f ili s C ltd , in Br t n an

m - ﬁ n a guage its e xtre e ly we ll de e d pl ce . Th is te nde ncy is we ll e xe mpliﬁe d by the Bre to n A e rticl .

The M ss. w c he has n e rm tte me to se of hi h ki dly p i d e . 2 .AN INTRODUCTION

T HE DEFINITE ARTICLE .

h a e w e h e e o m viz T is rticl is ritt n i n t r f r s , — ANN be fo re a vo we l a n d c o ns o n a nts D AL—be e h o a fo r t e c nso n nt L . AR—b o e all th e o o a ef r o r c ns n nts .

T HE INDEFINITE ARTICLE .

h a e a o o u h e e o m viz T is rticl i s ls f nd i n t r f r s , BU —be o e a vo we a n d o o a NN f r l c ns n nts D N T . E L— e h o a U b fo re t e c nso n nt L . R— ll h a E U be fo re a o t e r co ns o n nts .

Bo th of th e se Article s a re subj e ct to de cle nsio n u h o u all a th ro g t c se s .

d ﬁ n In e ite .

No min ative a rm or a l or a r c un n or e ul or e ur Acc usa ti ve a n n a l at c un n e ul e ur

e n t ve c uz a n n e fi z a l e fiz a r c uz a c un n e frz a e ul e fiz a e ur G i i , , , , ’ ' ’ ’ ’ ’ D ati ve d a n n d a l d a r d e un n d e u l d e ur

P LU RAL . Nomi nati ve a n n a l a r Acc usa ti ve a n n a l ar * ‘ e n t ve cuz an n c uz a l e ﬁ z ar c uz a c uz a e ti z a G i i , , , , ’ ’ ’ Dati ve d a n n d a l d ar da da da

The re is n o o ccasi o n f o r the Bryth o n o - Ce ltic a rticle to ubm to ha e o e to a e e e h s it c ng in rd r indic t g nd r , t is e e m e b th e a m u a o as u mbe be ing d t r in d y in iti l t ti n , n r b i n ﬂe xio n the u e e w a e o . is indic t d y , in s cc ding rd In o a e w h e e a e a e the e e co ns n nc it g n r l C ltic pr ctic , d ﬁnit

T s is c urse un tra n s atab e n t E n s hi , of o , l l i o gli h .

2 0 AN INTRODUCTION

E R I I I CHAPT .

THE PR ONOUN

P ro n o m in al us age s are fre que nt a n d vari e d i n the e a ua e Br to n l ng g . e a o f th e o o u h o u be bo e m In tr ting pr n n , it s ld rn in i nd th at tho ugh the pro n o u n m ay t a ke a like fo rm in diff e r o n a e e o e e a n d u mbe e t t c s s , p rs ns , g nd rs , n rs , y its sig n iﬁ catio n is re nde re d e ntire ly u n ambigu o u s by a n e labo rate a n d inge ni o us syste m o f initi al m utati o n ‘ ‘ w be e x a e the h a e o n which ill pl in d i n c pt r Mutati o n .

T S HE PER ONAL PRONOUN .

N omi n a tive Ca se .

u Pl ral .

M e a m or e m h o n or h o r , Ni , ’ ’ ’ Té az or e z e c h h o u ho or h o h , , C i , c

H n fe m hi hé Hi h o e . ( ) , ,

Acc usa tive Ca se .

I M a a m o u n e n me Ho r or ho n o m im us . , [ , ] [ p , p] ’ 2 Ta az o ud e z the e Ho or h o h hu on . , [ , ] c [ ] y hi m Ho hi Ha n h e n or b e h . 3 . , r , e , fe m hé h i he r ( .) , 2 1 TO BRETON GRAMMAR .

ve e e n i tiva ll Acc usa ti n s d G y .

’ ’ I Ac h an o un o me Ac h an o m . ( f ) p ’ ’ ’ 2 Ac h an o d o thee Ac h ano c h . ( f ) An éz h an o him An éz h o 3 . ( f ) An éz h i (of ) he r

L TI — h o u h th e o o u a s h u ve E ! P ANA ON . T g pr n n t s gi n m a h ave a n vo ve a e a a e ' n o t u h y in l d pp r nc , it is s c i n

a a s the o l o w e a at o w h o w . f ct , f l ing xpl n i ns ill s 1 Th e o m ua e b a e are the o o m a . f r s i n sq r r ck ts pr n in l te rmin ati o ns o f th at Ce ltic (a n d u se fu l) co mb in ati o n o f e o o w h ro n o un as : Ga e wi th me an e z pr p siti n it p fr n n ( ), g , ’ m a n é h a n tho Hé z o u n wi th a n th an an éo oc . g ; g p , g , g p ( ’ o u t m e hé z o ud hé z ha n hé z o m hé z o c h hé zhoi ) p , p ; p p , p , p Th 2 n d e o u a A u a a e h a 2 . e ve u p rs n pl r l , cc s ti C s [ ] is e m a a a n d e ve to u he u h th e t r in l insist nt , s r s f rt r disting is

e o as M ar - h u i YO U wi sh p rs n kirit (f ). ’ The A e a e e h 3 . lt rn ti v pre ce de s vo we ls The i e h a e o f 4. nt rc ng bro ad with sle nde r vo we ls (a

" ’ i D da) i n c n un ct n w t a r n un i s the s n the a t ve , o j io i h p o o ig of d i ’ ‘ ’ ’ ca se a m z zid to m a the r az c ar to our sister , d , y f ; d ho , y .

“ Pr R s r ar s t s t t c sm - 1 of . hy eg d he se yn he i i s as e vide nce of prc Aryan n ﬂu nce i e . 2 2 AN INTRODUCTION with e ) i n co nj u ncti o n with th e same co ns o n a nt will h e a e V e b a e be e a e e . . v . . xpl in d r ft r ( r l nclitics , q p he e are m a u e f o r the o o o f h r 5 . T r ny r l s p siti n t e p o o u —all ham o w h e u a e a n d o e n n i n r ny it C ltic s g , n n p e cu li a r to Bre to n ; but i n simpl e co nstructi o n the ob e ve o o u o o w o e the ub e j cti pr n n f ll s cl s ly s j cti ve .

’ M e ho trugaréka I tha n k y ou

T HE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN .

Th o o u a e two o m th e o f wh h i s is pr n n t k s f r s , ﬁrst ic ide ntical with th e pri ma ry fo rm o f the accusati ve ca s e o f the e o a o o u a n d wh h m a be a e the p rs n l pr n n , ic y c ll d si m le o m the e o e o ab o u e o e o p f r ; s c nd , d n ting s l t p ss ssi n , h e m ha tic o m m ay be style d t e p f r .

n Plura . Si gular. l

I M a or va m o r mz n e Ho n or h o l or h o r . y ’ 2 Ta or da th o r thi n e o h or he . y H c He his Ho 3.

E m ha ti c F orm p .

1 M a h or m ve r Ho n h or h o r re our . ini ré y y ini ow n ve ry own ’ 2 Ta h or th ve r o h h or he re our . ini ré y y H c ini y ow n ve ry ow n r the i r ve r Hé h in i or ré his ve ry Ho h ini o re y . o wn own O A 2 T BRETON GR MMAR . 3

[ Ji n i o r re be ing u se d acco rding to whe th e r the pos h u a r u a u mbe se ssi o n indicate d is i n t e sing l r o pl r l n r .

R TH E DEMONSTRATIVE P ONOUN .

Th e e m o a ve o o u e o ve e a d nstr ti pr n n in Br t n is ry x ct , h aving m a ny subtle shade s o f m e a ning u n kn o wn to the E h a ua e as P u h e e a o f nglis l ng g ; Dr . g , sp king th e a e o f e h e m o a ve o o u re six cl ss s W ls d nstr ti pr n n , m arks th at the y m ake a discri m in ati o n o f pe rso n a n d situati o n f o r which the E nglish thi s a n d tha t are n o t ’ w m a f m f e u va e so e a o e o . q i l nt , y ﬁr Br t n

—Th e u se o f h FIRST . t e De ﬁnite Article e mph asize d by o o m a a e hi n i u a an d re pr n in l p rticl s , in sing l r i n u a pl r l .

’ D —H e - ma n m h n - S C . a u e o ma n e m e E ON ( sc lin ), (f inin );

’ ‘ be o m re - ma n the u a wh h a we to c ing i n pl r l , ic ns rs

' the m hw n m a hon ma a n d rha i h n Cy ric y , y ; y y . h s o m m o e e m h a h a the e e T i f r is r p tic t n pr c ding .

IRD —H e n n e z ma h n n . u e o nez e m e a r TH ( sc lin ), (f inin );

’ ’ re - z e h ae c ; a n d h ae c thi s ’ e a e b m hw na h o e . on a rha i n a n r r jct Cy ric , , ; y y .

—H e n h URT . on t ma u e hon n hon t e m e FO H ( sc lin ), (f inin ); ’ ‘ a r re hon t e a a h a re ill , ill ; ill , t t ’ m o e o b m H wn n h ' ha i e . a on n a f t r j ct Cy ric y , y ; y h n n a y y . 2 4 AN INTRODUCTION

F H —An 1FT . e e e e o a ve a s ind p nd nt i nt rr g ti ,

A n n drd ma n

( Y p eth y ma )

Th e thing u nde r co nside ra ti o n

’ An n dra z e A n n dra- hon t

( Yna) ( d ew)

m o e m e e . m l ss r t o re re o te .

T T HE INTERROGA IVE PRONOUN .

o o u are u e e o a e pr n ns s d int rr g ti v ly .

wh c h who u a i pl r l , pere who

w ha t ? wha t thi ng ?) why

w ha t ? We lsh a be th ( , p

‘ Of the se pehi n i (plu ra l pere) i-s u se dsre lati ve ly as we ll as o u be n n a e h w b n a w hoeve r an d pi g (W ls , p y y ,

- w ha teve r a be n n a e h be th b n a . pe tr g (W ls , y g ), The e a ve P o o u e o as e h a n d R l ti r n n i n Br t n , i n W ls

Co h e ue o m e be u e o o . rnis , is fr q ntly itt d , ing nd rst d

’ f r a we lais E e w . W . y dyn m él z Hé n é o a n n dé n e a w a . B . l E v u a n m i a we s. C . y den y m n h m aw E He the a w o s . . is I 2 TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 5

E R IV CHAPT .

T E E B H V R .

The Bre t o n la nguage is rich i n the po sse ssi o n o f

h e e a n xn li a r ve rbs o f wh h the u m o u se ma e . t r y , ic t st is d

’ The e are —B ez a to be Ka on t to h ave a n d Obe r to s , ; , ; , do th e a e a s e e ve u e as an au a as ( l tt r xt nsi ly s d xili ry , in h a n h ae a ua e Th a u e e Co rnis d t e G lic l ng g s). e v ri o s t ns s o f th e se ve rbs e nte r into lo o se co mp o siti o n with the i nﬁnitive m o o d o f th e principa l ve rb to a m o st u se ful h m e h o o f o u a o e e e . a o to d gr In dditi n t is t d c nj g ti n , a ll ve rbs are u se d bo th pe rs o n ally a n d i mpe rs o n ally h a to sa h e m a be o u a e h o u ho u t t is y, t y y c nj g t d t r g t e a h e o o f th e e e e a h e e o f the m o o a nd c p rs n t ns , c t n s d ,

' e a h m o o o f the ve b a are h e e me e rson a l c d r , nd t n t r d p ve rbs o r th e h e o n u a o f e a h e e m a ; , t ird p rs n si g l r c t ns y be u se d in co nj u nction with the pr o n o u n pro pe r to e ach e o o f the e e a n d e a a e o m b a n e p rs n t ns , s p r t d fr it y nclitic , i n wh h a e he a re e a e d i e r on a l ve rbs ic c s t y d sign t mp s . The rule fo r the pro pe r e m plo yme nt o f the pe rso n al a n d m e o a ve b i s h u i ve b Le Go n id c i p rs n l r t s g n y e , t h o u h the u e 15 n o t w h o u its e o g r l it t xce pti ns .

When the subject is a n o un substanti ve o rpersona l ro noun w hich co mmences a sente nce the verb w ich p , h ’ f o llow s it must be c o n u ate irn e rso na ll j g d p y. When the sentence o pens w ith an a dverb o r prepo si ion o r w en the a ccusa tive case ece es the erb t , h pr d v w ich in o ur lan ua e is ver f re uentl the case the ( h g g y q y ), ’ ve rb is con u ate e rsona ll j g d p y . 2 6 AN INTRODUCTION

’ The e n cli ti c a rti cles a a n d e ez ec h e e a e p ( , ) nt r l rg ly o the o u o o f the e o ve b a n d i nt c nstr cti n Br t n r , its alte r

a ve u se e e b th e o o w um a n ti is d cid d y f ll ing circ st nce s .

' he a o u o r o o u I . W n n n pr n n (i n e ithe r the n o mi na ti ve o r accu sati ve case ) i mme di ate ly pre ce de s th e ve b th e b o a a e a o r , r d p rticl ( ) is i ntr duce d o u u e int its str ct r . 2 But whe an a ve b o r a e o o m m . n d r pr p siti n i e di ate ly e e e th e ve b the e e a e e is pr c d s r , sl nd r p rticl ( ) ’ o u e e u h o e to ez a n d ec h be o e i ntr d c d , p niz d f r we vo ls .

E ! the e e a . 3 . CEPT i n pr s nt indic ti ve (which in this

’ a e e m o n o a e whe the ve b be z a c s pl ys p rticl ), n r to be e e e b an a e ve the e e r ( ) is pr c d d y dj cti , sl nd a e w h m o a o o u p rticl it its diﬁc ti ns is intr d ce d .

