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Roparz Hemon, Michael Everson | 100 pages | 01 May 2011 | Evertype | 9781904808718 | English | Cathair na Mart, Ireland Portal:Breton - Wikiversity

September 3, and died in Caen on January 8, He is the author of first dictionary French-caribe. Breton joined the Saint-Jacques priory in Paris in There he obtained a degree in theology and left, with three other Dominicans, for the Caribbean in Breton spent 20 years in the West Indies. From to , he resided in Dominica and lived with the Caribes and Garifunas. He also travels to the islands of the Antilles to evangelize the natives and for that, he learns their languages, the Caribbean languages. Breton returned to France in and was responsible for the training of priests who went to the West Indies. Relatio Gestorum a primis Praedicatorum missionariis in insulis Americanis ditionis gallicae praesertim apud Indos indigenas quos Caribes vulgo dicunt ab anno ad annum in Latin. Composed by Fr. Raymond Breton,. Caribbean Catechism. Adam and Ch. Paris, Maisonneuve and Larose, First Printing. In-8, Complex prepositions inflect by means of interfixes , whereby the nominal second element is preceded by a pronomial form. This is similar to how instead can become in my stead in archaic English. Mutations may be triggered following the various pronomial forms. Personal pronouns may be strong, post- head or pre-clitic head. Strong pronouns have the same distribution as a full phrase and may be subjects , objects or prepositional objects. Post-clitic head pronouns tend to follow finite , or inflected prepositions. Pre-clitic head pronouns function as pronouns preceding phrases and possessive determiners preceding noun phrases. The use of the "new" personal pronouns is more restricted. pronouns are post-head used in with the definite . Indefinite pronouns may be positive, such as re "some, ones" and holl "all" and negative, such as netra "nothing" and neblec'h "nowhere" and may be preceded by a determiner, for example an re "some" "the ones" and da re "your" "your ones". Breton verbs can be conjugated to show tense , aspect , mood , person and number by adding to the verbal stem , seen in the following table. Additional suffixes may form the . The most common of these are: [2]. For other verbs, the stem itself is also the verbnoun, for example, gortoz "wait", lenn "read", kompren "understand". Verbs also have a past formed with a and a present participle form comprising the verbal noun preceded by the particle o , which causes a mixed mutation. Most verbs are regular and stray little from the usual patterns. Another common irregular verb is eus "have", which combines a person marker with the tensed form. In the present, Breton like Cornish and Irish but unlike the other Celtic language distinguishes between the simple and progressive present. The simple present is formed by either conjugating the verb or using the verbal noun with the present of ober. Non-tensed verbs are negated with ne Similar to other , Breton has an underlying counting system. An interesting irregularities in the system are triwec'h "eighteen", literally "three sixes", and hanter kant "fifty", literally "half a hundred" compare Welsh deunaw "two nines" and hanner cant "half a hundred". Again, a gender distinction can be shown with some ordinal numbers. The main mutations cause the following changes:. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Grammar of the . See why. November Main article: Breton mutations. In Ball, Martin; Fife, James eds. The Celtic Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. London: Routledge. Llydaweg i'r Cymro [ Breton for the Welshman ]. Bala: Llyfrau'r Faner. Colloquial Breton. Colloquial Series. The form eo is used when the is anywhere but not before it. It is never preceded by any particle, e. Full text of "An introduction to Breton grammar"

Word-initial consonants, voiceless consonants and [m] are fortis strongly articulated. Voiced fricatives are lenis weakly articulated. Voiced stops and [l], [n], [r] can be fortis or lenis. All voiceless consonants are voiced before a or l, m, n, r. Final voiced consonants are devoiced, except when the next word begins with a vowel. Initial . Like other Celtic languages, Breton has initial consonant mutations triggered by grammatical markings and the presence of various particles. There are four types of initial consonant mutation:. The initial consonant of singular feminine nouns or masculine human plurals and also the following are lenited after the indefinite or definite article. Voiceless stops become voiced, voiced stops become fricatives, m becomes v when required, the symbols of the International Phonetic Association are shown between brackets :. Voiceless stops become fricatives when a noun is preceded by some possessive or direct object pronouns as well as before the numerals three, four and nine. Voiced