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LibraryLibrary ofof CongressCongressCataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-PublicationData Data VisualVisual cultureculture ininthe the modernmodern MiddleMiddleEast: East:rhetoric rhetoric ofofthe theimage image/ / editededitedby by ChristianeChristiane GruberGruberand and SuneSuneHaugbolle. Haugbolle, pagespages em.cm. "The"The contributionscontributions werewere firstfirst presentedpresented atatthe the AprilApril2009 2009conference conference "Rhetoric"Rhetoric ofofthe the Image:Image:Visual VisualCulture Culturein inPolitical PoliticalIslam," Islam,"held heldin inMagleaas, Magleaas, Denmark"Denmark"—Acknowledgements-Acknowledgements.. IncludesIncludesbibliographical bibliographicalreferences referencesand andindex. index. ISBNISBN 978-0-253-00884-8978-0-253-00884-8(cloth: (cloth :alk. alk.paper) paper) -—ISBN ISBN978-0-253-00888-6 978-0-253-00888-6 (pbk.(pbk.::alk. alk.paper) paper) -—ISBN ISBN978-0-253-00894-7 978-0-253-00894-7(ebook) (ebook) 1.1.Art Artand andsociety­ society- MiddleMiddleEast--Congresses. East—Congresses. 2.2.Visual Visualcommunication-Middle communication—MiddleEast-Congresses. East—Congresses. 3.3.Arts, Arts,Modern-20th Modern—20thcentury-Middle century—MiddleEast-Congresses. East—Congresses. 4.4.Popular Popularculture- culture- .MiddleMiddleEast-Congresses. East—Congresses. I.I.Gruber, Gruber,Christiane ChristianeJ., J.,[date] [date] II.II.Haugbolle, Haugbolle,Sune, Sune, [date][date] NX180's6V475NX180.S6V475 20120133 700.103-dc23700.103-dc23 20130164442013016444

11234 2 3 4 55 1717 1616 1515 1414 1313 VisualVisual CultureCulture inin thethe ModernModern MiddleMiddle EastEast CHAPTERCHAPTER 3 - MemoryMemory andand Ideology:Ideology: Imageslinages ofof SaladinSaladin inin SyriaSyria andand inin IraqIraq

-- STEFANSTEFAN HEIDEMANNHEIDEMANN

Through itsits cultural heritage a society becomes visible to itself and toto others. WhichWhich past becomes evident inin that heritage and which valuesvalues emergeemerge inin itsits identificatoryidentificatory appropriation tellstells us much about thethe con-con­ stitution and tendenciestendencies of aa society.society. -JAN—JAN ASSMANN,ASSMANN, "Collective MemoryMemory andand CulturalCultural Identity,"Identity," 133.133.