I M e a wel e u r sté réd n I e e ta r . e s a s .

’ Ar wi a z é m a h a mad The wi n e i s c hea g n rc d p .

H e e a bre a d B ara a ze br ts .

' Ali z e ko m sa n n o I o te n e a k B reton 2 . e e e s p Br z n k f p .

Alie z ez 1 sha ll o te n o i n n f g .

' a e 0a 3 . Kl n

’ i e H e will be ri c h P in v dik vezo . — B Th e ve b a s e h e a ve b me a s . N . . r , in W ls , is n g ti d y n o f th e two e a ve a e n e a n d he t the o me o f n g ti p rticl s , , f r r which pre ce de s a n d the latte r s ucce e ds the ve rb to be

N a o ke H e wi ll n ot si n e k n t g .

In l terar Bre t n t s ract ce is muc se rve be n c un i y o hi p i h ob d , i g o ten ance d b the ara e l Fre n c usa e ne - a s a e t c surv va l y p ll h g of p , C l i i ’ lik e the r grasseyé .

2 8 AN INTRODUCTION

T OP ATIVE MOOD .

1 st Con di ti on a l Te n e s .

" z e bi e n n bie n n be r m Bi n , j , , Biz e z bi e z b e bez should be , j , i z ,

‘ Biz é b bié hé , ije , ,

Biz e m bi e m bie m be m p , j p , p , p ’ ’ ’ ' Biz e c h bi e c h bie c h be h should be , j , , c Biz e n t bi e n t bie n t be , j , , nt

d on di ti n a l Te n e z u C o s .

I R a ve I mi ht be . nn g 2 R a véz than mi hts t be . g R a é he mi ht be 3 . v g

lural P . I R a ve m we mi ht be . p g ’ 2 R a e h on ~mi ht be . v c y g R a Ve nt they mig ht be

T IMPERA IVE MOOD . ura Pl l . Béz o mp

‘ be than Bezit le t hi m be Béz e nt

INFINITIVE MOOD .

P rese n t I m e r ec t P e ﬁ’c t a n d F u ture , p f , r ,

a to be Bez , e e a e O v a bei n Pr s nt P rticipl ez , g P e rfe ct P a rticiple

“ ‘ . i In e sce n n r e r te rar mer t d di g o d of li y i . T T O BRE ON GRAMMAR .

II .

A ! A Y E B B E Z A to be THE U ILI R V R ( ).

n a ll c on u a te d I mperso y j g .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P rese n t Te n se .

Ni a 2 6 [ a m

’ C h o u i a 2 6

Hi a l o

I m e r ec t Te n se p f . Ni a 0a I wa s (w an t to be )

& c .

P e r ec t Te n se f .

Ni a o é I ha ve be e n

&c .

F u e Te n e ut r s .

Ni a vezo I sha ll be &c .

AND P SUBJUNCTIVE IM ERATIVE MOODS .

P re e n t Te n e s s .

As th e e o a ve b ( p rs n l r .)

T OP ATIVE MOOD .

I st Con di ti on a l Te n e s .

Ni a vé I should be

z ud Con di ti on a l Te n se .

As th e e o a e b ( p rs n l v r .) 3 0 AN INTRODUCTION

AND T INFINITIVE MOOD PAR ICIPLES .

As the e o a v b ( p rs n l e r . )

Le Go n ide c m e ntio ns a th ird m eth o d of co nj ugati o n m u h vo ue a m o the e o e o f é o wh h c i n g ngst p pl L n , ic co n sists in plaéi n g the inﬁniti ve ve rb be fo re the pe r o a e ve b a n d o u th e e e e s n l ﬁnit r , i ntr d cing sl nd r nclitic — , a s th is 7

P re se n t I m e r e . ct p f . “ I a e z o un n a e z o a h . Bez Bez n 2 a e z o ud a e z o z . Bez Bez a a e z éo a e z a 3 . Bez Bez o

P e r e c t f .

1 a e z o e u a e véz i n n . Bez n Bez 2 a e z o e z a e é z i . Bez Bez v a e z o é a e v o 3 . Bez Bez ez

An d e t a o he m e h o o a o a m et w h y n t r t d , cc si n lly it , n o tice d by the same au th o rity

I n di ca ti ve P re se n t .

1 a u Béz o m . Bez n p 2 e . Bez z Bezit Béz Béz o n t 3 .

Co llo qu i a lism s h a ve a tt acke d an d t ake n large b libe rtie s with this ve r .

’

u a Béz ez o unn &c . Colloq i lly, , TO T BRE ON GRAMMAR .

I .

THE AU! A Y E B KA O UT to ha ve ILI R V R ( ).

P e rson a l c on u a te d ly j g .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P re e n t Te n e s s .

I E m e uz I ha ve Ho n e uz .

’ ’ E c h 6 132 thou ha st o h e uz 2 . H c He n e u he ha s e u 3 . d z HO d z

I m e r ec t Te n se p f . I wa s ha vi ng than w a st ha vi ng he wa s ha vi ng

w e we re ha vi ng y ou w e re ha vi ng they we re ha vi ng

Te e n s .

I E m bOé I ha d . Ho r bOé

’ 2 E 2 Oe than ha dst . p HO pOé

’ He n dOé he ha d HO dOe

f u tu e Te r n se .

E m béz o I sha ll ha ve

E z péz o than wilt ha ve

He n dé véz o he will ha ve

Ho r bezo we sha ll ha ve HO pez o y ou will ha ve HO dévéz o they will ha ve 3 2 AN INTRODUCTION

T SUBJUNC IVE MOOD .

P re e n t Te n e s s .

Plural . ’ ’ R a m béz O I may ha ve R o r béz O we may ’ ’ R az pez O than m ay st R O pez O y ou may ha ve

’ ’ R e n dévé z O he may R O dé véz O they may ha ve

OPTATIVE MOOD .

I t n di ti on a l Te n e s Co s .

I E m I should H o r bé we should ha ve . pé ha ve o r n ht

2 AZ é than shouldst é ou should ha ve . p HO p y ha ve

He n défé he should défé the should ha ve 3 . HO y

ha ve

2 n d on di ti on a l Te n e C s .

’ ' ’ I R a m be sho uld R o r b . fe efe ’ ’ R a z éfé o r R O éfé 2 . p p ’ ’ R e n défé mi ht ha ve R O défé 3 . g

IMPERATIVE MOOD .

1 Ho n b e le t us ha ve . ez t

2 E z e z ha ve than éz e t ha ve ou . p HO p y He n e le t hi m ha ve défe n t le t the m ha ve 3 . def t HO

ta ha ve Ka aut . INFINITIVE MOOD , ( ) P re se nt P a rticiple O kao ut ha vi ng [O veza ] P e rfe ct P a rticiple [Bet ha d] T O BRETON GRAMMAR . 3 3

THE IM PE RSONAL VE RB KA O UT

S e a h ve b h as n o e o a o m trictly sp king , t is r p rs n l f r , but m e re ly two i m pe rso n al fo rm s ; but Le Go n ide c a e o m as a e rs on a l ve b o e to e e ve cl ss s F r I . p r , in rd r pr s r the rule give n f o r th e e m plo ym e nt o f th e pe rs o n a l ve rb Th f o m r n a e e e o . u s o o w : (p . T ns s F r II f ll s

M : P re se n t Te n se me am e uz I m INDICATIVE OOD , ; pe r ec t M e a m bOa P e r ec t a m bOé F u tu re M e f , ; f , Me ; , m bez O a .

S M : n o t e e e h o m UBJUNCTIVE OOD r nd r d in t is f r .

O M o o n : I a m be z ud n o t e e e PTATIVE st , Me ; , r nd r d h o m in t is f r .

M M n o t e e e h o m I PERATIVE OOD : r nd r d i n t is f r .

M : n o t e e e th o m INFINITIVE OOD r nd r d i n is f r .

I . AU! ILIARY VE RB OB E R

P e rson a ll c on u a te d y j g .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P rese n t Te n e s .

P lura l . I do Ré o mp than doest Rit

he does Ré o n t 34 AN INTRODUCTION

I m e r ec t Te n se p f .

I w a s doi ng Ré amp ’ than wa st doi ng Reac h he wa s d oi ng Ré a nt

P e r ec t Te n se f .

Ré z o mp

than di dst Ré z o t

he di d Ré z o n t

F uture Te n e s .

I sha ll do Raimp we sha ll do

than wilt do Ré o t raio t ou , y he will d o Ra i ut

UB uNCTIV E S j MOOD .

’ re e t Te n e I s n s .

I may do R a ra imp we may do than m ay st d o R a réo t y ou may do he may do R a ra i u t m ay do

OPTATIVE MOOD .

di ti on a l I st Co n .

I should do R ae mp we should do ’ thou shouldst d o R ae c h y ou should do he should d o R ae n t they should do

3 6 AN . INTRODUCTION

E R V CHAPT .

Th e ve b Ka ron t as a a a m o f the e o ve b r , p r dig Br t n r , e I all o m is h e re gi v n n its f r s .

I . RE GULAR VE RB KAR O UT

P e rson a ll c o u a te d y nj g .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P re e n t Te n se s .

ura Pl l . I love Karo mp than love st Kirit he loves Karo n t

I m e r ec t Te n se p f .

I Kare n n I wa s lovi n Kare m w e we re lovi n . g p g ’ a e than wa st lovi n Kare c h ou w e re lovi n ! 2 . K r z g y g a he w a s lovi n Ka re n t w e re lovi n 3 . K re g g

Te e n s .

I I love d Karz o m . Kiriz p Ka rz o ud than love dst Karz o t 2 .

a a he love d Karz o n t 3 . K r z

F u e Te n e ut r s .

I sha ll love Ki rimp than wilt lave Ke rro t he will love Kiri n t To BRETON GRAMMAR . 3 7

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .

Te n e P rese n t s .

ma love R a giri n n I may lov e R a girimp we y R a giri than may st love R a ge rro t y ou m ay love R a garO he may love R a giri n t may lave

OPTATIVE (O R CONTINGENT) MOOD .

’ l Te n se I st Con di ti on a .

* 1 Karfe n n I should or Karfe m we mi ht lave . p g mig ht love ’ Karfe z thou htest Karfe c h ou mi ht love 2 . n y g

love

Karfe he mig ht love Karfe nt mig ht lave

d on di ti on a l Te n e 2 n C s .

I R a arfe n n I m ht love R a a rfe m . g ig g p ’ 2 Ra arfe z R a arfec h . g g R a a R a arfe n t 3 . g rfe g

IMPERATIVE MOOD . Ka ro mp le t us love love than Kirit love y e

le t hi m love Kare n t le t the m lave

Ka raa t to love INFINITIVE MOOD ( ). P re se nt P a rticiple O karo ut lovi ng P e rfect P a rticiple Kare t

The moda l ste m le tte rs f ph) ; 2 =j=i u pon w c ers n a i n ﬂexio n s a re a se a re ract ca nte rc an ea e hi h p o l b d , p i lly i h g bl t r u ut t s m th Br t n v r h o gho hi ood of e e o e b . 3 8 AN INTRODUCTION

II RE GULAR VE R B KAR O UT

I m e rsona ll c on u a te d p y j g .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P rese n t Te n se .

Plural . E ng li sh a s Ni a g ar ’ pe rson a l C h o u i a gar ve rb Hi hi a ar . ( nt) g

I m e ec t Te n se p rf .

I M e a a a a . g ré Ni g ré ’ 2 a a h o u a a é . Té g ré C i g r Hé n a a Hi a a 3 . g ré g ré

Te n e s .

I M e a araz Ni a a raz . g g ’ 2 a ara z h o u a ara z . Té g C i g Hé n a araz Hi a ° a a 3 . g g r z

F u u re Te n se t .

I M e a arO Ni a arO . g g ’ 2 a arO h ou a arO . Té g C i g a arO Hi a arO 3 . Hen g g

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .

(Not re nde re d i m pe rso n ally . ) To BRETON GRAMMAR . 3 9

OPTATIVE MOOD .

I st C on di ti on a l Te n se

S ular P lura l . in g .

‘ I a a Ni a a . Me g rfe g rfe ’ 2 Te a a h o u a a . g rfe C i g rfe Hé n a a a a 3 . g rfe Hi g rfe

d on di ti on a l Te nse z u C . m (No t re nde re d i pe rso n ally . )

IMPERATIVE MOOD .

No e e e im e o a ( t r nd r d p rs n lly).

INFINITIVE MOOD .

N m a ( o t re nde re d i pe rso n lly . )

THE E GU A E B KAR UT ta lave R L R V R O ( ).

P e rson a ll c on u a te d wi th the A uxili a r V e rb B Z y j g y E A .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P re e n t Te n e s s .

1 Kare d o n n I m l e . u a ov d Kare d o mp we a re love d ’ Kar 2 . e d o ud thou a rt Kare d o c h y ou a re love d

Kare d é e i 3 . o h s love d Ka re d i nt they a re love d 40 AN I NTRODUCTION

I m e r e c t Te n e p f s .

Plura l .

' I Kare d e o an n I wa s Kare d c am we we re be . é p bei ng love d i ng love d ’ 2 Kare d o az than w a st Kare d é o ac h ou we re . é y bei ng love d bei ng love d Kare d é 0a he wa s be Kare d é o a n t we re i ng love d bei ng love d

P e r ec t Te n e f s .

I Kare d oe u I wa s Kare d é o e m we we re . é n p lov e d love d

’ 2 Kare d o e z than w a st Kare d é o e h ou we re . é c y

love d love d

Kare d é o é he wa s love d Kare d é o e n t they we re love d

F e Te n e u tu r s .