stops become devoiced when a noun is preceded by a 2nd person possessive or object pronoun:. Stress : in most dialects, stress usually falls on the penultimate syllable and is based on intensity but in Gwenedeg there is a pitch accent that affects the last syllable. The Breton script is based on the Roman alphabet. A unified orthography called Peurunvan 'totally unified' or zedacheg for digraph zh or KLTGw the initial of the four dialects , was created in However, Peurunvan is the most popular and is the one presented here. Below each letter its equivalence in the International Phonetic Alphabet is shown between brackets:. There is also a singulative marker - enn to single out one item of a collective noun. For example, logod means 'mice' but logodenn means a single mouse. The singulatives are feminine. There is a dual referring to parts of the body that come in pairs; it counts as plural for verbal agreement. The plura l is formed:. There are several possible constructions:. Articles are not inflected for gender or number. The indefinite article has several forms: un , ul , ur. The definite article is also polymorphic: an , al , ar. These different forms are induced by the consonant or vowel that follows: un and an before , n, d, t, h; ul and al before l ; ur and ar in other cases. They form diminutives, comparatives and superlatives adding suffixes to the base. without modification are sometimes used as . They have independent, proclitic, and 'new' forms. Possessive pronouns are formed by placing proclitic pronouns before the determinatives hini sg. Today, as the French linguistic position is still to only put forward the considered as the language of the Republic , the Breton language remains spoken by circa , persons to be compared with the 1,, persons in This number will probably drop under , because the largest part of its speakers are of an older generation. If you want to teach , please sign up at the Breton stream and contact the Head of Breton. To show your interest in the Breton Language, sign up at the Breton stream. This will provide a record of who is learning Breton, so you can see who else out there speaks Breton and can speak to them. It is helpful if the student is familiar with basic grammatical terms; should you need some clues, please follow these links to Wikipedia :. Quality resource : this resource is a featured learning resource. Diaes eo lavarout da vat pegoulz e voe ganet ar brezhoneg. Today, there are an estimated , speakers but this large number is deceptive in that most native speakers are above Press estimated the number of active users at , over 25 years ago and this number has most likely diminished since. Despite a precipitous downturn in language transmission, younger speakers, have now begun to emerge again from the Diwan bilingual schools which were established in the s and are playing a key role in the revival of the language. There are interesting differences in the language of the older and younger generations, as most younger speakers learned the language in school later in life. While the phonology of the language among younger speakers shows a degree of convergence with French, the lexicon has also been purged of many French loan words that exist in the speech of older people. Immigration from Brittany began in the beginning of the 20th century and reached its peak between the two world wars. We are also in the midst of working on a series of interviews in Breton together with Intercultural Productions. As of now, we have interviewed Fabienne Geoffroy, a veteran teacher at the bilingual Diwan school in Paris, and Rozenn Milin, an important figure in Breton television and director of Sorosoro. Clips can be seen in the playlist at the top of this page. We hope to complete these episodes in Bothorel, A. Cheveau, L. La Baule: Breizh hor bro , Favereau, F. Grammaire du breton contemporain. Skol Vreizh. Humphreys, H. Ball ed. Breton non-local spirantization reexamined in: Indo-European Linguistics Volume 8 Issue 1 ()

A unified orthography called Peurunvan 'totally unified' or zedacheg for digraph zh or KLTGw the initial of the four dialects , was created in However, Peurunvan is the most popular and is the one presented here. Below each letter its equivalence in the International Phonetic Alphabet is shown between brackets:. There is also a singulative marker - enn to single out one item of a collective noun. For example, logod means 'mice' but logodenn means a single mouse. The singulatives are feminine. There is a dual referring to parts of the body that come in pairs; it counts as plural for verbal agreement. The plura l is formed:. There are several possible constructions:. Articles are not inflected for gender or number. The indefinite article has several forms: un , ul , ur. The definite article is also polymorphic: an , al , ar. These different forms are induced by the consonant or vowel that follows: un and an before vowels, n, d, t, h; ul and al before l ; ur and ar in other cases. They form diminutives, comparatives and superlatives adding suffixes to the base. Adjectives without modification are sometimes used as adverbs. They have independent, proclitic, and 'new' forms. Possessive pronouns are formed by placing proclitic pronouns before the determinatives hini sg. They have different forms for animate and inanimate nouns. I nterrogative pronouns generally come first in the sentence. There are two verbal particles: a after the subject and direct object, and e after the indirect object. Breton has few irregular verbs. There is also an impersonal or general form. The perfective expresses a completed action and the imperfective an habitual or ongoing action. Besides, Breton has several compound tenses. The simple tenses are formed by adding a specific set of personal endings to the stem of the verbal noun. The personal endings are :. These verbs have a radical which is different from the verbal noun but the personal endings are the same as in the regular verbs. Their present tense is shown in the table. Preverbs are prefixes that change the verb's meaning. The present participle and are formed with the verbal noun plus a preceding particle o for present participle, ur for . The past participle is formed by adding - et to the verbal root. EUR before all other consonants. Both of these Articles are subject to declension throughout all cases. Nominative Accusative Genitive - Dative - - ann or al or ar ann al ar euz ann, euz al, euz ar d'ann d'al d'ar eunn or eul or eur eunn eul eur euz a eunn, euz a eul, euz a eur d'eunn d'eul d'eur PLURAL. In consonance with general Celtic practice, the definite This is, of course, untranslatable into English. Ar ger euz ann Aotrou. The word of the Lord. Ar pen-kenta euz al lizer d'ar C'halated. The beginning of the Epistle to the Galations. Eunn tamm euz a eunn askourn. A fragment of a bone. Eur c'han euz a eul levr ar Salmou. A chant of a Psalter. In actual practice it is customary to omit the mark of the genitive case, its position immediately following the preceding substantive being sufficient indication of case; whilst the articular emphasis, which in English requires stress on the spoken, and italics on the written word, finds expression in Breton often by the opposite process the total omission of any article 1. Roue Bro-Zaos a oe klanv. The King of England has been ill. Pronominal usages are frequent and varied in the Breton language. In treating of the pronoun, it should be borne in mind that though the pronoun may take a like form in differ- ent cases, persons, genders, and numbers, yet its sig- nification is rendered entirely unambiguous by an elaborate and ingenious system of initial mutation, which will be explained in the chapter on ' Mutation. Nominative Case. Te, az or ez, ec'h thou 3. Ma, am [oun, en] me 2. Ta, az [oud, ez] thee 3. Han, hen or her, he. Ac'hanoun of me 2. Ac'hanod of thee 3. D'id to thee 3. Though the pronoun as thus given may have an involved appearance, it is not such in fact, as the following explanations will show. The forms in square brackets are the pronominal terminations of that Celtic and useful combination of preposition with pronoun,t as: Ganen with me , ganez, ganthan; ganeomp, ganeoc'h, gantho. Hepzoun with- out me hepzoud, hepzhan ; hepzomp, hepzoc'h, hepzho. The 2nd person plural, Accusative Case [hu] is a terminal insistant, and serves to further distinguish the person as Mar kirit-hu if YOU wish. The Alternative c'h precedes vowels. Rhys regards these syntheticisms as evidence of pre-Aryan influence. Verbal enclitics, q. There are many rules for the position of the pro- noun all in harmony with Celtic usage, and none peculiar to Breton; but in simple construction the objective pronoun follows closely the subjective. This pronoun takes two forms, the first of which is identical with the primary form of the accusative case of the , and which may be called the simple form; the second, denoting absolute possession, may be styled the emphatic form. Simple Form, Singular. Ma or va my or mine 2. Ta or da thy or thine Hon or hoi or hor our Hoc'h or ho your 3. He his Ho their Emphatic Form. Ma hini or re my very own 2. Ta hini or re thy very own 3. The demonstrative pronoun in Breton is very exact, having many subtle shades of meaning unknown to the English language; as Dr. The use of the Definite Article emphasized by pronominal particles, hini in singular and re in plural. He-man masculine , hou-man feminine ; becoming re-man in the plural, which answers to the Cymric hwn yma, hon yma; and y rhai hyn. This form is more emphatic than the preceding. Latin ille, ilia; ilia, 'that re- moter object. The following pronouns are used interrogatively: Pehini which? Petra what? Welsh, pa beth? Of these pehini plural pere is used- relatively as well as piou ben nag Welsh, pwy