50 Years of Interstate Structures Past, Present, and Future TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2006 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OFFICERS
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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH Number E-C104 September 2006 50 Years of Interstate Structures Past, Present, and Future TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2006 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OFFICERS Chair: Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Vice Chair: Linda S. Watson, Executive Director, LYNX–Central Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando Division Chair for NRC Oversight: C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2006 TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES COUNCIL Chair: Neil J. Pedersen, State Highway Administrator, Maryland State Highway Administration, Baltimore Technical Activities Director: Mark R. Norman, Transportation Research Board Christopher P. L. Barkan, Associate Professor and Director, Railroad Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Rail Group Chair Shelly R. Brown, Principal, Shelly Brown Associates, Seattle, Washington, Legal Resources Group Chair Christina S. Casgar, Office of the Secretary of Transportation, Office of Intermodalism, Washington, D.C., Freight Systems Group Chair James M. Crites, Executive Vice President, Operations, Dallas–Fort Worth International Airport, Texas, Aviation Group Chair Arlene L. Dietz, C&A Dietz, LLC, Salem, Oregon, Marine Group Chair Robert C. Johns, Director, Center for Transportation Studies, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Policy and Organization Group Chair Patricia V. McLaughlin, Principal, Moore Iacofano Golstman, Inc., Pasadena, California, Public Transportation Group Chair Marcy S. Schwartz, Senior Vice President, CH2M HILL, Portland, Oregon, Planning and Environment Group Chair Leland D. Smithson, AASHTO SICOP Coordinator, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames, Operations and Maintenance Group Chair L. David Suits, Executive Director, North American Geosynthetics Society, Albany, New York, Design and Construction Group Chair Barry M. Sweedler, Partner, Safety & Policy Analysis International, Lafayette, California, System Users Group Chair TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH CIRCULAR E-C104 Fifty Years of Interstate Structures Past, Present, and Future Transportation Research Board Structures Section September 2006 Transportation Research Board 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 www.TRB.org TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH CIRCULAR E-C104 ISSN 0097-8515 The Transportation Research Board is a division of the National Research Council, which serves as an independent adviser to the federal government on scientific and technical questions of national importance. The National Research Council, jointly administered by the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine, brings the resources of the entire scientific and technical communities to bear on national problems through its volunteer advisory committees. The Transportation Research Board is distributing this Circular to make the information contained herein available for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this Circular was taken directly from the submission of the authors. This document is not a report of the National Research Council or of the National Academy of Sciences. Design and Construction Group L. David Suits, Chair Structures Section Mary Lou Ralls, Chair Alfred H. Brand, Chair, Tunnels and Underground Structures Committee Ian George Buckle, Chair, Seismic Design of Bridges Committee Harry Allen Capers, Jr., Chair, General Structures Committee Barney T. Martin, Jr., Chair, Concrete Bridges Committee Timothy J. McGrath, Chair, Culverts and Hydraulic Structures Committee Mark L. Reno, Chair, Steel Bridges Committee Mohsen A. Shahawy, Chair, Structural Fiber-Reinforced Plastics Committee Richard A. Walther, Chair, Dynamics and Field Testing of Bridges Committee Stephen F. Maher, TRB Engineer of Design Michael DeCarmine, Senior Program Associate Transportation Research Board 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 www.TRB.org Jennifer Correro, Proofreader and Layout Foreword he 50th Anniversary of the Interstate Highway System marks a milestone for one of T the largest public works projects ever undertaken in the United States—and perhaps in the world. This Circular documents some of the key legislation, specifications development, and advances in research, design, and construction for bridges and other highway structures since the signing of the Federal Highway Act of 1956. The eight papers in this Circular were sponsored by the Structures Section (AFF00) committees: General Structures (AFF10); Steel Bridges (AFF20); Concrete Bridges (AFF30); Dynamics and Field Testing of Bridges (AFF40); Seismic Design of Bridges (AFF50); Tunnels and Underground Structures (AFF60); Culverts and Hydraulic Structures (AFF70); and Structural Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (AFF80). Advancements have been made possible through research, empirical knowledge gained during construction, and hindsight gleaned from failures. The papers also look forward to the future, commenting on the challenges ahead, including possible solutions to accommodate the nation’s ever increasing vehicle loads and numbers. There are numerous possible techniques, methods, and materials on the horizon that may help to manage these challenges. The eight papers were presented at the 85th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board (TRB) during January 2006 in Washington. D.C. They were presented in two successive podium sessions titled “50 Years of Interstate Structures: Successes and Future Developments (Parts 1 and 2).” Immediately following the podium sessions, a brief poster session was held; audience members and other interested persons were able to interact with the authors. The chairs of the TRB Structures Section coordinated the preparation, conducted peer reviews, and some even coauthored the papers presented in this Circular. Great appreciation and thanks are due for their fine leadership throughout this effort. All of the authors made major contributions of time and effort, and without their significant knowledge and dedication, the podium sessions, poster session, and Circular could not have been possible. We thank the chairs and authors for their invaluable service to the industry. Finally, heartfelt thanks are extended to TRB Engineer of Design Stephen Maher for his dedication and continued support and assistance that made this special project possible. —Mary Lou Ralls Newman Chair TRB Structures Section i Contents Evolution of Vehicular Live Load Models During the Interstate Design Era and Beyond ....1 John M. Kulicki and Dennis R. Mertz Steel Bridges in the United States: Past, Present, and Future.................................................27 John Fisher, Dann Hall, Ray McCabe, Ken Price, Chuck Seim, and Stan Woods The Interstate Highway System and the Development of Prestressed Concrete Bridges.....49 Shri Bhide, Michael Culmo, John Ma, Barney Martin, and Henry Russell Condition Assessment of Highway Structures: Past, Present, and Future ............................67 Richard A. Walther and Steven B. Chase Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges Using Load and Resistance Factor Design: Past, Present, and Future............................................................................................................79 Ian G. Buckle, Wen-Huei Phillip Yen, and James E. Roberts 50 Years of Tunnels on the Interstate Highway System...........................................................96 Lee W. Abramson Culverts: Hidden Structures, Critical Infrastructure Elements ...........................................109 Timothy J. McGrath, Josiah Beakley, Dan Edwards, Mike Pluimer, and Robert P. Walker Fiber-Reinforced Polymers for Transportation and Civil Engineering Infrastructure: Reality and Vision............................................................121 S. Rizkalla, M. Dawood, and M. Shahawy ii GENERAL STRUCTURES COMMITTEE Evolution of Vehicular Live Load Models During the Interstate Design Era and Beyond JOHN M. KULICKI Modjeski and Masters, Inc. DENNIS R. MERTZ University of Delaware his paper reviews the evolution of live load design models for bridges and associated design T specification provisions before, during and after the Interstate era, taken as the last 80 years. The types of vehicles on the roads are evaluated and comparisons are made to force effects generated by standard AASHTO design loadings. The introduction of the Federal Bridge Formula is reviewed and a comparison is made to the standard AASHTO HS20 design vehicle used throughout most of the Interstate period. The change in legal loads as well as extra legal loads are reviewed and the implication of the exclusion to the legal load limit made in various states are reviewed and compared to the HS20 loading. The basis for periodic changes to the live load design models, load distribution, and impact is also reviewed. Finally, a brief summary of the development of the post-interstate era live load model, the HL93 loading in the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, is also presented. INTRODUCTION Various editions of the AASHTO (or AASHO) Standard Specification for Highway Bridge Design (1) will be referred to herein as the “Standard Specifications.” Likewise, various editions of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (2) will be referred to