1 Kare d é véz in n I sha ll Kare d vé z im we sha ll . é p be love d be love d

2 Kare d véz i than wilt Kare d é o ou will be . é vez t y be love d or vio t love d Kare d é vez O he will be Kare d é vé z i n t

love d be love d

C . SUBJUN TIVE , MOOD

P re e n t Te n e s s .

I R a vé z i n n a e I m a R a é z im a e . k r t y v p k r t be love d

2 R a véz i a e than R a v o a e . k r t ez t k r t may st be love d or vi o t Ra véz O kare t he may Ra vé z i n t k are t be love d be love d TO BRETON GRAMMAR .

OPTATIVE MOOD .

I t on di ti on a l e n e s C T s .

1 Kare d é ve I should Kare d ve m we should . n n é p be love d be love d

’ 2 Kare d é vez than Kare d ve h ou should . é c y shouldst be love d be love d

Kare d vé he should Ka re d ve the should 3 . é é nt y

be love d be love d

d ndi ti n l 2 n Co o a .

I Ra e a I mi ht a m a . v nn k re t g R ve p k re t be love d

’ 2 R a ez a e thou R a . v k r t ve c h kare t n hst be love d R a vé kare t he mig ht R a ve nt ka re t

be love d

IMPERATIVE MOOD .

Bé z o mp kare t

Bez kare t be love d Bezit kare t Beze t ka re t le t him be Bé z e n t kare t

love d

INFINITIVE MOOD .

Beza k are t to be love d

P re se nt P a rticiple O veza k a re t bei ng lov e d P e rfe ct P a rticiple Bet k are t ha vi ng be e n love d 42 AN INTRODUCTION

IV .

THE E GU A E B KAR O UT ta lave R L R V R ( ).

I m e rsona ll con u a te d wi th the A uxili a r V e rb B Z p y j g y E A .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P rese n t Te n se .

ura Sin gular. Pl l .

° I M e a z O a e E ng /25 1: Ni a z O a e . k r t k r t

A a s A 2 Te a 2 0 ka e h o w a z o a e . r t m om , C k r t

Hé n a z O a e verb. H 1 a z O a e 3 . k r t k r t

e ec t Te n e I mp rf s .

I M e a 0a ka e a 0a a e . r t Ni k r t ’ 2 a 0a a e h o u a 0a a e . Té k r t C i k r t 0a a e a 0a a e 3 . Hen a k r t Hi k r t

Te n e s .

I M e a o é a e Ni a o é a e . k r t k r t ’ 2 a o é a e ho u a o é a e . Té k r t C i k r t Hé n a o é a e Hi a o é a e 3 . k r t k r t

F Te n e uture s .

1 a vez O a e a v o a e . Me k r t Ni ez k r t ’ 2 a vez O a e h o u a vez O a e . Té k r t C i k r t Hen a vez O a e a vez O a e 3 . k r t Hi k r t

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .

(No t re nde re d im pe rso n ally )

44 AN INTRODUCTION

I m e r ec t Te n se p f .

r P . Sin gula . lura l I K r d e m bOa I ha d Ka re d ho r bOa . a e

love d

2 Ka re d é z Oa than ar h . p K e d o po a ha dst love d

Kare d hé n doa he ha d Kare d h O dOa

love d love d

Te n e s .

K r m bo E n li sh I . a e d e e g Kare d h o r b o e

a s 1m “ 2 Kare d éz Oé Kare d hO Oé . p p p erf ect A Kare h e n do R a h o dO . d e Te nse e e 3 . r d

F utu re

Kare d m b o I sha ll h r z we h ll 1 . e ez o be O s a

ha ve love d ha ve love d

' 2 Kare d éz ez O thou wilt Kare d h O ez O ou wilt . p p y ha ve love d ha ve love d Kare d hé n de vé z O he Kare d hO de vé z O they will will ha ve love d ha ve love d

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .

P re e n t Te n e s s .

’ ’ I R am bez O a e I ma R o r be o a e we ma . k r t y z k r t y ha ve love d ha ve love d

’ ’ 2 R a z o a e than R O e o a e ou ma . pez k r t p z k r t y y may st ha ve love d ha ve love d ’ ’ R e n de vé z O a e he R O de véz O a e the ma 3 . k r t k r t y y may ha ve love d ha ve love d T O BRETON GRAMMAR . 45

OPTATIV E MOOD

I t on di ti on a l Te n e s C s .

Si n ular. l l g P ura .

I Kare d m be I should Kar d h o r . e e be

ha ve love d

’ 2 Kare d é z é than Kare d h O e . p p shouldst ha ve love d

Kare d hé n défé he Kare d h O défé

should ha ve love d

ud Con di ti on a l Te n z se .

’ ’ I R am b a e I R o r b . efe k r t efe k are t n ht ha ve love d ’ ’ 2 R a z éfé a e than R O éfé a e . p k r t p k r t m i ghtst ha ve love d ’ ’ R e n défé k are t he R O défé k a re t mig ht ha ve love d

IMPERATIVE MOOD .

(Lacking)

INFINITIVE MOOD .

Kao ut k are t to ha ve love d

P re se nt P articiple

P e rfe ct P articiple 46 AN INTRODUCTION

V I .

THE R E GU AR E B KAR O UT to love L V R ( ).

I mpe rson a lly c onjug a te d wi th th e A uxili a ry V e rb ’ Ix t a ou .

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P re se n t Te n se .

Sin u la r. l l g P ura .

I M e e m e nz a e Ni h o n e irz a . k r t k re t ’ ’ ’ Té e ch e iI z a e h o u h o h z 2 . k r t C i c e iI ka re t Hén hé n de ﬁlz a e Hi h O 3 . k r t d e uz ka re t

I m e r ec t Te n se p f .

I e m boa a e h o r bO . Me k r t Ni a k are t ’ 2 éz Oa a e h o u hO Oa a . Té p k r t C i p k re t Hé n hen dOa a e hO dOa a e 3 . k r t Hi k r t

P e r ec t Te n se f .

I e m boe a e r o . Me k r t Ni h o b e k are t ’ 2 éz oe a e h o u hO Oa k . Té p k r t C i p a re t Hén h én doe a e Hi hO do e a e 3 . k r t k r t

w u ture Te n e s .

I M e e m béz O are h o r béz O a e . k t Ni k r t ’ 2 Té éz o a e h o u h O éz O a e . pez k r t C i p k r t Hén h én de véz O a e Hi h O de véz O a 3 . k r t 1 k re t

T SUBJUNC IVE MOOD .

P re e n t Te n e s s .

No e e e m e o a ( t r nd r d i p rs n lly . ) TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 47

OPTATIVE MOOD .

i n a l Te n e I st Con d ti o s .

P ura . Sin gu l ar. l l I M é e m bé a e Ni h o r bé a e . k r t k r t ’ éz a e h o u h O a e 2 . Té pé k r t C i pé k r t Hén h én défé a e Hi hO défé a e t 3 . k r t k r

i n a l Te n se 2 n d Con d ti o . m (No t re nde re d i pe rs o n a lly . )

O IMPERATIVE MO D .

La ki n ( c g . )

INFINITIVE MOOD .

N m o a ( ot re nde re d i p e rs n lly . )

V II .

THE E GU A E B KAB O UT ta lave R L R V R ( ).

P e rson a ll c o u a te d wi th the A uxili a r V e rb O y nj g y BER .

O INDICATIVE M OD .

P rese n t Te n e s .

I Karoud a a I d a love K . r n n aro ud a réo mp we d o

love

2 Karoud a rez thou dost Kar . o ud a rit y ou do love love

Karo ud a ra he doe s Karoud a réo n t they do

love 48 AN INTRODUCTION

I m e r e c t Te n se p f .

S n ular. P lura l i g .

w“ t” I Karo ud a rea n n i n Karo ud a réa m . p I [ be 1 2 Karo u d a e e Ka ro ud a re ac h . r z M (f n Karo ud a réa lovi . Karo u d a a 3 . g ré n t

P e r e c t Te n se f .

I Karo ud a I di d Ka ro ud a re z o m we . p love

" 2 Karo u d a re oud than Karo ud a re z ot . j

di dst love

Karo u d a réaz he di d Karou d a re z o n t

love

F ture T u e n se .

I Karo u d a Karo ud a raim . ri n n p

I 272 r 2 Karo ud a n Karo ud a re o t . the a ct of

Karo ud a ram lovin . Karo ud a ra i n t 3 . g

m a o Th is fo r is c o nj ug te d o nly i n the Indica ti ve M o d .

The para siti c fri cati ve j ( dz h) a lmo st i n vari ably usurps the

ace 2 w c m re c rre ct use i s n o w re ar e a s a rc a c . pl of , hi h o o g d d h i A re e ab w t e e cta t n a nd a s i n t er a n ua e s c u a l g ly i h xp io , o h l g g , olloq i u sa e ha s ta e n ar e e rt e s w t t s e rs n the e te n t w c g k l g lib i i h hi p o , x of hi h may be gauge d by a compa ri so n of the fore goi n g wi th the summary t re atme n t the r i n a ez = h b Ze uss ra mmat ca e t ca of o ig l ( yt ) y ( G i C l i , e t e n u s e b s e w t t s t e re i s c ea r p . y oddly o gh , id y id i h hi , h l ly sce rn b e a te n e nc to re ve rt to the r na t e o r ra t e r to di i l d y o igi l yp , h go n it b the c nve rs n ﬁ na m a to t n T s t n beyo d y o io of l e di e e ue s. hi e

' d e n ey i s n oti ce d he re ( a nd will be ill ustrate d he rea fte r) fo r the pur po se o i e mpha sizi ng th at pe culi ari ty whi c h se rve s to di sti ngui sh E TO BR TON GRAMMAR . 49

E R V I CHAPT .

R B NOTE S ON BRE TO N V E S .

1 Ac tive ve b be o m e a ssi ve wh e h e e e . r s c p n t ir p rf ct participle e nte rs int o l o o se co m p o siti o n with the te nse s

’ o f th e Au a V e b bez a o r wh e th e m e o a xili ry r , , n i n i p rs n l h a B o m h e a re e e e b e e e e . ut f r , t y pr c d d y t ir p rf ct p rticipl h e a n e e e a ve o m wh h o t e r is ind p nd nt p ssi f r , ic c nsists in a to th e e m o f th e m e o a ve b a e dding st (i p rs n l) r , in pl c o f o e e e e m a o - e r f o r th e e e - e d its pr p r t ns t r in ti n , pr s nt , f o r th e m e e a n d e e - ar f o r the u u e - e d i p rf ct p rf ct , f t r , f fo r th e I o o a a n d - e de n r f o r the ve st c nditi n l , inﬁniti

m o o a a e a a e & C . d ; Me g r r , Me g r d ,

2 All e u a ve b b e o to on e o u a o o . r g l r r s l ng c nj g ti n nly , i n wh ich c o nj ugati o n the te nse te rmin ati o ns o f the ﬁrst pe rso n singu la r are as fo ll o ws

INDICATIVE MOOD .

P re se n t - a n n I m e r ec t - e n n P e r e ct - i z F u tu re , ; p f , ; f , ; ,

- inn . thi s spe ec h from othe rs of its Arya n re l a ti ve s ( e ve n of its Ce lti c ‘ ’ c n e n e rs w se use r ve ct n i s r t sma e a ve . I t o g , ho of p o io l i ly ll) n he se a of de cayi n g phon e ti cs whi c h stre tche s from the Hi ma layas to ‘ Ac He a Arm r ca i s the bac wate r i n w c sw r c hil d , o i k hi h i l on strue ‘ t ve an d e struct ve te n e n c e s an d e t c re c s n e v r i d i d i , C l i p i io e wa rs w t a c s n n ss S ecta tor A r 2 ‘ ve e v e th 1 0 . E i h G lli lo li ( id p , p il s , 9 3 n gli sh IS spok e n in I re lan d 4 50 AN INTRODUCTION

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .

* P rese n t - I st Con di ti on a l - e 2 n d , in n ; , f n n ; Con di ti an a l P a rtic i le - e t , p , . Th e e m o f a e o ve b 3 . st Br t n r is disc o ve re d i n the z ud e o u a o f the m e a ve m o o p rs n sing l r i p r ti d . Gove rn me n t o N umbe r: 4. f ( I ) The pe rson a l ve rb kn o ws little distincti o n — o f n umbe r it is u sua lly singular i n the rd e o but the i m e rson a l ve 3 p rs n , p rb t ake s o e u mb its pr p r n e r .

2 o u o u e b th e o u o ha ha ( ) N ns , c pl d y c nj ncti n , g , e ve h o u h o f th e u a u mbe o n t g pl r l n r , g ve rn a u a b sing l r ve r . (3) Th e n e gati ve d ve rb fo ll o ws i n n u mbe r a u a ub e pl r l s j ct . Two n e gati ve d n o u ns co u ple d by a n (n e ith e r n o r o ve a u a ve b ) g rn pl r l r . ‘ h e a o to e to u se a ve b re (5) W n , cc rding Br n , r ’ u a e the o m e a the i n d plic t s , f r r p rt is i n ﬁ n iti ve m o o the e o a a e d , s c nd p rt t k s its o e u mbe : e a e z o un n & c pr p r n r B z , .

An e o a ve e e e o u e b ha 5 . int rr g ti s nt nc is intr d c d y

a o o a a n d ha be o e a vo we a e im be fo re c ns n nt , g f r l , pl c d m e di ate ly be fo re th e ve rb (o r the pr o n o u n wh ich p re ’ hé ve b e e e e xc e t whe the ve b ce de sE r , if xpr ss d); p n r is a e e e wh e the o e o f the e e e pe rso n lly r nd r d , n rd r s nt nc is f llo ws z—P a e o o u a u a ve b ro as o rticipl , pr n n , xili ry r , p m h a wh e ha ha o m e but a o u n o u n e p tic , n , g is itt d ; n n

the m utate r t re ce e b the a rt c e ra tse Wi th ( d) oo p d d y p i l , i lf t mutat rms th ober o n e of he e d fo of e ve rb .