by nag], whoever, and petra-bennag Welsh, beth bynag], whatever. Efe yw'r dyn a welais. Hen eo ann den me a welaz. Ev yu an den mi a welys. He is the man whom I saw. The Breton language is rich in the possession of three auxuliary verbs, of which the utmost use is made. These are Beza, to be; Kaout, to have; and Ober, to do the latter as extensively used as an auxiliary, as in Cornish and the Gaelic languages. The various tenses of these verbs enter into loose composition with the mood of the principal verb to a most useful degree. In addition to this method of conjugation, all verbs are used both personally and impersonally that is to say, they may be conjugated throughout each person of the tense, each tense of the mood, and each mood of the verb, and are then termed personal verbs; or, the third person singular of each tense may be used in conjunction with the pronoun proper to each person of the tense, and separated from it by an enclitic, in which case they are designated impersonal verbs. The rule for the proper employment of the personal and impersonal verb is thus given by Le Gonidec, though the rule is not without its exceptions. When the subject is a noun substantive or personal pronoun which commences a sentence, the verb which follows it must be conjugated 'impersonally. When a noun or pronoun in either the nomina- tive or accusative case immediately precedes, the verb, the broad particle a is introduced into its structure. EXCEPT in the present indicative which in this case employs no particle , when the verb beza to be is preceded by an adjective, the slender particle with its modifications is introduced. Exempla 1. Me a wel eur stereden. Ar gwin a zo marc'had mad The wine is cheap. Bara a zebr He eats bread. Klan e oa He was ill. Pinvidik c vezo He will be rich. The verb, as in Welsh, is negatived by means of the two negative particles, ne and ket, the former of which precedes and the latter succeeds the verb to be negatived. Personally conjugated. Present Tense. Ounn I am Ornp we are 2. Oud thou art Oc'h you are 3- fio he is Int they are Imperfect Tense. Oann I was Oamp we were 2. Oenn I have been Oemp we have been 2. Oez thou hast been Oec'h you have been 3- Oe he has been Cent they have been Future 7ense. Bezinn I shall be Bezimp we shall be 2. Ra vezinn I may be Ra vezimp we may be 2. Size, bije, bie, be 1. Ra venn I might be 2. Ra vez thou mightst be 3. Ra ve he might be Plural. Ra vemp we might be 2. Ra vec'h you might be 3. Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Future Tenses. Impersonally conjugated. As the personal verb. Me a oe Perfect Tense. Future Tense. Le Gonidec mentions a third method of conjugation much in vogue amongst the people of Leon, which consists in placing the infinitive verb before the per- sonal , and introducing the slender enclitic, as this Present. Beza ez oud Beza ez oaz 3. Beza ez eo Beza ez oa Perfect. Beza ez oenn Beza e vezinn 2. Beza ez oez Beza e vezi 3. And yet another method, occasionally met with, noticed by the same authority Indicative Present. Bezann Bezomp 2. Bezez Bezit 3. Bez Bezont Colloquialisms have attacked and taken large liberties with this verb. Ez poa thou wast having 3. Hen doa he was having 1. Hor boa we were having 2. Ho poa you were having 3. Ho doa they were having Perfect Tense. Ez poe thou hadst Ho poe you had 3. Ez pezo thou wilt have 3. Hen devezo he will have 1. Hor bezo we shall have 2. Ho pezo you will have 3. R'az pezo thou mayst have 3. R'en devezo he may have Plural. Az pe thou shouldst have 3. Hen defe he should have Ho pe you should have Ho defe they should have 2nd Conditional Tense. Hon bezet have thou 3. Strictly speaking, this verb has no personal form, but merely two impersonal forms; but Le Gonidec classes Form I. The Tenses of Form II. Present Singular. Rann I do 2. Rez thou doest 1 Tense. Reomp Rit 3. Reann I was doing Reamp 2. Reez thou wast doing Reac'h 3. Rea he was doing Reant 1. Riz 2. Rezoud 3. Reaz 1. Rinn 2. Raid Perfect Tense. I shall do thou wilt do he will do Plural. Ra rinn I may do Ra raimp we may do 2. Raen I should do Raemp we should do 2. Raez thou shouldst do Raec'h you should do 3. Ra raez thou mightst do 3. Gra do thou 3. The verb Karout, as a paradigm of the Breton verb, is here given in all its forms. Karann 2. Karez 3. Kar i. Karez thou wast loving 3. Kare he was loving we were loving Karec'h you were loving Karent they were loving 1. Kiriz 2. Karzoud 3. Karaz 1. Kirinn 2. Kiri 3. Karo Perfect Tense. Ra girinn I may love 2. Ra giri thou mayst lave 3. Ra garo he may love Plural. Cheveau, L. La Baule: Breizh hor bro , Favereau, F. Grammaire du breton contemporain. Skol Vreizh. Humphreys, H. Ball ed. Jouitteau, M. PhD thesis, University of Zugl. Nantes, Nantes. Kuter, Lois. Dorian ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Le Pipec, E. Lewis, H. Handbuch des Mittelbretonischen , vol. Innsbruck: Inst. Ploneis, J.