SinceSince thethe MiddleMiddle Ages,Ages, SaladinSaladin hashas beenbeen oneone ofof thethe mostmost influentialinfluential figuresfigures ofof historicalhistorical memorymemory inin Eurasia.Eurasia. HeHe waswas usedused asas aa symbolsymbol ofof thethe noblenoble enemy,enemy, ofof warwar withwith thethe WestWest andand Israel,Israel, andand ofof peace.1 InIn variousvarious incarnationsincarnations hehe waswas alsoalso aa nationalnational hero.hero. DuringDuring thethe LebanonLebanon WarWar ofof 2006,2006, eveneven Nasrallah,Nasrallah, thethe shi'iShi'i leaderleader ofof thethe HizbullahHizbullah inin Lebanon,Lebanon, waswas eulogizedeulogized byby SyriansSyrians asas thethe "Saladin"Saladin ofof thethe modernmodern age."zage."2 Moreover,Moreover, afterafter thethe fallfall ofof SaddamSaddam Hussein,Hussein, thethe SunniSunni Kata'ibKata'ib SalahSalah aI-Dinal-Din inin IraqIraq chosechose SaladinSaladin asas thethe eponymeponym forfor theirtheir guerrillaguerrilla warwar againstagainst thethe shi'iShi'i governmentgovernment andand AmericanAmerican troops.troops. BernardBernard Lewis,Lewis, inin hishis 19751975 PrincetonPrinceton lecturelecture seriesseries History:History; Remem­Remem- bered,bered, Recovered,}nvented,Recovered, Invented, waswas oneone ofof thethe firstfirst toto studystudy thethe politicalpolitical useuse ofof thethe pastpast inin thethe MiddleMiddle East.East.3 EricEric Hobsbawm'sHobsbawm's studiesstudies furtherfurther advancedadvanced thethe analysisanalysis ofof thethe InventionInvention ofof TraditionTradition (1983)(1983) asas anan attemptattempt toto establishestablish continuitycontinuity withwith aa suitablesuitable historichistoric past,past, focusingfocusing onon thethe deliberatedeliberate "polit­"polit- icalical mass-producingmass-producing oftraditions."4Janof traditions."4 Jan Assmann'sAssmann's DasDos kulturellekulturelle GediichtnisGeddchtnis (1992)(1992) allowedallowed forfor aa moremore refinedrefined comprehensivecomprehensive approach.approach. AccordingAccording toto Assmann,Assmann, anyany collectivecollective memorymemory ofof aa symbolsymbol oror figurefigure createscreates orientationorientation withinwithin aa groupgroup andand identityidentity forfor thethe individual.individual. CulturalCultural memorymemory isis recon­recon- structive,structive, asas knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe pastpast isis alignedaligned anewanew withwith contemporarycontemporary needs.needs.s5 InIn thethe post-colonialpost-colonial statesstates inin thethe MiddleMiddle East,East, inventedinvented pastspasts enforceenforce social,social, "national""national" coherencecoherence wherewhere itit hashas notnot existedexisted before.before. HistoricalHistorical rhetoricrhetoric legitimizeslegitimizes currentcurrent ideologiesideologies andand identitiesidentities acrossacross religiouslyreligiously andand ethnicallyethnically diversediverse populations.populations. SymbolsSymbols andand figuresfigures ofof collectivecollective memorymemory mustmustbe beemotionally emotionallymeaningful meaningfuland andresonant resonant forforthe the audience;audience;they they pre­pre- supposesupposeknowledge knowledgeand andmemory memoryamong amongthe the targetedtargetedgroups groupsand andrequire, require, asasHobsbawm Hobsbawmstates, states,"broadcasting "broadcasting ononthe the wavelengthwavelength totowhich whichthe the publicpublic isisalready already tunedtuned in."6in."6 InInmodern modern statesstates thethe resonanceresonance ofofsuch such historicalhistorical rhetoricrhetoricis isestablished established largelylargelyby bycompulsory compulsory schoolschool attendance.attendance.77Political Political resonance,resonance, politicalpoliticalorientation, orientation,and and nationalnational identityidentity areare fabricatedfabricatedby by meansmeans ofofthe the publicpublic presencepresence ofofthese these memorymemory figures-representedfigures—represented onon monuments,monuments,statues, statues, oror murals,murals,or or transmittedtransmitted viaviaendlessly endlesslyreproduced reproduced carrierscarriersof ofimages imagesand andmeaning, meaning,such suchas asposters, posters, banknotes,banknotes, stamps,stamps, coins,coins, politicalpoliticalslogans, slogans,popular popular movies,movies,and andtelevision television programs.programs. ThisThisessay essayexplores exploresthe the memorymemoryfigure figure "Saladin""Saladin"and and hishisapplication application acrossacrossdifferent different media,media,emphasizing emphasizingthe the useuseof ofhis hisimage imagein inco.ntemporary contemporary Syria.Syria.The The firstfirst partpart ofofthis this studystudy summarizessummarizesthe the WesternWestern·origin origin ofofthe the memorymemoryfigure figure totoexplain explainits itsemergence emergencein inthe the MiddleMiddleEast, East,which whichdid didnot not havehavea avisual visualmemorial memorialculture culturebefore beforethe thelate latenineteenth nineteenthcentury. century.The Thesec­ sec- ondondpart partconsiders considersthe theIraqi Iraqicase caseto tocontrast contrast ititwith withits itsSyrian Syriancounterpart counterpart ininthe the thirdthird part.part.Both Bothstates states havehaveor orhad hada aBaathist Baathistgovernment government andandused used thethe figurefigure ofofSaladin Saladinnearly nearlysimultaneously simultaneouslybut but toto differentdifferent ends.ends. SimilarSimilar toto otherother modernmodern memorymemoryfigures figuresin in thethe MiddleMiddleEast, East, suchsuch asas Hammurabi,8Hammurabi,8Nebuchadnezzar,9 Nebuchadnezzar,9and andCyrus,lO Cyrus,10Saladin's Saladin's memorymemoryowes owesmuch much toto WesternWestern scholarshipscholarship andandpopular popular cultureculture beginningbeginning ininthe the eighteentheighteenth century.century.The Thereconstructed reconstructed SaladinSaladinfigure figure waswasappropriated appropriated ininthe the MiddleMiddle EastEastin inthe the ageageof ofimperialism imperialismand andnationalism. nationalism.ll11From Fromthe the latelatenineteenth nineteenth centurycenturyon, on,his his memorymemorywas wascontinually continuallyrearranged. rearranged. VisualVisual politicalpoliticalcul­ cul- turetureemerged emergedin inthe the latelateOttoman Ottomanperiod periodslowly, slowly,and andSaladin Saladinwas wasone oneof ofthe the firstfirst historicalhistoricalfigures figuresto tobe beadopted. adopted.The Thememory memoryfigure figureof ofSaladin Saladinand and itsits rolerolein inthe the constructionconstructionof ofcollective collectiveidentities identities isisparadigmatic paradigmaticbecause becauseits its appropriationappropriationwas wasdifferent different accordingaccordingto to predominantpredominant statestate ideologyideologyand and ethnicity.ethnicity. ItsIts useuse inin differentdifferent nation-statesnation-states atat thethe samesame timetime allowsallowscom­ com- parisonsparisons thatthat areare notnot possiblepossiblewith with moremore territoriallyterritorially confinedconfined memorymemory figures.figures. OtherOther significantsignificantstrands strands ofofappropriation appropriation andand useuse ofof"Saladin" "Saladin" cancanbe be seenseen inin EgyptEgyptin in thethe 1960s,1960s,in in thethe contemporarycontemporary KurdishKurdishnational national movement,movement, andand ininother other statesstates andand regions.regions.1212These These areare largelylargely excludedexcluded fromfrom thethe presentpresent studystudybecause becausethe the EgyptianEgyptianmemory memoryreached reachedits itsapex apexin in thethe 1960s1960sand andthe the KurdishKurdishmemory memorycommunicates communicates differentdifferent issues.issues.