52 AN INTRODUCTION

I CHAPTE R V I .

THE NO UN

P ro ce e ding a l o ng the lin e indicate d i n the l ast p ara

h h e a a h he e w be e to sa u e . gr p , t r ill littl y nd r t is ding

GENDER .

— h e e ar bu t e m n e m I . e t wo e a u e a d T r g nd rs , sc lin f i e th e o m e o f o u e u all m a e a n d the nin , f r r , c rs , incl ding l s ,

ll m a An o fﬁ e o r a h h m a be latt e r a fe le s . c e st te w ic y h e b e he o r o m m o to bo h e e e b the ld y it r , is c n t , is xpr ss d y se x o f th e e o h o whe e o e — a e p rs n lding it n r c rd d p r nt , hbo u & c o he w b h m e . e t e a u e e e . n ig r , , t r is , y sc lin g nd r — Of e e h e a u m be o f u h a v . o II n c ssity t n , n r n ns ing n o se x m l e h e m e ve m u a a s all i p i d in t s l s st f ll , in Ce ltic a u a e u e o n e o f h e e two he a o f e e l ng g s , nd r t s dings g nd r ; th is difﬁ cu lty will be appre ci ate d at its pro pe r val ue by e a h e h a b E h - e a e o e Fo r C ltic , r t r t n y nglis sp king p pl . ’ a e Gambo ld s u e o ve b ut e to th e m inst nc , r l c n ys littl ind ‘ u e the e sh a ua e A n wo be u ninstr ct d i n W l l ng g . y rd i i w h o n e o f th e m u ab e o o a e e ll g nn ng it t l c ns n nts , xc pt a n d rh u o u th e a e a o o , if p n p tting rticl y in pp siti n be o e a o o a o e a u a ha e f r it , its initi l c ns n nt d s n t r lly c ng o h o u as meli n e li n ca se a se int its lig t s nd , , y f ; g , y g g ; ’ a r b f th e m e e S u h su ch wo rds e i nfalli ly o e f inin e g nd r . c re m ark re calls th e we ll - wo rn but witty criticism o n a a bo o o f o o e ub h u va e re ce rt in k c k ry , p lis ing its nri ll d ‘ ’ cipe fo r j ugge d h are z F i rst ca tc h y our ha re ! Ju st M TO BRETON GRAM AR . 53

' ’ so f ar is Gambo ld s rule o f u se to th o se le a rning the

e o a ua e a n d a a o m u ta ti s m u ta n di s Br t n l ng g , its pplic ti n h n d Se e h a r is e qually s o u nd in We ls a Bre t o n . ( C pte ! I o n u a o . . M t ti ns )

’ —Le Go n ide c his u ua a a wa III . , in s l p inst king y,

' de t a ils the indicati o n o f se x in s o m e se ve nte e n cl asse s — o f n o u ns ; the se de t a ils o f a kind m a de fam ili a r to us ’ ’ o w a e h G a m m a S e wa Gae G am in R l nds W ls r r , t rt s lic r m ar a n d o he h h a a e wo —are o f , t r ig st nd rd C ltic rks Th e e as b o m n t e u se f o r our u o e . e e e li tl p rp s C lt , f r tio n e d w o h to sh o ok hi s e e o f o e , ill ﬁnd n t ing s ns pr pri ty in the m atte r o f ge nde r ; i nde e d the We lsh m a n (ign o r a nce fo rbids m e to spe a k so pre cise ly f o r the Gae l) will ﬁnd ple a s ure in n o ticing h o w his o w n di visi o n o f ge n r b the e o de is Cl o se ly fo llo we d y Br t n .

NUMBER .

I — he e a r u mbe u a a n d u a h . e t wo t e T r n rs , sing l r pl r l , u a be u ua h o u h n o t b a n me a u va pl r l ing s lly, t g y y ns l ri * ab o m e o m th e u ar f ar the m o ly , f r d fr sing l . By st co m m o n m e tho d o f fo rm ing the pl ura l is by the a ddi o o f on to th e o m a ve u a e e whe e ti n (n in ti ) sing l r , xc pt r ' ’ h a u a e e e e b a vo we c h t t sing l r nds i n f pr c d d y l , i n ,

i e 1 e n a e r n z wh e e 2 h a e s ngl , singl , , singl , , in ( r c ng s to all o f wh h a e th e u a o m e b th s), in ic c s s pl r l is f r d y e a o f i on dditi o n . — So me u a o u II . sing l r n ns sh o rte n I n the

In some i n stan ce s the si n gular a ppe ars to be fo rme d from the — ’ ura w e re the atte r i s the na tura l v s n a s in e s a ar pl l h l di i io , W l h , d , bi rds s n . ade r n ant children s n le t n n &c . ; i g , y ; pl , ; i g , p y , 54 AN INTRODUCTION

—O he o u a m e f a ma III . t r n ns (princip lly n a s o ni ls) o m h e u a b the a o o f e d ma b the f r t ir pl r l y dditi n , ny y o i e n additi o n f . IV —So me h o o o e to se e the e o f a . p il l gists pr f ss r lics — o nce ﬂ o urish ing dual n u mbe r i n th e Bre t o n as in — C o rnish a n d We lsh also n o m e ncl atu re f o r th o se p arts o f the bo dy of which we are n o rm ally I n p o sse ssi o n of a a a n d wh h o e he a re o e o f as a n n dz on p ir , ic t g t r sp k n ’ ’ vre a c h th e two a m s a n n dz on c har th e two e ( r ), ( l gs), ’ e e v he u a o m brec hi ou an d a ri on f o r r s r ing t ir pl r l f r , g , u s whe e m o e h a t wo u h m e mbe are e e e r r t n s c rs i nt nd d .

CASE

The a e o f e o o u a re u e e a n d m u c s s Br t n n ns nd clin d , st be de te rmin e d

I the o o o f the o u i n th e e e e . By p siti n n n s nt nc . 2 r b h h h e fo r wh h . O t e a e w e e , y rticl ic pr c d s it , ic A 8 se e e . I . rticl , p

T F T T NOTES ON HE POSITION O HE BRE ON NOUN .

—Th ub u ua ll h b bu h I . e e s e e e t e ve t w e s j ct y pr c d s r , n a u a o b e ve e m h a e u e e e p rtic l r j cti p sis is r q ir d , it c d s its e e e e to th e o b e o f th e e e e pr c d nc j ct s nt nc . —The ub e o f the e e e o te a e a te r II . s j ct s nt nc is f n pl c d f e u b a n te r ve r . —The a e o f two o u o o a o the III . l tt r n n s i n c ll c ti n is in e e a e g niti v c s . To BRETON GRAMMAR . 55

III CHAPTE R V .

THE AD JE CT E IV .

- The e o a e ve a fa r m o e m e a o f I . Br t n dj cti is r si pl p rt spee ch th a n its e lab o rate Gae lic e qu i vale nt o f fo u r de cle n si o n s m o e m e e ve h a th e e h a e ve , r si pl n t n W ls dj cti , in asm u ch a s it a dm its o f n o ch a nge to vary its m e a n m r th e m a e e he o f e e u be o a e . ing i n tt r it r g nd r , n r , c s It C o e o o w th e o u wh h ua e o o l s ly f ll s n n ic it q liﬁ s , in p siti n a n d m u tati o n : Ar mab mad Ar m ipie n mad The g ood son The g ood son s

’ E ur ve rc h mad a garO h é m amm m ad A g ood da ug hte r will love he r g ood m o the r

~ - h e e are b ut thre e de re es o c om a ri son th II . T r g f p i n e B e o a e ve a s a a th e o u we e e r t n dj cti , g inst f r ll d ﬁn d e e o f m m a a a h e ar d gre s We lsh gra ri ns . Ordin rily t se e ’ fo r me d by th e additi o n o f ac h to the positi ve fo r th e o m a a ve e e e a n d th e a o o f a to the o c p r ti d gr , dditi n p si t i ve (wh ich is pre ce de d by th e d e ﬁnite a rticle ) fo r the supe rlati ve d e gre e : exc ept

I M fl d ood c am a r we ll u e rl . s ll . a r we a ( ) (g ); p , g ; p , g . o b d c m a r u a a . wa su e r ar wa a Dr k ( ); p , g z ; p . , g s . ( 2 ) Adj e cti ve s e nding in a ch a nge th e a i nto v f o r th e ste m le tt e r o f c o m pa rati ve a n d s upe rlati ve i e e e a n d he o e e a o to rule : d gr , t n pr c d cc rding ' ’ Te O a t c am a r é c h u e rl n n . t vo s . a va (f ); p , ; p , te . 56 AN INTRODUCTION

(3) Adj e cti ve s e nding i n 2 ch ange the 2 int o s fo r th e ste m le tte r o f co m p arati ve a n d su pe rlative e e e a n d h e o e e a o to d gr , t n pr c d cc rding rule : ’ a re a t brasoc h a r ra sa Br z (g ); ; v . Th e re is a lso a u se wh ich re co gnize s the ad ve rb me ur bed e h ma w r b d i mme n se a o the a e ve (W ls , y ), , ls dj cti b a re a t as ua o he a e ve a n d a ve b r z , g , q lifying t r dj cti s d r s u e a e s p rl ti v ly .

NUMERALS .

r n a Cardi n a l . O di l .

U n a n Ke nt a ao u o u E il D , f di e Trive d a n d T Tri , f t ir rede Pé va r e Pé varve d é va ré , f ped r , p Pc mp P e m ve d ’ ’ ’ ’ C ho ue c h C h o ue c h ve d Se iz Se iz ve d E lz E iz ve d N aO Na ve d Dek D ég ve d U n n ék U n n ég ve d D ao uz ék D ao uz égve d Tri z ék Triz ég ve d Pé varz ék Pé varz ég ve d ’ m z ék P e P e m z ég ve c. ’ ’ C h o uéz e k C h o uéz ég ve d Se iték Se itég ve d ’ ’ Trio ue c h Trio uc h ve d NaOn ték Nao n tég ve d TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 57

a r n r n a . C di a l . O di l

Uge n t Uge n dve d Un a n wa r- n - uge n t Ke nta war- n - uge n t wa r- n - uge n t P e m ve d war- n - uge n t Trég o n t Tre go n dve d D ao u - uge n t D ao u - uge n dve d Ha nte r -k a nt Ha nte r - k an dve d Tri - uge nt Tri - uge n dve d D e k h a tri - uge n t D e gve d h a tri - uge n t P évar- n ge u t P é var- uge n dve d Dek h a pé var- uge n t D e gve d h a pé var- n ge ut U n n ék ha pe va r- uge n t U n n e g ve d h a p e var uge n t Ka nt Ka n dve d D e k a k a nt D e g ve d h a ka nt ’ ’ ’ ’ C h o ue c h - u ge n t C h o ue c h - uge n dve d

D k - - e h a se iz n ge ut D e gve d h a se iz uge n t

- Na o u uge n t NaO- uge n dve d ’ ’ h a - Dao u c nt D ao u c h a n dve d

’ - U n né k u n - ge t U n n e g ve d uge n t h a dao uz ék - n u Dek ge t D ég ve d h a dao uz e k n ge ut

- P m z ék - e uge n t or tri Pe m z ék uge n dve d ’ c h a nt ’ ’ Trio ue c h - nge ut Trio ue c h uge ndve d Dek h a n ao n te k - uge n t Dégve d h a n ao n te k u ge n t ’ ’ Pévar c ha nt Pé var- c h a ndve d ’ ’ P c mp C h ant P i mp - c h an dve d ’ Dek - ka nt or m il Dek - c ha n dve d 58 AN INTRODUCTION

T NOTES ON HE BRETON ADJECTIVE .

I —The A e ve a mo va ab ollows th e . dj cti l st in ri ly f ma u ua e a o to u o e u a e . n o n it q liﬁ s , cc rding c st ry C ltic s g E xc e t I a e th e a e ve k old whe e as p , ft r dj cti ( ), r with its We lsh a n d Irish e qu i vale nts he n an d

ea n h e ua e o u s it pre ce de s t q liﬁ d n n . I I —A e ve o f o m a a ve a n d u e a ve . dj cti s c p r ti s p rl ti e ue e e e th e ua e o u de gr e fre q n t ly pr c d q liﬁ d n n . — u me a A e ve wh e a a o ve a II . N ric l dj cti s , n c rdin l , g rn singu lar n o u n .

T i a t ue the w n a e ct ve s : we ll ba d hi s s l so r of follo i g dj i g ( ) , heve le simila r ur sma ll be rr short bri mixed b an p ( ) , go ( ) , ( ) , z ( ) , ih ‘ li ttle ste r c little va lue wéz wild wi r true hi r ( ) , di ( y ) , g ( ) , g ( ) ,

r f Ot rs n eve n ew a ll e a a n d a e w e . z ( ) , holl ( ) , p ll ( f ) , h

6 0 AN INTRODUCTION

ER ! CHAPT .

THE P E P T R OSI ION .

As th e pre po siti o n e nte rs e xte nsi ve ly into co mpo si — — ti o n bo th in its sim ple a n d co mp o u nd fo rm a list o f the princip al pre p o siti o ns with the ir m e a nings in E h h e e e nglis is r gi v n . All Bre t o n P re p o siti o ns but da a n d co mp o u nds o f da (which go ve rn th e d ati ve article) are s a id to go ve rn ‘ ’ th e Obj e cti ve case

a cc ordi ng to i n the p re se n ce of di - war up on di war - be n con ce rn i ng e e n n e l e r i n , , , ébarz wi thi n

é kre i z i n the mi dst rom to a t f , , of i n ste a d of To 6 I BRETON GRAMMAR . rag- e n e p - da fa c e - to -fa c e war- drO- da a roun d ’ wi th war- c h o rre up on the fa ce

‘ rzl k - tal- da i n the fa c e of of ’ war on u on war- e h be hi n d , p l rc

Th e e o o e n n e l e r o ve e o m pr p siti n , , (in), is g rn d in f r by th e s am e co nditi o ns as a pply to th e fo rm s Of th e article

C O JU CT S N N ION .