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Present Tense. Ounn I am Ornp we are 2. Oud thou art Oc'h you are 3- fio he is Int they are Imperfect Tense. Oann I was Oamp we were 2. Oenn I have been Oemp we have been 2. Oez thou hast been Oec'h you have been 3- Oe he has been Cent they have been Future 7ense. Bezinn I shall be Bezimp we shall be 2. Ra vezinn I may be Ra vezimp we may be 2. Size, bije, bie, be 1. Ra venn I might be 2. Ra vez thou mightst be 3. Ra ve he might be Plural. Ra vemp we might be 2. Ra vec'h you might be 3. Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Future Tenses. Impersonally conjugated. As the personal verb. Me a oe Perfect Tense. Future Tense. Le Gonidec mentions a third method of conjugation much in vogue amongst the people of Leon, which consists in placing the infinitive verb before the per- sonal finite verb, and introducing the slender enclitic, as this Present. Beza ez oud Beza ez oaz 3. Beza ez eo Beza ez oa Perfect. Beza ez oenn Beza e vezinn 2. Beza ez oez Beza e vezi 3. And yet another method, occasionally met with, noticed by the same authority Indicative Present. Bezann Bezomp 2. Bezez Bezit 3. Bez Bezont Colloquialisms have attacked and taken large liberties with this verb. Ez poa thou wast having 3. Hen doa he was having 1. Hor boa we were having 2. Ho poa you were having 3. Ho doa they were having Perfect Tense. Ez poe thou hadst Ho poe you had 3. Ez pezo thou wilt have 3. Hen devezo he will have 1. Hor bezo we shall have 2. Ho pezo you will have 3. R'az pezo thou mayst have 3. R'en devezo he may have Plural. Az pe thou shouldst have 3. Hen defe he should have Ho pe you should have Ho defe they should have 2nd Conditional Tense. Hon bezet have thou 3. Strictly speaking, this verb has no personal form, but merely two impersonal forms; but Le Gonidec classes Form I. The Tenses of Form II. Present Singular. Rann I do 2. Rez thou doest 1 Tense. Reomp Rit 3. Reann I was doing Reamp 2. Reez thou wast doing Reac'h 3. Rea he was doing Reant 1. Riz 2. Rezoud 3. Reaz 1. Rinn 2. Raid Perfect Tense. I shall do thou wilt do he will do Plural. Ra rinn I may do Ra raimp we may do 2. Raen I should do Raemp we should do 2. Raez thou shouldst do Raec'h you should do 3. Ra raez thou mightst do 3. Gra do thou 3. The verb Karout, as a paradigm of the Breton verb, is here given in all its forms. Karann 2. Karez 3. Kar i. Karez thou wast loving 3. Kare he was loving we were loving Karec'h you were loving Karent they were loving 1. Kiriz 2. Karzoud 3. Karaz 1. Kirinn 2. Kiri 3. Karo Perfect Tense. Ra girinn I may love 2. Ra giri thou mayst lave 3. Ra garo he may love Plural. Karfez thon mightest love 3. Karfe he might love Karfemp we might love Karfec'h yon might love Karfe nt they might love 2nd Conditional Tense. Ragarfenn I might love j Ra garfemp 2. Ra garfez 3. Ra garfe I. Kar 3. Hen a garj verb. Hi hint a gar 1. Me a gare 2. Te a gare 3. Hen a gare 1. Me a garaz 2. Te a garaz 3. Hen a garaz 1. Me a garo 2. Te a garo 3. Hen a garo Imperfect Tense. Ni a gare C'houi a gare Hi a gare Perfect Tense. Ni a garaz C'houi a garaz Hi a garaz Future Tense. Not rendered impersonally. Me a garfe 2. Te a garfe 3. Karedounn I am loved 2. Kared oud thou art loved 3. Kared e oann I was being loved 2. Kared e oaz thou wast being laved 3. Kared e oa he was be- Kared e oamp we were be- ing loved yoii were Kared e oac'h being loved Kared e oant they were ing loved Perfect Tense. Kared e oez thou wast loved 3. Kared e oe he was loved Kared e oemp Kared e oec'h Kared e oent we were loved you were loved they were loved Future Tense. Kared e vezinn I shall be loved 2. Kared e vezi thou wilt be loved 3. Ra vezinn karet I may be loved 2. Ra vezi karet thou mayst be loved 3. Kared e venn I should be loved Kared e vez thou shouldst be loved Kared e ve he should be loved Plural. Kared e vemp we should be loved Kared e vec'h you should be loved Kared e vent they should be loved 2nd Conditional. Ravennkaret I might be loved 2. Ra vez karet thou mighst be loved 3. Bez karet be loved 3. Te a zo karet L 3. Hen a zo karet verb. Ni a zo karet C'houi a zo karet Hi a zo karet 1. Me a oa karet 2. Te a oa karet 3. Hen a oa karet 1. Me a oe karet 2. Te a oe karet 3. Hen a oe karet Imperfect Tense. Ni a oa karet C'houi a oa karet Hi a oa karet Perfect Tense. Ni a oe karet C'houi a oe karet Hi a oe karet Future Tense. Me a vezo karet I Ni a vezo karet 2. Te a vezo karet C'houi a vezo karet 3. Me a ve karet 2. Te a ve karet 3. Kared hor boa Kared ho poa Kared ho doa Perfect Tense. Kared em boe 2. Kared hor boe Kared ho poe Kared ho doe Future Tense. Kared ez pezo thou wilt' have loved 3. Kared ez pe thou Kared ho pe you should shouldst have loved have loved 3. Kared