RememberingRemembering thethe HistoricalHistorical SaladinSaladin AsAs aa rulerruler SaladinSaladintowered towered highhigh aboveabove hishis contemporaries.contemporaries. HeHewas was bornborn inin 11381138 toto aa KurdishKurdish familyfamily ofof Saljuq-ZangidSaljuq-Zangid militarymilitary nobilitynobility inin

5858 STEFANSTEFANHEIDEMANN HEIDEMANN Tikrit,Tikrit, aa citycity inin thethe northnorth ofof modern-daymodern-day Iraq.Iraq. InIn 11641164 hehe arrivedarrived inin EgyptEgypt asas aa membermember ofof aa SyrianSyrian ZangidZangid reliefrelief forceforce forfor thethe ShiiteShiite FatimidFatimid caliph­caliph- ate,ate, whichwhich hehe broughtbrought toto anan endend inin 1169,1169, restoringrestoring thethe swaysway ofof thethe SunniSunni 'Abbasid'Abbasid caliphate.caliphate. InInsubsequent subsequent years,years, SaladinSaladin capturedcaptured SyriaSyria andand north­north- ernern MesopotamiaMesopotamiafrom from hishis fellowfellow MuslimMuslim rulers.rulers. AfterAfter ReynaldReynald dede ChatillonChatillon (ca.(ca. 1125-87)1125-87) brokebroke aa truce,truce, SaladinSaladin defeateddefeated thethe entireentire CrusaderCrusader armyarmy inin thethe battlebattle atat thethe HornsHorns ofof HattinHattin inin PalestinePalestine inin 1187,1187, andand took]erusalemtook Jerusalem afterafter aboutabout ninetyninety yearsyears ofofCrusader Crusader ruleYrule.13 HeHedied died inin 1193.1193. OneOne ofof severalseveral contemporarycontemporary panegyricpanegyric chroniclerschroniclers andand closeclose associateassociate ofof saladin,Saladin, thethe militarymilitaryjudge judge Baha'Baha'aI-Din al-Din ibnibn ShaddadShaddad (d.(d.632/1234), 632/1234),eulogized eulogized hishis piety,piety, hishis respectrespect forfor IslamicIslamic law,law,his his sensesense ofofjustice, justice, hishis charity,charity, andand hishis generos­generos- ity.ity. HisHiswork work formedformed thethe basebase forfor subsequentsubsequent imagesimages ofof Saladin.Saladin. OpinionsOpinions differdiffer aboutabout thethe continuationcontinuation ofof Saladin'sSaladin's memorymemory afterafter thethe fallfall ofofAcre Acre inin 12911291 andand thethe endend ofof CrusaderCrusader rulerule inin Syria.Syria.1414 InIn pre-colonialpre-colonial timestimes withinwithin thethe Arab-IslamicArab-Islamic worldworld atat large,large, SaladinSaladin playedplayed almostalmost nono rolerole asas aa memorymemory figure.figure. MoreMore thanthan Saladin,Saladin, thethe MamlukMamluk sultansultan BaybarsBaybars (r.(r. 1260-77)1260-77)was was rememberedremembered asas thethe piouspious championchampion ofof IslamIslam andandjihad. jihad. InIn culturalcultural memorymemory BaybarsBaybarswas was thethe herohero whowho foughtfought Crusaders,Crusaders, Mongols,Mongols, andand infidels.infidels.ls15 HisHis achievementsachievements andand adventures,adventures, andand thusthus hishis memory,memory, werewere orallyorally transmittedtransmitted inin thethe famousfamous epicepic collectioncollection SiratSirat BaybarsBaybars (The(The LifeLife ofofBay Baybars)bars)..Baybars Baybarswas wascertainly certainly moremore popularpopular thanthan SaladinSaladin inin EgyptEgypt andand partsparts ofofSyria, Syria,but but SaladinSaladinnever never fellfell completelycompletely intointo oblivion:oblivion:Mamluk Mamluk chronicleschronicles alwaysalways includeinclude thethe storystory ofof thethe CrusadesCrusades andand hishis deeds.deeds.1616 InIn Palestine,Palestine, SaladinSaladin remainedremained revered:revered: atat thethe endend ofofthe the MamlukMamlukperiod period thethe chiefchief qadiqadi ofofJerusalem, Jerusalem, MujirMujir aI-Dinal-Din (d.(d. 867/1462-63),867/1462-63), wrotewrote aa historyhistory ofof JerusalemJerusalemand and Hebron,Hebron,al-Uns al-Uns al-jalilal-jalil bi-tarikhbi-tarikhal-Quds al-Quds wal-Khalilwal-Khalil (The(The ExaltedExalted FriendlinessFriendliness inin thethe HistoryHistoryofJerusalem of Jerusalem andand Hebron).Hebron).A Asubstantial substantial partpart ofof thethe twotwovolumes volumeschronicles chroniclesthe the CrusadesCrusadesand and thethe riserise ofofSaladin, Saladin, thethe battlebattle ofof Hattin,Hattin, andandthe the takingtaking ofjerusalem.of Jerusalem. AnecdotesAnecdotes illustrateillustratethat that thethe fearfear ofof aa returnreturn ofofthe the CrusadersCrusaderswas wasstill stillalive alivein in MujirMujir al-Din'sal-Din's lifetimeYlifetime.17