Th e fo ll o wing a re th e c o nj u ncti o n s o f m o st co m m o n o cc ure nce

arre but i n de e d ’ ave c h sca rce ly bu t

ke m e n t so tha t urthe rm ore f , ke r ke n ke l e ua ll a s , , q y ko ulsko ude n eve rtheless i vé z i ve , eta the n e vcl a s if h a a a n d , h g whe n

’ ' é e t e vit n e the r n or g , i , da V lh a n a a t lea st pe rhaps da o uzo u d éo scili ce t how tha t

5 e h se c on se ue n tl (W ls , f . ) q y

E r- o dd i s us n i n th s t c e d o ly e e n e n e .

' H a en n tr uc s n t n c 1 g i od e s a e e e . 6 2 AN INTRODUCTION

CHAPTE R ! I .

THE M UTAT IONS .

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS .

Th e fo ll o wing is the t able u p o n wh ich th e wh o le pr o ce ss o f m ut ati o n is fo u nde d

M a e . e . R a dica l . iddl W k

Son a nt

Sibil ant To T 6 BRE ON GRAMMAR . 3

W H H AS COMPARED IT CORNIS .

ca l . M e . e a . Str n . Pro ve cti Ra di iddl W k o g ve .

A W H W H S COMPARED IT ELS .

Ra cal M e . e a . tr n Naz a iz S . l ed . di . iddl W k o g 6 4 AN INTRODUCTION

' I — A a e at th e ab . gl nc o ve t able s w ill sh o w u s th at th e re is a r e co gnize d an d w e ll - de ﬁ n e d syste m of stre ngth e ning the m ut a ti o n o f th e th ird de gre e (calle d ‘ ’ o ve o o f the o a G th e e pr cti n ) s n nts , B , D , in Br to n

a n ua e wh h e e o a o h a n d n l g g , ic is xc pti n l in C rnis u * i n h kn o wn We ls .

-The m u ta te d orm o n le . s s rd tte rs I( P T re II f f , , , m ain practically th e sam e i n all th e se l a nguage s (f o r e xpl an a ti o n o f app are nt va ri a ti o n se e le tte rs in que sti o n ha a h abe e . an d o so be a i n lp t , C pt r I ) i n d ing r witn e ss t o th e Arya n o rigin o f th e Ce ltic la nguage s wh e re in

h e e u e ve a e o e to m e ae a n d the t t n s gi pl c c nsist ntly di , m ae to a a ae Gu u a e K ab a e e di spir t ; ( tt r l s) , 7 , ! i (L i l s)

) u a e 7 8 0. B, d ; (Ling l s) , , — The m u ta te d orms o son a n t le tte rs G B D III . f f , , , d ispl ay sligh t va ri e ty i n th e m a tt e r o f the m iddle fo rm

a G o Th e m e e o o f o f th e gu tt u r l nly . iddl Br t n f rm o h e e m o e e e h a o h o r e h t is l tt r is r p rsist nt t n i n C rnis W ls , ’ f o r th e m ut ati o n e h is a dhe re d to wh e re th e o th e r

a o mi n us h e e n o la ngu age s d pt g . T r is re ve rsi o n to o a a a o m as o h but a e t h e rigin l r dic l f r i n C rnis , in its pl c the o a o m be o m u as a e a we ﬁnd s n nt f r c ing s rd , lr dy n o tice d . O the li ui d le tte rs th e ab a M h e o . t IV f q , l i l is nly e e o n e h o u h ou he e h e e a ua e re p rsist nt t r g t t s t r l ng g s , V Th e m u a e o m c e i vi n g its co mm o n m ut a ti o n . t t d f r a S w o u a e a to be e u a to e o o f th e sibil nt ld pp r p c li r Br t n , o o e on e a e o f a m a t h ou gh Mr . N rris n tic s inst nc si il r h Th e a me h h au ho t a o C h a nge in C o rnis . s ig t ri y ls

n itia l m tat n We n ow speak on ly of i u io . To 6 BRETON GRAMMAR . 5 qu o te s a l ate C o rnish m u t a ti o n re co rde d by Lh uyd o f ‘ ’ th e ab o - e a F o V ardh a wa be o m l i d nt l int (f , y, c ing ‘ a n vordh th e as we a s a m u a o o f th e , ll t ti n

‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ’ h e e e wh e e o h a h be o m e a n hloh t ird d gr r ﬂ , c ild , c s , ‘ ” h h h a w n o t be w h o o f t e c ild . T is f ct ill it u t e e to th e Gae wh o e o e the m a i nt r st l , , r c ll cting si il rity ‘ ’ wh ich e xists be t we e n h i s o wn a spirate d s u rds a n d

o a a n d th e m u a o o f th e h o w u h e s n nts t ti ns Bryt n , ill f rt r trace th e a n al o gy be t we e n the re m a inde r o f his a spi

a e o o a M S a n d F M h Sh Eh a n d h o e r t d c ns n nts , , ( , , ), t s

e o e abo ve a n d o so w e a e the o m e e r c rd d ; d ing , ill r liz c pl t h a rm o ny wh ich e xists th r o u gh o u t o n th at lingu istic p e c uli arity wh ich di ff e re nti a te s th e ir co mm o n Ce ltic o m all o h e a ua e th e l a ngu age fr t r l ng g s i n wo rld .

— - V i The Guttu ro l abi al c o mp o u nd KW h as be e n f r a a o e a o O n e wo u h a re se rve d o se p r te c nsid r ti n . ld ve pl ace d th is c o m p o u nd s u bse cuti ve to th e su rd cl as s h ad ’ it n o t be e f o r a a a e wh h o u P n p ss g ic cc rs in ro f. Rhys ‘ ’ n a Ph o o o U o e a e o . 1 6 2 tr tis M nx n l gy p n p . o f th a t , w o rk h e says (in spe a king o f the di stincti o ns o f M a nx spe e ch wh ich e ntitle it to ra nk as a la ng u ag e a pa rt — fr o m Sco tch a n d Irish Gae lic as o pp o se d to a m e re ‘ di a lec t o f th at l a ngu age ): M a nx m ay j u stly pride itse lf o n be ing th e o nly Ce ltic l a nguage to pre se r ve ‘ ’ a e o f the a e o mb a o n ud n inst nc s nci nt c in ti n q q , q ‘ ’ n o t qn the y a re h o we ve r n o t c o nside rable

’ ’ - mb i n u e . 1 No w m o ve b h e m a o m n r , d y t is r rk fr so g re a t

’ N rr s rn s Dra ma 2 2 o i Co i h , p . 7 .

‘ In v e w t s state me n t the wr te r wa s a t ﬁ rst s 1 i of hi , i di po se d to re gard that l arge c la ss of We l sh vocable s begi n n i n g wi th thi s co m n a t n a s re s v n its se c n e e me n t n t a ure v w bi io ol i g o d l i o p o e l . But he 6 6 AN INTRODUCTION — a n auth o rity th e g re a te st li ving auth o rity o ne m ight — , say it is due to the Bre to n l a nguage to place o n e o e to the a e e o u it r c rd its ﬁd lity nci nt C ltic s nd , in s rd ro ve ctive m u a o o f the o m o u GW 3 (p ) t ti n c p nd . We also h ave i n Co rnish the c o mp o u nd a ppe aring in its

a a o m i n u h w o as c we th e h wi s r dic l f r s c rds (W ls , g g , ‘ ’ wh e e a o m a e a a m e a n d hwilhe r ttriti n is nif st), g r nt , n ‘ ’ n o o e e o u vo ab e e h a B ( c ng n r s c l i n W ls ) fro g . ut the re a re a n u mbe r o f indisp ut able case s o f its u n e qu i vo cal a e n a a u se s a Br to r dic l . Th e m o de rn a n d de pl o rable pra ctice o f assi m il ating

e o to e h o h o a h h as le d m a i n Br t n Fr nc rt gr p y, i n ny sta nc e s to disca rding the le tte r K in fa vo u r o f Ou ; dis cri m in ati o n is the re fo re n e e de d i n de ciding as to the f h m o rigin ality o t e co pou nd .

is a ssure d th a t i n a large n umber of case s thi s vi e w i s wholly n u a T e re a re two un ubte n sta n ce s a n -w r s a m n te n ble . h do d i of lo o d o g ‘ ' suc b t w c the Lat n had a e n us fo r m art n cwe r l h , o h of hi h i g i i p i g , y

r u r lle a n uere lla I ta ue rela but at ue ela Fr e e . . L . . S ( , q ; , q ; p , q ; l , q ; ’ ‘ - ae c can nsa ich : a n d cwai e l N rm a n Fre n c ua rrier Fr. G li , ) ( o h , q ; ,

rr r t tacha zl Of the re st i n s me suc as ca ie e &c . bu ae c . , ; G li , ) ; o , h = da rt cwato cwa re l s n n m us w t O . E . ua rre l a owa , ( y o o o i h , q ) , li , cwara n a n d c w m o w e re a v we mme a te ws the co m , y p , h o l i di ly follo b n a t n the two e e me n ts must be un s n a n t w t t a t v we i io , l i o i h h o l ; i n the re ma n e r the sec n e e me n t i s n a tura a se - c nta n e i d , o d l lly lf o i d ’ n sus e cts t at the w r e t c i n the a b ve assa e vowe l . O e p h o d C l i o p g ’ sus ca la mz f r a c is a lap o G e li .

6 8 AN INTRODUCTION

a n n o u o d rs , c nn d rs

' a r z ae e u r z a e ,

b n n ér . ut a d éa dé e z B g , c u n n déréadége z

M a c uli n e N ou n s s .

A B re ton e u r a n d ar Bre iz ad m a n e u n n a n d a rm den ma n e u r a n d ar go u r ra vishe r e ur a n d a rg wastade r ’ horse e ur a n d a r m arc h e u r a n d ar pe n do lo k

e u n n ts a n n talbe n n

’ bu tc he r e ur a n d a r C h ige r

e xec u tor e ur a n d a r z évé ne r

II .

I O F T MUTATIONS N RESPECT HE PERSONAL PRONOUN .

Wh e n th e p e rs o n a l pro n o u n which is the o bj e ct o f th e se nte nce is place d i m me di a te ly be fo re th e princip al ve b th e a e e o f h a ve b be m u ab e r , initi l l tt r t t r , ing t l , is subj e ct to th e fo ll o wi ng m u t ati o ns

I Th e A u a ve P o o u o f th e P e o . cc s ti r n n First rs n S u a m a a m ub e o the u a to ing l r , , , s j cts nly s rd initi ls ’ h rd e e : m a h a m utati o n to t e 3 D gre c re t . The am e P o o u o f the Se o P e o S u a 2 . s r n n c nd rs n ing l r da subj e cts all m utable initi als to m uta ti o n to the e da e a Bu h e o o m a z 2 n d De gre : gar t . ( ) t t e s c nd f r o a to u b o o m ut ate s o nly s n nts s rds y pr ve cti n . To BRETON GRAMMAR . 6 9

The a me o o u o f th e h P e o S u a 3 . s pr n n T ird rs n ing l r ,

' a u e he ub e all m u ab e a to m u a o M sc lin , , s j cts t l initi ls t ti n

h e o e e e But th e Fe m e P o o u to t e S c nd D gr . inin r n n

’ o f th e h P e o he ub e o u a to T ird rs n , , s jcts nly s rd initi ls ’ h Th hé a e hé h a e m u a o to t e e e e : . t ti n ird D gr g r t , c r t Th e a me o o u of the P e o P u a 4. s pr n n First rs n l r l , hor ub e o th e u e e A? to m u a o to the , s j cts nly s rd l tt r t ti n ’ h e e : h o r h a e T ird De gr c r t . Th e a me o o u o f the Se o Pe o n P u a 5 . s pr n n c nd rs l r l , ha m u a e o o a to u b o ve o : hO , t t s nly s n nts s rds , y pr cti n a e k r t . 6 But the a m e o o u o f th e Th P e o . s pr n n ird rs n

P u a ho m u a e o u to th e h e e e : l r l , , t t s nly s rds T ird D gr ’ hO h a e whe e th e e o a n d h c are t . In c s s r s c nd t ird

e so u a wo u be o he w e u h ab e p r n pl r l ld t r is indisting is l , th e t e rm in al insi st a nt hit m ay be adde d to the ve rb to a e th e e o i ndic t s c nd pe rso n .

I P O F TH E MUTATIONS N RES ECT POSSESSIVE PRONOUN .