hen defe he should have loved Kared ho defe they should have loved 2nd Conditional Tense. K'az pefe karet thou mightst have loved 3. Kaout karet to have loved Present Participle Lacking. Perfect Participle Lacking. Me em euz karet 2. Te e'ch euz karet 3. Hen hen deuz karet Plural. Ni hon euz karet C'houi hoc'h euz karet Hi ho deuz karet Imperfect Tense. Me em boa karet 2. Te ez poa karet 3. Me em boe karet I Ni hor boe karet 2. Te ez poe karet C'houi ho poa karet 3. Hen hen doe karet Hi ho doe karet Future Tense. Me em bezo karet Ni hor bezo karet 2. Te ez pezo karet C'houi ho pezo karet 3. Ni hor be karet C'houi ho pe karet Hi ho defe karet 1. Me em be karet 2. Te ez pe karet 3. Hen hen defe karet 2nd Conditional Tense. Karoud a rann I do love 2. Karoud a rez thou dost love 3. Karoud a rea J Perfect Tense. Karoud a raint This form is conjugated only in the Indicative Mood. Active verbs become passive when their perfect participle enters into loose composition with the tenses of the beza, or, when in the impersonal form, they are preceded by their perfect participle. Present, -ann; Imperfect, -enn; Perfect, -iz; future, -inn. In the sea of ' decaying phonetics ' which stretches from the Himalayas to Achil Head, Armorica is the backwater in which swirl ' construc- tive ' and ' destructive ' tendencies, and Celtic precision ever wars with Gallic slovenliness vide Spectator, April 25th, The stem of a Breton verb is discovered in the 2nd person singular of the imperative mood. Government of Number : 1 The personal verb knows little distinction of number it is usually singular in the 3rd person, but the impersonal verb takes its proper number. As the object of this work is to help rather to a literary than colloquial acquaintance with the Breton language, many of those rules commonly found in books on Grammar are omitted, it being thought advisable not to overburden and obscure the text with too copious notes, unimportant exceptions, and rare alternative readings. Its object is not to teach gram- mar, but to place before the reader who is also a grammarian materials, by the intelligent use of which he will speedily find himself able to read the most easily acquired language of Celtdom. Those desiring a closer and more introspective examination of the structure of the Breton verb, must go to the rock whence this is hewn Le Gonidec, and compare his findings with results deducible from a study of the Breton Bible Trinitarian Bible Society , or New Testament British and Foreign Bible Society. It is only fair to state, however, that owing to a commendable desire to be understanded of the people, neither of these versions boast the literary merit of Le Gonidec's Bible, or the New Testament of de Mai, Bishop of St. Proceeding along the line indicated in the last para- graph, there will be little to say under this heading. There are but two genders, masculine and femi- nine, the former, of course, including all males, and the latter all females. Of necessity then, a number of nouns having no sex implied in themselves must fall, as in all Celtic languages, under one of these two headings of gender; this difficulty will be appreciated at its proper value by Celtic, rather than by English-speaking people. For instance, Gambold's rule conveys but little to the mind uninstructed in the . See Chapter XI. Le Gonidec, in his usual painstaking way, details the indication of sex in some seventeen classes of nouns; these details of a kind made familiar to us in Rowlands' , Stewart's Gaelic Gram- mar, and other high standard Celtic works are of little use for our purpose. The Celt, as before men- tioned, will find nothing to shock his sense of propriety in the matter of gender; indeed the Welshman ignor- ance forbids me to speak so precisely for the Gael will find pleasure in noticing how his own division of gen- der is closely followed by the Breton. There are two numbers, singular and plural, the plural being usually, though not by any means invari- ably, formed from the singular. Some singular nouns shorten in the plural. Other nouns principally names of animals form their plural by the addition of ed, many by the addition of ten. The cases of Breton nouns are undeclined, and must be determined 1. By the position of the noun in the sentence. Or, by the article which precedes it, for which see Article, p. The subject usually precedes the verb, but when particular objective emphasis is required, it cedes its precedence to the object of the sentence. The subject of the sentence is often placed after a neuter verb. The latter of two nouns in collocation is in the genitive case. The Breton adjective is a far more simple part of speech than its elaborate Gaelic equivalent of four