EuropeanEuropean RediscoveryRediscovery andand RomanticRomantic InventionInvention WernerWerner Ende,Ende,Hannes HannesMohring, Mohring,Carole CaroleHillenbrand, Hillenbrand,MagaretJubb,]ean Magaret Jubb, Jean Richard,Richard, StefanStefan Conermann,Conermann,and, and, moremore recently,recently, Anne-MarieAnne-MarieEdd6 Edde havehave studiedstudied thethe discoverydiscovery andand receptionreception ofofSaladin Saladin inin westernwestern EuropeanEuropean andand thethe ArabArabworld. world.1818The The modernmodern WesternWesterndiscovery discoveryof ofSaladin Saladinbegan began inin 1732,1732, whenwhen AlbertAlbert SchultensSchultens (1686-1750),(1686-1750), aa scholarscholar fromfrom Leiden,Leiden, Netherlands,Netherlands, publishedpublishedhis hisLatin Latintranslation translation oftheof the ArabicArabicpanegyric panegyric accountaccount ofSaladin;sof Saladin's deedsdeeds writtenwritten byby thethe militarymilitaryjudge judge IbnIbn Shaddad.Shaddad.At Atthe the beginningbeginning ofofthe the

MEMORYMEMORY ANDAND IDEOLOGYIDEOLOGY 5959 riserise ofof OrientalOriental studiesstudies andand philology,philology, SaladinSaladin waswas thethe firstfirst MuslimMuslim rulerruler ofof thethe MiddleMiddle AgesAgeswith with whomwhom thethe EuropeanEuropean educatededucated classesclasses werewere famil­famil- iar.iar. InIn thethe nineteenthnineteenth century,century, numerousnumerous novelsnovels aboutabout thethe CrusadesCrusades andand SaladinSaladin helpedhelped toto createcreate hishis popularpopular EuropeanEuropean image.image. InIn 18251825 SirSir WalterWalter ScottScott (1771-1842)(1771-1842) turnedturned thethe enlightenedenlightened SaladinSaladin intointo aa literaryliterary monu­monu- mentment inin hishis novelnovel TheTheTalisman. Talisman.19 BetweenBetween 18701870 andand 18811881 thethe firstfirst statuestatue ofof SaladinSaladin waswassubsequently subsequently integratedintegrated intointo thethe ScottScott MonumentMonument builtbuilt inin thethe citycity ofof Edinburgh.Edinburgh.2020