Th I . e p o sse s si ve pr o n o u n o f the First Pe rso n

S u a ma m u a e o n u e e o h ing l r , , t t s ly s rd l tt rs t t e Th ird ’ e e e : m a C he m home ke r D gr r , y ( ). 2 Th e . p o sse ssi ve pr o n o u n o f th e Se co nd P e rso n

S u a da m u a e a ll m u ab e e e to the ing l r , , t t s t l l tt rs Se co nd e e e : da e r th hom e D gr g , y . The m 3 . ascu lin e p o sse ssi ve pro n o un o f the Th ird

' P e o S u a he m u a e all m u ab e e rs n ing l r , , t t s t l l tte rs to the

Se o e e e : hé e r hi s hom e c nd D gr g , . 7 0 AN INTRODUCTION

The m 4. fe inine p o sse ssi ve pr o n o u n o f the Third

' Pe o he m u a e o u e e to h rs n , , t t s nly s rd l tt rs t e Th ird ’ ’ e e e : h e he he r home D gr c r , . The o e o 5 . p ss ssi ve pr n o un o f th e First Pe rso n

P u a har m u a e o the u e e h l r l , , t t s nly s rd l tt r to the ’ h e e e : h o r he our hom e T ird D gr c r , . 6 The o e . p ss ssi ve pro n o u n o f th e Se co nd P e rso n

P u a ho m u a e o o a to u b o v l r l , , t t s nly s n nts s rds y pr e o o : h O ke r our home ti n , y . But the o 7 . p sse ssi ve pr o n o u n o f th e Th ird Pe rso n ‘ P u a ho m u a e o u to the h e l r l , , t t s nly s rds T ird D gre e : h O ’ C h e thei r home r , .

H OT ER MUTATIONS .

1 Th e e e a e o f the ve b ub e e . pr s nt p rticipl r is s j ct d to m u a o b th e e e e to th e o o w e e e t ti n y O pr c d nt , f ll ing d gr ’ V o H W to-W a n to D to G t C . G d to V B , T , , , M .

’ 2 The am e m u a o h o o o a e e . s t ti ns ld g d ft r h e e e the u u e e e a ve a n d ma w n pr c ding f t r t ns i ndic ti , b m o a n o o a be fo re th e su j u ncti ve o d d se c nd pt ti ve . The e o um e a da ou a n d di ou o ve all 3 . s c nd n r l g rn The h mu t able n o u ns in th e se co nd de gre e . t ird n u m e ral tri a n d te i r go ve rns the su rds i n the th ird

m u a z The am e a e o th e e e a n d e s to . t e d gr , t t s s ppli s

' h m e va r a n ede r n a o Th u h a n d u e a d . e fo rt n int n r l , p p , ﬁfth n u me ral pe mp go ve rns th e s o n a nts B a n d G a n d r i e the hybrid GW in p o ve ct ve de gre . 1 TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 7

‘ ’ a b a n d ar . e a e o o ve e 4 C rt in pr p siti ns , d r s , p ticl s n b va de o ve o u a e ve a d ve e e . g rn n ns , dj cti s , r s i n rying g r A fe w o u fi rm th e u a are m u a e 5 . n ns , i n sing l r , t t d i n th e u a wh e e e b th e a t e a n d vi c e pl r l n d fin d y r icl , ve rsa The o m e are h e o f m a u e e e . f r r c i fly sc lin g nd r , t h e l atte r fe m inin e 6 m o f ub a e h h . o o u e w o two v w e e C p nd d rds s st nti s , t r r m m m a m o o e o o o u e the e o e . p r p r c n , t t s c nd i ty A e e e e o f o r u o e o f e e t nd ncy xists in Br t n , p rp s s p rf ct e u ph o ny (wh ich m ay a lre ady h ave be e n o bse r ve d i n t h e o u a o o f th e o m o u ve b to te rmi n a l c nj g ti n c p nd r ), m u ta ti on wh e e th e u e e a wa ab e o , r s rd l tt r is l ys li l t y i e ld place to its s o n a nt i n o rde r to pre se r ve th e ’ rhythm o f t he se nte nce : Kare d o u n n f or K a re t o un n Se e a h a e h A . o t e ls c ng s i n rticle . 7 2 AN INTRODUCTION

E R ! I I I CHAPT .

P O E CT O a c R V I N , .

S e a o f th e o e o f h o e e a wh h to p king pr c ss p n tic d c y , ic a gre ate r o r l e ss e xte nt m ust e xe rt its infl ue nce u p o n a P o h e ve ua e . e a h a h e i n ry l ng g , r f W itn y s ys t t in t ir ce ti o n h e e h a e a m o u to a u a e o f h p t s c ng s nt in cc r ci s spe e c . ‘ Th e y a tt e st the infl ue nce o f th a t im m e nse n u m e ric a l m aj o rity wh o do n o t t a ke su fficie nt p a ins to spe a k c o r re ctl but wh o e b u e be o m e a the o m o f y , s l nd rs c fin lly n r a h e a r m the l angu ge . T y e a i nly th e re s ult o f tw o te n de n cie s th e o f wh h to m a e h e a to , first ic is k t ings sy o u r o a o f As wh o wo u sa k h rg ns , ld y nig t , alm o re a t e o wa wh e the m e a a de ps , f c s l , t rd , n ning is ’ ’ ’ uate l o ve e b n i t sam o e to a rd o r wh o q y c n y d y , , f c sl , ; ’ wo u w e ve to elte o mim whe b u o u ld illingly r rt nu ) , n y j dici s e xe rcise o f ph o n e tic e co n o my h e m ay m a ke h is m e a n ing Cle a r by th e e mpl o ym e nt o f b ut f ou r e le m e nt ary o u — a lms a n d e ve h e e e h at e a m h s nds , n t n , i n sp c l st , ig t dispe nse with o ne m o re o f t hat a tte n uate d n um be r ? ‘ ’ To - day the pu rist i n lingu istry de bate s w i th in him se lf as to h o w f a r h e m ay le gi ti m ate ly go with the ‘ ’ o u a Ch a e o b e his a o to his p p l r ng , j cting c n n t ‘ ’ ‘ ’ o e to th e u o f to - m o o w o v e ft n p rist rr , c n ict d ‘ ’ ’ ‘ ’ ’ o f e a w u e h is o u a n d w o u p d ntry , ill tt r c ldn t ldn t ‘ ’ ‘ ’ a n o o a s re a dily as h e write s h is h o n o r d c l r .

‘ ’ Lan ua e a n d the Stu La n ua e s . 2 8 s . g g , dy of g g , p , q To BRETON GRAMMAR . 7 3

n 8 e a w h h ue o o f a o o o e o . In f tn t p 4 , d ling it t is q sti n h o e h a e was o b e ve h a two o e e p n tic c ng , it s r d t t pr c ss s h a ua e Th e o n e w as we re at wo rk i n t e Bre t o n l ng g . ‘ ’ the disint e gra ting pro ce s s a ll ude d to in th e p ara

a h abo ve a n d o m wh h e s u ve a e the gr p , fr ic d tr cti g ncy

to a a b n o m a But u h e Bre n l ngu ge is y e ns fre e . f rt r th a n th at ; i n th is s a me dire cti o n n o fam ily o f spee ch h as o e u h e h a th e e o e h as so u e g n f rt r t n C ltic , n n s cc ss fu lly att e mpte d th e t ask o f re nde ring its l a ngu a ge o n e o f pe rfe ct e u ph o nic h a rm o ny a n d u n int e rr upt e d flue n ce a n d o f h h e e abu a e o f e v e e , t is t r is nd nc id nc in ‘ th e syste m o f m utati o n a llud e d to as the co m mo n de ’ o m a o o f e e e h h a m o w h h n in t r C ltic sp c . In r ny it t is la w we a n e abo a e e t a u a e m wh e e b , find l r t y n t r l syst , r y e ue ve a e to he m e ae m e ae t o he t n s gi pl c t ir di , di t ir a a ae o e to o u h fl be e to ue n ce . spir t , i n rd r c nd c t is If it ‘ true th a t gro wth a n d ch a nge m a ke th e life o f a la n u a e a s h e are e ve wh e e e e the e a ab e g g , t y ry r ls ins p r l a cc o mpa ni m e nt an d sign o f th e n inde e d are the C e ltic l a nguage s in h a ppy c ase ! Th e se co nd pr o ce ss which we o bse r ve at w o rk is ‘ ’ a e e o u ve o n e a n d m a e a n o o te dir ctly r c nstr cti , k s i n pp si

e o to h a u o e a n d e ue a u e dir cti n t t j st n tic d , is fr q ntly ll d d to th e o e o a e as P rove c ti on Th e wo i n f r g ing p g s . rd u se d i n t his co n n e cti o n appe a rs to o we its o rigin to ‘ ’ Ze u wh o e G a m m a V 1 2 a e a o l. . ss , in s r tic C ltic ( I pp . 3 — 1 6 th e ub e e a e e e ve ho u h n o t 4 ) s j ct is tr t d xt nsi ly , t g e h au ve A x sti ly . de ﬁnitio n h as alre ady be e n a ff o rde d a n d e h ave be e e e o e a o but its principl s n s n in p r ti n , it is

tn e I b 2 Whi y , id . p . 3 . 74 AN INTRODUCTION du e to th e re ade r th at so m e e xpl a n ati o n sh o uld be o ff e re d o f th at wh ich is claim e d o n be h alf o f th e Bre t o n a u a e o r e h a o n e ho u sa u ve o f l ng g ( p r ps s ld y, i ncl si ly , h h o a a o f Th e m a a t e Bryt nic v ri nts Ce ltic). clai d v nce d was h a o m e the ex e o to th e e e a , t t it f r d c pti n g n r l prin ‘ — ciple o f lite ral de c ade nc e th e re a so n fo r wh ich h as — be e n su pplie d abo ve which is so distinguish ing a

- fe atu re in the l a nguage o f the Ind o E u ro pe a n fam ily . The p e o ple s spe a king t he ir o w n vari a nt o f th e m ve A a a ua e a n d e ve o as pri iti ry n l ng g , d l ping it o a o o ff e a m a e o a to h o e b cc si n rs , st nd i n rk d c ntr st t s y wh o m he he m e ve u o u e fo r th e t y find t s l s s rr nd d , i n ‘ ’ a u a a ua e o e b h e e a e h e e ggl tin ting l ng g s sp k n y t s l tt r , t r a a ! w h th e e a n d o ab e e e o o f is , l s it singl n t l xc pti n a a —a n d o b Suo m — e o a o f o r de M gy r p ssi ly i , littl cc si n lo m e n A n o h e o ve t . n d we e t so t e e o p r it , ntir c nditi ns a n d a o o f the a ua e are a a f o r the tr diti ns l ng g g inst it , — rigid wo rking o f th e la w o f um laut so n e ce ssa ry a — c o nditi o n o f th e ir e xiste nce fo rbids a n y de partu re o m o o a e a u a e No w h la f fr c nstituti n l (lit r ry) s g . t is w o ‘ ’ u ml aut o r voc alic se que nce is n o n e w th ing to th at o he b a h o f th e e a e wh o v a e n rt rn r nc C ltic r c , , stri ing ft r e flue n ce h a ve o m u a e f o r h e m e ve th e u e C ltic , f r l t d t s l s r l , ca al le c a ol a us le a tha n le le a tha n h o u h h g . T g t is ca n o n o f Gae lic gra mm a ri a ns bu rde ns th e o rth o graph y of th e a ua e ffi u to se e h o w h o o f th e l ng g , it is di c lt , s rt intr o ducti o n o f th e co ns o n a n t a l signs o f th e De va n a a to be a vo e f o r wh e two wo e e g ri , it is id d , n rds nt r o a u a o m o o w h o n e a o h e th e e o int ct l c p siti n it n t r , s c nd — — in o rde r h as to be so far m o difi e d if n ee ds be th at i t s vo we l s ou nds o fte n a pp ea r to u nde rg o a c o m ple te

7 6 AN INTRODUCTION

‘ ’ ‘ o ve o o th h f r ve o e . u o w t bbr o o w pr cti n r rs T s , y y ( ‘ ’ ‘ ’= o w hwe rth e ( o w gue rth e se ll ‘ ’ ‘ ’ i n o w e we o w be we = li vi n m ar u e g ), p ( g ); kr g ‘ ’ ‘ ru e z do m ar th b h e will be m ar (g g s ), py ( yt , t ), ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ a o allo =i he c a n m ai tha t n a o o c ll (g f ); , ; y , pp siti n ‘ ’ n ta = w e ll a n d m a a e ua ll e e m t o h a ve (y ); g , q y , s s

o e e h o we o m e a e o f the a ua e p ss ss d t is p r i n s st g s l ng g . S ufﬁ ci e nt h as be e n s a id i n the fo re go ing ch a pte r o n M u ta ti o n a n d e lse whe re to de m o nstr ate th e ve ry co m le te h o e u h o a a n d a a wh h ro p ld , p n ic lly synt ctic lly, ic p ve o a u e o ve the e o a ua e w h h cti n cq ir d r Br t n l ng g , ic

e e u h e e a a o o f its O e a o u e e a r nd rs f rt r xpl n ti n p r ti n n n c ss ry . U e th e e h the e o u se o f o ve o e e m nlik W ls , Br t n pr cti n s s r a th e r to lie i n the synt a ctic a l dire cti o n o f ge n de ral a n d u m e a a e ho u h n o a e to the n ric l signiﬁc nc , t g it is str ng r u e h o e u se o f the h n the o he p r ly p n tic We ls . O t r h a u e the E u a a a n d E h o a u se nd , it is nlik sk ri n ( st ni n) o f pr o ve cti o n wh ich ch a nge s s o n a nts to su rds spo radi

a a n d h e o u o o t o o f h e o o w c lly , t n nly p n c ndi i n t ir f ll ing

h r h b a r a w m t e e e t e o vo e o o o . l tt r , si il nts , l i n c p siti n [In th is co n n e cti o n it is inte re sting to n o te th at Ar m o ric ph o n e tics are e vo l ve d o n a cl o se ly pa r alle l

h e The u b a dy e a ve a e to t G e e . e E pl n r k p r si il nt , rly gi s

a e to th e a a o - e a b a Z ‘ ra as e e e pl c p l t d nt l si il nt h , r pr s nting the e b e w Tsadh é o r S a o e wh h H r y ( ) yri c Ts d , ic is a lm o st the val ue o f th e Irish sl e nd e r o (d) a n d E nglis h d A a f th e G e e a ua e 8 0 u . t a a e e o d i n ty l t r st g r k l ng g , , , a ppr o xi m ate to sibila nt f o r w h ich we act u ally ﬁnd