de- clensions, more simple even than the Welsh adjective, inasmuch as it admits of no change to vary its mean- ing in the matter either of gender, number, or case. It closely follows the noun which it qualifies, in position and mutation: Ar mab mad Ar mipien mad The good son The good sons Eur verc'h mad a garo he mamm mad A good daughter will love her good mother II. There are but three degrees of in the Breton adjective, as against the four well defined degrees of Welsh grammarians. Ordinarily these are formed by the addition of oJh to the positive for the comparative degree, and the addition of a to the posi- tive which is preceded by the definite article for the superlative degree: except 1 Mad good ; compar. Drouk bad ; compar. The Adjective almost invariably follows the noun it qualifies, according to customary Celtic usage. Adjectives of comparative and superlative degree frequently precede the qualified noun. Numerical Adjectives, when cardinal, govern a singular noun. Of this part of Breton speech it will be necessary to say but little. The usual distinctions made by grammarians of time, place, and manner are appli- cable here also. The position of the is as near the beginning of the sentence as possible. As in Welsh so in Breton, there are a number of compounded adverbs in addition to the simple forms common to all languages. The usual method of compounding an ' adverb of manner ' is to take the cognate adjective, and to cause either the particle ez, or the preposition gant to precede that adjective cf. Some adverbs are compared according to the rule given for the comparison of adjectives, other ir- regularly. Adverb of affirmation and negation, ia, yes; nann, no. But direct affirmation or negation is very rare. As the preposition enters extensively into composi- tion both in its simple and compound form a list of the principal prepositions with their meanings in English is here given. The following is the table upon which the whole process of mutation is founded: I. Strong Provective. K G C'H Surd P B F G C'H K Sonant B V T J Liquid M V Sibilant S Z Hybrid Gw W A glance at the above tables will show us that there is a recognized and well-defined system of strengthening the mutation of the third degree called 1 provection ' of the sonants G, B, D, in the Breton language, which is exceptional in Cornish and un- known in Welsh. The mutated forms of surd letters K, P, T, re- main practically the same in all these languages for explanation of apparent variation see letters in question in alphabet, Chapter I. The mutated forms of sonant letters G, B, D, display slight variety in the matter of the middle form of the guttural G only. There is no reversion to the original radical form as in Cornish, but in its place we find the sonant form becoming surd, as already noticed. Of the liquid letters, the labial M is the only persistent one throughout these three languages, re- ceiving its common mutation V. The mutated form of the sibilant S would appear to be peculiar to Breton, though Mr. Norris notices one instance of a similar change in Cornish. The Gutturo-labial compound KW has been reserved for separate consideration. One would have placed this compound subsecutive to the surd class had it not been for a passage which occurs in Prof. Rhys' treatise on 'Manx Phonology. We also have in Cornish the compound appearing in its radical form in such words as cwcth Welsh, gwisg, where attrition is manifest , a garment,' and kwilken no congenerous vocable in Welsh 'a frog. Some of these adjectives cause lenition, and a handful of the numerals cause either lenition or spirantization. Curiously, however, the non-local mutation triggered by the possessive adjectives which spirantize as represented in 6 is only possible with intervening holl L. Some examples from Standard Breton:. While the synchronic situation seems chaotic to say the least, the analogical pressures which resulted in it are anything but messy. First, it should be pointed out that semantically holl L does not limit or restrict the contents of a set but is exactly equivalent to the entirety of the set itself. The crucial question then is, why do the other possessive adjectives—the ones which do not trigger spirantization—not also skip holl L and mutate the noun? The former, only causing spirantization before a k - and therefore not being reinforced by spirantization of p - and t -, was not able to dislodge the lenition caused by hon holl L. Compare the different results of spirantization after va S and lenition after holl L. Why then, does ho holl not behave like va holl and suppress the lenition triggered by holl L , as seen by contrasting 14 with 15? A solution lies in a striking fact which differentiates the outputs