h m h a a o o e u h e e e ub u e . e v t s stit t d T is d pr ti n g s nc ck d , u a t a a e e o o f A G e e the o a o m ntil l t p ri d ttic r k , rigin l f r

he e e - e e e a e t e o e m o e a nd the i n s r s lf d f nc ss rts i s lf nc r , T O BRETON GRAMMAR . 7 7

m o bu a n d m o e di lasiasm (T e ve to ‘ ri nd i p t nt p o r rts TT . Th e D o ric (n o; f o r 9 6 6 9 re co rds the n adir o f Gre e k h o e e a e e a n d o th e a h a ro p n tic d c d nc , p ints f ct t t i n p ve t o a o e a wh e e a va o o m u t c i n l n , if ny r , is s l ti n fr ling is ic pe rditi o n ; th o ugh e ve n the ch a n ge back to s o n ant fo rm o f th e h th a n d th e e v e a e Te u o o m o f , , f ( isc r t d t nic f r th e o o - A a t am e to o a e to ave th e pr t ry n k , , p), c l t s o h a u a e o m e t o th e th e u G t ic L ng g fr x incti n i n 9 C nt ry . The sa me cau se s re nde re d th e a uto chth o n o us l a ngu age s o f Ge m a e a a e o f u b e o to o ne o m r ny , sily p ti nt s j cti n d i a o m wh e u m a e t o f all e a n nt idi , n circ st nc s , firs lit r ry a n d e e a a a n d a o a e m a e th e ccl si stic l , fin lly p litic l , d nd d s acrifice o f ve rn ac ul ar spe e ch o n the a ltar o f Im p e ri a l i m s ] . Fo re m o st a m o ngst th e fo rce s o f disin te gra ti o n at w o rk o n th e Bre t o n l a nguage is arra ign e d th e dire infl ue nce o f a p o p u l ati o n o n i ts b o rde rs Ga llic i n

a ua e a n d a e - e o m a h a n d h l ng g nt Br t n in sy p t y , in t is

a m u be o u h th e e a a o o f th e u the a f ct st s g t xpl n ti n f r r f ct , ‘ ’ th at Gallicis ms a re ra pidly e ating the h e art o ut o f ‘ ’ e e e th e e n o bu ff e - the Bre t o n l a ng uag . H r r is r st ate to o pp o se itse lf to th e p o we rful p o litica l a n d lit e r ary n ue e o f th e e h a o a n d th e a b e e o f u h i ﬂ nc Fr nc n ti n , s nc s c te rrito ry re nde rs th e fu tu re o f th is inte re sting o ld a ua e e a o u e e wh th e e e e o f u h l ng g pr c ri s ind d , ilst xist nc s c a te rrit o ry h as pro ve d the sa l vati o n o f l a nguage s wh o se e h ave be e h e a e e o ab li v s n t r t n d . N t ly is th is the ca se w h a ue wh h abutts o n to b o th e h a n it B sq , ic Fr nc d a h e o h ‘ S . o a as o p nis t rrit ry M . Br c p inte d o u t th at in S a a ue o m e o o o w h S a h o n p in , B sq c s int c llisi n it p nis its bo rde r u nde r co nditi o ns o f such infe ri o rity as to re nde r 8 N To 7 AN I TRODUCTION BRETON GRAMMAR .

ab h a ua e o a h me f a h Bu in e vit le t e gr d l ncr c nt o Sp nis . t a e the a e he mm - i n the a ue n o t i n Fr nc , di l ct ing B sq is

e the S a h a n o fﬁ a a m a ve o a lik p nis , ci l , d inistr ti , p litic l ,

n d e a la ua e n o t e h a n l a . o d lit r ry ng g It is Fr nc , it is a o Ga o wh h a ua o ut he e p t is ( sc n) ic is ct lly dying . T r is n o go o d re a so n why such a di ale ct sho u ld su ppl a nt the a a h o n o h a re we a a n ue o r ue e o a . d B sq , B sq ncr c it B t k th re ate n e d with abs o rpti o n s o o n e r o r l ate r by th e ’ h h a e e e o h e h a wh h e . Fr nc T is l st s nt nc is pr p cy , t t ic e e e a as a o e m a o ve fo r h m e pr c d s it is f ct , ny n y disc r i s lf by c o m p aring th e pre va le nce a n d p u rity o f the B asque a e the Gu u o a a n d a a ua e w h di l cts ( ip zc n Bisc y n), sit t d it in S a h e to w h h o e the abo u a n d So u p nis t rri ry , it t s ( L rdin l e tin) in Fre nch te rrit o ry . A P PE ND ICE S . 8 0 AN INTRODUCTION

6 a P B F : C : m m m Q w m d c o m m o m n a a n o —m w e o N w a h a o h : a m e é s ? n m v o em a x n e m o : o w m m e a 3 mm n s E 0 o w é o 3 v o o c m 0 m b d 9 3 a s 0 o z o 5 8 v a v

s c C a o 5 a 0 n h m o s 1 w c o 5 e I S : o m2 n L 0 o “ m n w C 8 —M r e 6 w c n n m a o o m $ n w a 3 a a : m : D a o r c w a o m z t a e s o t v 6. s / m M i c t s 0

L L i a a E m b A a s b m s k c m mc f C R p o E o c s a D t ? ? m » c » ﬁ a h s a m n a n ﬁ 2 w “ a 5 S o 0 w E 2 £ C 0 J 0 E m o N E m 3 t ? O T O A 8 1 O BRET N GRAMM R .

a A o 3 L a $ R I Q 2 n n I fi s 0 o 5 C fi E 5 m w e Q o £ 0 9 S n 0 c S a a MC ” 3 a 6 a 3 n g n S a —s e : o C s 8 8 S : o w R o : w 8 n w P $ a a m a fi 9 e M 0 B w c 0 : u B 2 o g 5 m 3 s o o E D e 3 w S s w 3 a P T E a ? Q S N b P A s R a s c / M m w E m « I n E Q c : ? a S E I o m s E E B a Q a Z : R Q f . 5 $ u S 5 5 m B n 5 6 S e fi O G 8 S u a 3 n ? W o 5 0 C e n

“ A w e n 3 b N $ e $ u S o S + 5 d 2 : 2 n E w , 0 9 o A 3 c c « a N a 9 5 n « a 5 n 0 n 0 g w 2 5 e i w 0 n e A a w a a e w e : m n $ S g c w I c w N 2 w 8 R { a s m 2 o s o o e x o S n 3 : 3 S n a D Q N fl 2 R n 5 3 N o w 3 w m 5 o o e w s 0 5 a a m n m “ I o 5 0 C 0 2 fi N n S Q m a a n m o % m e r S. . sn m w w m o C N n S fi S e a a m o o b c w x m G e o Q e S m

1 N E 4 O A $ a M “ A A E s R $ S 5 w 0 3 e R M c E Q N 2 E m O o A 2 c 5 C w o i a S n 9 a 2 5 n E S w a 0 5 z 3 A e h 8 0 v “ b c R 9 b e 0 o w I a 3 5 e e s o g a d mo n 5 i fi o a o u m a o t k m a o f 3 b 3 k 5 o x a e ? o v a t & 3 s 3 B z B 0 fi o c t : 2 b s b 2 h s 0 N b ? n x 0 m a e e S k 3 k fi Q v 0 Q m c 2 e R S a 3 9 ? h fi N E E E 5 b Q m 4 A o 5 m o M E m R 3 4 m m 3 b m w 5 . S R c c S x 9 5 e m £ a s Q t t 5 5 s E 6 a 0 A K s o o ? M s 2 m a fi 3 n ? E S ? m f m 6 8 2 AN INTRODUCTION

S Q S E c 4 a $ N A S S A a 5 : 5 S R E S w O 2 A 9 S $ 0 A S T e S 6 R S : 3 a v S S : P —S S w 8 a N C S S L C e . m a e Q : ( a a “ . 5 S N 2

a : o S . S m . o a C 0 Q S S S P 0 Q S m Q S S N A e S S m h « S fi a £ « w Q 2 m 0 e Q r m » e E u m 0 c L e Na a E d a e G £ . £ t « ? m 0 e fi a ? O . F m E c s 5 r H : —w 2 o a E z 3 C fi $ k e S w o w o c m n 8 G v 8 : e m S c “ n

N S a C N $ x s o a m W E S N E e n A S c / S s d ; S S e E o c w s o a t S u m a e Q g s N N a b S c M a o a ; m a S $ 0 . a 5 S b n v m m w g S 4 e a S . : w o e e m : 3 s. W e : u ? N S we c m n : a E S S m c f m a i M m m N g S ( m S m m n S r e S Q S w Q a a oS c S w a m w m S z o S fl n S m w « I o t S m m n b Q m a a e e m E E u S e o m : s N S E : S w \ S w O s m fi S a E e O ( . N e . o O . S H « w a o 6 S S S m N N R n w m S S o fi »S ? E N S S . S m x

3 x m C é S 2 F N 0 a A N m o 8 0 E s b S w o r 3 Q 2 m w fi S o e 8 I m e n . “ a s fi ? . fi m o N m n a N R a e c S A m A fi S S a s x S S e e E s ? CS s S S B NS M I a 8 : V S a S S Q 0 a K Q 3 3 B 0 a $ S m R A b S w 0 E b S g E a fi 5 A D v < b s S a Q o 5 n o e e w O B . { S m k e o a £ H m w d S . s mw S e 6 I S a 4 S c a 0 S S S Q m “ t n Q a s

AN INTRODUCTION

6 S S S S M S w 3 SA b S S S S S e F A S 0 —e 5 S S ? S : —e S H S 9 S . S c : 3 S S . m . S w S m o 6 S I R k a 8 : S Q < H s a Q 0 8 u o c ﬁ S S S S P S 2 : m S S c S S a S m S 2 ? . S S S S S ﬁ m S S S S . : 3 8 a S S 0 3 S S 3 c c 0 S M S S S S R 0 m m 0 P Q S S S Q S m S S S 5 S S S S 8 C m 0 : I $ S S A » m m S S S S S S S H S S S S S S S 9 S m S 3 i m S S S S S : m: $ S S N S N R S 0 9 S . 2 S M S o 3 : S S 9 m S M n C S ” 3 H S M H N H 2 N ? 2 S S S S S E 0 E a 3 S 3 S S R . M A mN v n m

S 6 S S S S S m S c c S S S S S S S a 0 $ o S a 5 S S S S S : 3 n h 5 S S v o S S S S N M S c « 5 S S S E S I S S S c 2 : S S S N S S S a 5 3 m S H S e S S S N S m m S N S M S S S 5 « S S S S m ” 3 S S S S S S S w w 3 h S S S £ w S S S S a 2 a S S e 3 a 2 s S w S S I S m N S S 0 m : o S S S w ; S S S S. S S S S S s M ﬂ S S S S m 6 £ E P S S M o m e S S e M S S S S S m : m S S s 3 S S N S S a a E <0 S S o o m M S S I S S ; 5 R S S S S m n . S — S S S S S S S g I 3 ? 0 . c S . S e . 5 0 S A H m o E ” S N S S 0 H S . C z c S S S S N S H S E . S . H 5 o S S 3 S S S o a Q. S S “. S S N S 0 m n ? c

S D S AS 5 S A A S 6 S S S S : u o S S d S S S 3 w 3 H N o n S S A S w 6 E S ﬁ S 3 S A 0 o s 3 S S S m : S 0 S S ” S R m S A R R S w S S 0 S S ” a v : S S S S a S S c s S m Q S S S o A m R N 5 N S R S O : S S S 3 u S 2 S M S S 3 H R S 5 5 3 S S S S S L R S m H o 9 S S S S R S Q 3 S Q E n Q A S N S S S S S S 4 Q R S S . 9 S S A S m S S C b P S S 5 3 H S H S N e a S S : H 0 S S S S S m % S S R S S S 0 ? : T BR E TO GRAM M AR O N .

c S S S S 5 S S S S E : S S S M » B S S S 9 Q S 3 L 5 S S 5 S S S 8 : : B E B S S M S S S o E B Q g o 5 w S S : w 5 S S S S E S 3 A S S 5 0 S 0 S 3 S E 2 S S A E 8 S S S S S S S H S S S c ;

- S N S . S S S S S S S S S S o S S S S > S S S w E S S S c S S S S S ~ S S u E S S S E S S S S m S S S S S S S S o S S S “ S S S S S S S S : S S S S S S E c S S S S S S S c S S S S S S Q S S : S S m S S S S N S S S S E S S S S S S S m F mS S S S S S S 5 S S S S S S S S S S E S S S S c w S E S S c S S S S S S S a S Q Q S

S S “ m S , S S o S S S S S S S . E S S S c w 5 S A E A S S S S S S S S 5 L 3 S E S S A e S S S S E S S S : 3 5 E S S S c B S E S S \ o S . S S 8 S S S S S w S S S S Q S S E 9 S S S S S S S Q S S S S Q 8 S m S S S S 5 t S S S S c S S S S S b G S S S S 3 s S S m s S S S S S o ﬂ S : : S S 5 S S M o S S A c k S S S S w S B S c m S 0 b S E S a b m S 4 n < S S S S D S S. AS 0 w S S N 5 . S c E S . S S S S S S S é S S 2 2 S E Q S S a S 3 S S S N S 5 0 AS S S S S 0 S S S S 0 S f E S S S 3 S O S S S 8 6 AN INTRODUCTION

“ h x m « 3 a Q a k S é m m u a w F A o o h a w a a ; w a “ a P a Q Q n c n i w A s m ? W a R a : m » x ” , n E « c : E S x 8 £ m m ” Q 5 B a 3 5 S S a 3 m w C x x M : 3 é 5 Q : u é E > £ v ? h 8 w o m z 5 S o 8 c o 3 2 \ Q £ 3 3 5 m - E Q w m 2 o o m N 5 c 5 5 Q 3 { » 8 5 G m m 5 5 0 P 3 E 2 A a F 3 « a 0 3 o c £ : S a R 0 m i R m m m 3 w S c 5 a 8 N fi 8 3 ( o $ w » S a fl 9 3 Q A ? 2 3 d x m : m a 3 m E 3 3 3 c t M % a o m 5 a N E 3 a: 3 a fi g : 3 w R E w “ =. i a “ w 6 a c a a o o v : s a w w x 3 m c : s ( c 8 a > g x o c 3 £ o m s c o o Q c o m 3 fi o 5 m “ m v— o 3 w a —v a x s 3 w m m N m o o : o w m 3 a : m n a 5 a w m k s m fi z 3 m u m w x c w o w c 8 s w £ s c x Q k hm m c 3 o E o x Q m w a 6 m 3 m Q S w t 0 m fi 3 m $ : o x w m fi 9 3 2 h 8 m v m “ w o Q o m 3 o 6 5 s v : 3 0 A 0 c 9 3 $ g N 9 o c d 5 o fi m N N m 5 s « 3 u 3 e o o x fi u 5 > 3 5 m v n a w 0 ». fi

c a v - n “ c o m Q R 8 a ” w fi m u N g c “ 5 v v S a S o fi a ww R? A s o m « m t w 3 3 p o « p S fi w > fi N v S A fi £ o fi 3 e m Q ° o 9 3 1 © q o 2 w k 3 5 : Q E t s x S 3 a 3 w a v 6 s “ S : 9 N R S c Q J a E Q Q w m Q a N b n m E K 5 o m fi m t 4 b < v V t o w s S o o N 3 m m o : 3 t m d Q m m E o N m m wx N E m 3 o w N E o 3 E m 0 w g u E z z w w o x c E 3 M M TO BRETON G RA AR .

J 5 a « £ $ $ w 5 C 3 § A b o o 8 3 n 3 s 5 S 3 Q 9 a M w 8 n m a $ £ c a 3 ”$ a h ? t ( 5 m : 6 a 3 s 3 a 3 ; w 3 8 os N Q m : 0 k Q 3 5 a Q Q ‘ a m $ s M “ Q 5 3 v 3 v 3 a Q N S 3 Q e 3 w 3 3 ~ o N Q a 3 $ ® Q u ” Q x w M : N m M N 2 8 . R G 5 a Q S N o Q P 5 8 R 3 6 w a S ; a 5 n 2 3 a m : m m R 3 3 g : 2 £ : Q g N x m n m 0 m m 3 “ m - P k a g » F ? 8 w $ 3 w 3 J 5 m a 5 3 4 Q a 5 5 2 6 2 N i 0 S Q 0 0 K sw 2 5 3 m 8 ﬁ 1 Q 3 Q m 8 w 2 Q b M o w 0 S 3 S 8 Q @ 8 2 e 3 a S x

“ ” N S é 0 m c fi a o $ S : : o e $ S a 5 s s m Q fi E a r w g o t 0 8 o E r ww Q fi N 3 n 3 Q 3 é a Q k N 3 w a x a a S 8 5 a o m b n S E Q m “ m o W : w 3 w u o S i : n 0 N S x s fi Q M a “ B N m a Q E m S a $ Q g N : s $ d S a s x < m o 8 “ 5 o f Q Q 3 a 3 Q o e w Q fi m w a 8 S « m m 3 s t n m s “ m m Q m A c 3 & i 8 a a m w m h S m $ 9 fi m s s S c E o o 9 x wi k w . w 3 m m c c fi 3 £ m w Q w w w m s n 2 w a 3 3 a x 5 w ‘ s m w w : 0 ? w Q

k 4 c w A 6 3 4 k a fi A m 3 a g m 5 c 3 h a 9 » E 3 fi s S N 2 a D U a fi A N £ H c ? fi A 3 b s k 2 m fi s a 9 3 Q fi m t 5 R y m 3 R c g m a “ Q c m “ o $ m M Q o 3 3 n 3 0 a m m o a 9 N a : 3 w S : w b c 3 8 u v a Q © ” 6 5 8 a b m a 3 b N 6 y s fl Q A f 8 : 3 a 0 S M » o Q E Q o m a fl w $ S . E w v E Q ‘ fi m m o 3 K m D m w Q g fi b m 3 F N Q w 8 £ £ Q m fi E f E fi 5 E 3 3. 3 w 8 8 AN INTRODUCTION

N c k w . m « - Q 3 o f w 9 ( \ o u m Q Q Q h a m 3 - Q 3 —t m Q a ; € Q $ m c 9 = k 3 e w w 3 Q i E Q k m Q Q e Q Q Q 3 fi w a : fi 2 N Q x R f R Q S ? 3 a Q x 3 E f 3 Q Q \ o a M Q fl Q e Q ( a 8 Q S Q 8 3 Q $ 3 Q E Q c E « o : 8 - 2 o 3 S Q xN Q Q N S E 9 Q o Q Q Q m Q Q $ N Q g Q Q m 3 a R P 5 Q y a c 5 2 o Q Q Q x : v : a : Q 8 Q Q g Q N E 2 w S m “ Q “ a P . m d ? 5 & 3 w Q M c S o . w A m c g Q S 9 $ m a fi Q 8 ” “ E N Q Q u t : m u § P a c Q a m E 3 o c Q Q o N E e Q k c t A w w n c x Q k x - k $ m c N A N Q Q Q S i a N Q Q x m : c x 3 Q \ Q s 3 m B S M S “ o “ S Q c 3 “ 0 v k c S Q M Q c N Q Q S w 5 o s Q Q Q w m 0 E xN h Q c k v fi Q S S Q z : Q N a m m m Q o N k a 9 o 5 w N x c w m Q 3 g a N w o u E t c 8 d s s ‘ Q h a m o N Q k m o 5 o c fi k Q Q { Q Q m a w : z Q N w o N 0 Q Q Q Q n o m a N a c m s Q n a 5 m m Q h { a a m e k m “ o e Q Q kw 5 Q Q a Q Q 3 n ms Q k m c a t Q Q E N 3 3 m s d N Q Q x g 3 v J . Q Q Q $ z N m 5 c N s m Q Q N c m m w Q 5 i $ o o m m Q a Q s 5 c u o s 8 o “ 5 ; 3 3 m w Q m c v Q “ a x S

N k Q A J k Q Q 2 S é a A 6 c o Q “ o R 3 f S 5 3 Q 8 8 a m n g E 6 Q » fi S s a Q k y 5 “ E t S m a 8 Q x ; P E a Q 6 > fl m 3 k a 0 Q g A 6 § 8 Q a Q 6 Q t 5 5 v Q u a k 3 3 J g 8 m b e Q m 3 5 t 9 a c : o > fi 8 k Q Q 2 a £ ( Q “ m 3 A o 3 £ k R M V m “ : 5 N Q , t Q Q N c o N 3 0 m o 3 Q E n w 3 3 N S e : N m 5 D Q Q 3 Q Q Q . Q Q N 5 E 3 R a a & 3 u m 5 b E o 5 N Q Q N m Q Q Q E 3 2 w m 8 Q Q 3 Q k c xN N m S A 6 m b 3 S S 3 Q‘ Q TO BRETON GRAMMAR .

“ Q Q Q Q Q M n $ Q S £ Q ( Q Q R Q a Q Q Q t Q Q 6 8 Q R w Q S Q n Q t Q . Q a a Q Q Q w 2 Q Q Q Q x w Q Q Q Q t Q Q Q S R N Q n N Q Q » M - Q Q R Q w { Q R Q S Q Q Q Q Q Q w S m R B Q { Q Q Q Q Q m Q 5 Q N R Q J Q R Q S Q E Q Q Q S Q 5 “ Q Q Q Q Q Q S Q Q Q Q Q Q w Q Q Q Q Q S Q B Q u Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q R Q c Q ﬁ S N Q Q N Q Q » Q N Q G Q R Q Q R N m Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q w Q R Q Q Q Q m Q Q N Q Q Q Q m R Q Q Q R Q m Q N Q Q Q Q Q Q ﬁ a Q N Q Q Q Q Q Q N Q Q L Q 2 Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q R d Q x Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q 5 m Q Q Q Q m Q S Q Q Q Q S —Q Q Q Q N Q Q Q M N Q : M M Q Q Q : Q Q

N , Q « Q Q Q R Q Q Q Q x $ S m Q Q Q x Q Q Q Q o Q N Q N o Q K Q Q N w S Q Q Q Q Q “ m N S Q o Q Q Q > Q Q Q x Q Q w Q Q Q x Q Q N o x i E Q Q N Q Q Q Q n Q Q Q Q S Q Q Q B Q Q Q N Q Q Q Q Q Q N Q Q Q i Q Q Q Q Q Q N S Q m Q Q Q Q R Q w Q Q W Q m Q Q Q Q w w Q Q m Q M Q s Q Q ( “ Q Q \ Q s o Q Q “ Q Q Q Q o Q Q Q Q s Q Q N Q S 3 S Q Q Q Q Q . D Q Q . Q a Q Q Q w Q x x Q Q R Q Q Q Q ﬁ Q Q Q Q Q Q i Q Q N Q Q m Q N ( Q Q Q m S w Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q g M Q Q Q K N Q . Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q 0 Q m Q Q Q Q m Q Q Q m Q $ N Q Q . Q Q Q Q Q “ Q Q Q Q Q Q x Q Q Q Q Q q x

x - N Q n Q Q Q R Q R Q E { Q Q A Q a a Q w R R R S N S R Q Q Q Q o Q N R Q f x Q Q Q Q Q > Q Q Q R Q v Q Q Q Q . Q . Q Q Q 4 § Q o N Q Q \ R Q Q g M Q V 5 a Q R . Q Q R Q N Q Q Q x S R m Q N Q Q Q N Q Q A N Q Q Q E fi N Q Q Q Q Q Q N v R w Q Q Q Q R m Q Q Q v Q Q R Q Q 8 Q Q z o Q Q R Q E R Q Q o fi Q Q Q R Q w ; . Q o Q Q . R Q Q Q Q k Q . N Q Q . Q E Q Q Q Q O s Q A Q Q Q N Q R Q Q Q Q Q Q Q w Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q ( fi N Q § $ Q Q Q A Q Q p d x Q Q Q Q Q Q . Q g Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q . ( Q Q Q Q R Q R h Q Q Q R N Q R Q R d Q N Q N Q Q S N S N N Q Q Q N Q Q K m Q 2, Q N S K Q 5 Q R Q \E Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q a A Q S N Q R Q Q 5 Q Q Q Q Q w Q R R R N N R 9 0 AN INTRODUCTION

Q : Q 5 fi A “ u 3 o é ‘ 5 ca w o P £ > Q : 9 9 0 3 ? a S 2 c a » 3 n t s o 3 u m 0 s o S Q t Q Q Q : fi : 0 8 ¢ Q Q w m m o 4 Q 5 Q Q ? w 6 Q Q : : 5 m J $ 3 v Q 3 Q fi m5 g Q 0 s o 6 sb v o - . N a c 3 Q m Q fi : 8 v o

o E w u 8

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Q £ t 0 9 Q b : v s 3 Q : 5 6 0 3 o 3 A

B 2 Q a Q

AN INTRODUCTION

n t Q £ w c A w 6 a w 8 3 8 c a : o c E c 3 o m C w Q o m w 5 Q Q w 4 s u c v E m Q a 5 6 Q m s c S m 6 w é u c 2 p s c o m m o 0 S o m o c 5 C m Q E t 5 Q s s Q o 6 Q 3 a = s c Q w 5 w : m Q c 0 c w o m 2 u E m m C Q 5 m m 5 c Q Q “ u > Q s n c L Q “ Q o o E u Q Q N o —m 6 w E s s w c w “ o Q v : 2 N Q s Q w Q w 5 o : 5 c w “ Q M w 0 Q o h E Q E E E > E v 4 E m M m v G m m z : . 5 o w e w . 5 5 : Q ﬁ c 6 Q m Q L o 8 Q o 5 s o w 7 o x a 0 Q Q

c . Q Q Q a L Q m c Q : s s M o c d o m o c Q c 5 f B i r s Q o c m N v 3 o n 9 c o a ; m 5 B 0 5 . . c w N : . o 9 N 8 m c = o N $ o m 3 w o C c m Q E 9 c o E Q Q o w v m n E 8 . fi c N I Q Q a “ Q fi mo > Q o Q o 5 3 Q S o S m $ B c w c n o 5 h o v 8 Q 5 s o Q t ? d v c Q o o z o c o { w B : o . 3 $ Q mt B i m n Q p 5 o o o 2 a 5 B w n Q : a m w Q 0 E Q E c Q E a Q w o o 8 b w s Q > o w m C c 8 k c O E s E u Q s 0 m Q o m w é D Q mQ w 8 s o Q m Q u o fi . C m 6 o g. w s m e Q 5 § a o w 5 o w 6 w cx TO BRETON GRAMMAR . 9 3

- Q c > 5 o Q m : “ o Q Q a o 2 v “ s ; o w o m n s o o Q x Q s ﬁ v“ Q : 9 u 9 Q 5 5 c m Q N 9 m Q 5 E Q Q o Q E > > Q a Q o Q g . Q > N m Q Q Q £ m E Q 0 Q . 6 o 5 6 u n ~ o 3 5 m N o 2 o 3 : 3 : g CARM ART H E N

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