of provection and spirantization. In fact, the latter are not the targets of any of the Breton mutations. Nowhere else in Breton would a mutable consonant be preceded by a mutation trigger which seems to be inactive and does not affect the following consonant. Stump was the first to attempt to account for Breton non-local spirantization synchronically. He assumes the Trigger Constraint:. The trigger determining a rule feature for a morphophonemic rule must be adjacent to the affected word and c- command it. After presenting and rejecting four approaches to the problem, Stump settles upon a pair of proposals which he terms the intervention analysis and the transfer analysis. The former weakens the Trigger Constraint by allowing only a named element to intervene between a target and its trigger. In the Breton case at hand, holl L is the named element. The transfer analysis, on the other hand, keeps the Trigger Constraint unmodified but allows for a trigger to spread its mutation to an adjacent element, rendering that element the new trigger of the mutation. Therefore va S holl L plijadur would supposedly become va holl S plijadur before yielding va holl flijadur. Stump proposes limitations to such a transfer, such as that the element which becomes the new trigger must be a named element again, that would be holl L here and the trigger itself cannot be further transferred to yet another word. It seems, however, that the transfer analysis is far more stipulative since it is not clear what in the grammatical system would prevent the mutation triggering ability from spreading beyond the adjacent word. Clearly it would be desirable, as Stump himself discusses, to have this follow naturally from the system and not be stated by force. His solution is to sever the mutation trigger from the possessive adjectives themselves. The mutation trigger causing spirantization is an autosegmental agreement prefix which appears with possessed nouns. Such a delinking of the trigger of spirantization from the possessive adjective allows for the trigger to not necessarily be adjacent to the target. Iosad makes strong arguments for his analysis and it accounts for the data well. One weakness of his approach, though, is that it appears that only the possessive adjectives which trigger spirantization have an autosegmental agreement prefix. The other possessive adjectives, both those which trigger lenition and provection, do not have such an autosegmental prefix. The benefit of this prediction, which falls out naturally from his theory, is outweighed, however, by the undesirable complexity and loss of parallelism in the morphosyntactic structure of the possessive adjectives: three possessive adjectives are accompanied by agreement morphemes, whereas the others are not. The intervention analysis , therefore, seems more promising since it requires less machinery and fewer questionable assumptions. There is, nevertheless, still a problem. What beyond a stipulation prevents two or three named elements from being able to intervene between a mutation trigger and its target? Also, why are the possessive adjectives involved in this non-local mutation and not other mutation triggers? What is needed is the rendering of the intervention analysis into a morphological system whose architecture offers inherent limitations. The central tenet of DM is that morphology operates on the structures which are the output of the syntax. There is no separate Lexicon with its own principles and structures which are wholly detached from syntactic structure, as in lexicalist theories of morphology cf. Anderson Therefore, to understand the non-local spirantization in va holl flijadur we must examine the structure the syntax outputs: Following syntax, Vocabulary Insertion VI linearizes the syntactic structure as the phonological realizations of the syntactic terminal nodes are inserted. Crucially, the syntactic structure is not eradicated during this process, but its constituents are maintained. Thus a linearization of 17 is the following:. The former occurs before VI and hence before linearization, whereas the latter occurs after VI. Since the hierarchical structure is still in place during lowering, a head can be lowered to another head, skipping intervening non-heads. This is precisely the situation in the expression of tense in English. The head of T ense dominates the head of V erb as can be seen in any English sentence with a modal:. When T is not occupied by a modal or an auxiliary, however, the spell-out of T lowers to attach to the head of V in the form of an affix. The following simplified tree illustrates the lowering and adjunction of - s from T to V:.

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