TheThe HamidianHamidian SaladinSaladin BetweenBetween thethe 1870s1870s andand 19141914 EuropeEurope sawsaw aa wavewave ofof inventioninvention ofof polit­polit- icalicaltraditions traditions toto accommodateaccommodatethe the newnewand and transformingtransformingEuropean Europeanstates states andand societies.societies. TheseThese traditionstraditions foundfound theirtheir expressionexpression inin aa proliferationproliferation ofof publicpublic monuments.monuments.2121The The firstfirst memorialmemorial connectedconnected withwith SaladinSaladinin in thethe MiddleMiddle EastEast waswas createdcreated inin 1878.1878. AtAt thethe endend ofof thethe politicalpoliticalliberalization liberalization andand modernizationmodernization ofofthe the TanzimatTanzimat periodperiod (1839-76),(1839-76), SultanSultan 'Abd'AbdaI-Hamid al-Hamid IIII (r.(r.1876-1909) 1876-1909) chosechose anan authoritarianauthoritarian pathpath ofof modernization.modernization. MoreMoretra­ tra- ditionalditional strategiesstrategies ofofreaffirming reaffirming andand legitimizinglegitimizing powerpowerwere were replacedreplaced byby oror supplementedsupplemented withwith newnew ideologiesideologies suchsuch asas pan-Islamism,22pan-Islamism,22 whichwhich waswas deemeddeemed moremore suitablesuitable toto thethe modernmodern world.world.2323 AsAsin in Europe,Europe,a a repositoryrepository forfor aa new,new,elaborate elaborate ideologicalideological languagelanguage waswas foundfound inin memorymemory figuresfiguresof of thethe past.past.2424'Abd 'Abd aI-Hamidal-Hamidrepeatedly repeatedly accusedaccusedEurope Europeofleading of leadinga a"Crusade" "Crusade" againstagainst thethe OttomanOttoman Empire.Empire.The TheCrusades Crusadesbecame became onceonce againagain aametaphor metaphor inin thethe politicalpoliticalconsciousness consciousnessof ofthe the MiddleMiddle East.East2525The The region'sregion's populationpopulation waswasunfamiliar unfamiliar withwith historicalhistoricalmonuments monuments suchsuch asasthose those erectederected inin EuropeEurope sincesince thethe Renaissance.Renaissance.The The generalgeneral OttomanOttoman IslamicIslamicavoidance avoidance ofof publicpublic imagesimages preventedprevented aa similarsimilar cult;26cult;26 inin fact,fact, notnot eveneven thethe Russian-TurkishRussian-Turkish WarWar ofof1877-78 1877-78resulted resulted inin thethe creationcreation ofoflarge-scale large-scale warwar memorials.memorials.2727 EarlyEarly OttomanOttoman monumentsmonuments tooktook aa differentdifferent shape:shape: 'Abd'Abd ai-Hamidal-Hamid erectederected clockclocktowers towers throughoutthroughout hishisempire empire andand commissionedcommissioned thethe resto­resto- rationration andand repairrepairof ofpolitically politically andand religiouslyreligiouslymeaningful meaningfulmonuments monuments andand tombs,tombs,such such asas thosethose ofofthe the foundersfounders ofofthe the OttomanOttoman dynasty.28dynasty.28 AccordingAccording toto ~iikrii§ukrii Hanioglu,Hanioglu, 'Abd'Abd aI-Hamidal-Hamid attemptedattempted toto establishestablish aa formform ofof OttomanismOttomanism withwitha aMuslim Muslim tingetinge inin orderorder toto promotepromote domesticallydomestically aa pan­pan- IslamicIslamic ideologyideology thatthat wouldwould curbcurb nascentnascent proto-nationalistproto-nationalist activities.activities.2929 WithinWithinSyria, Syria,the the periodperiodbetween between thethe 1870s1870sand and 19081908saw sawthe the transitiontransition toto architecturalarchitectural modernitymodernity inin Damascus.Damascus.3o30The The WaliWali DiyaDiya PashaPasha hadhad begunbegun withwith thethe excavationexcavation andand reconstructionreconstruction ofof thethe tombtomb (turba)(turba) ofof SaladinSaladin inin DamascusDamascusin in1876, 1876,as asis isrecorded recordedby byan an inscription.inscription.Two Twoyears years later,later,in in1878, 1878,

6060 STEFANSTEFAN HEIDEMANNHEIDEMANN 'Abd'Abd aI-Hamidal-Hamid commissionedcommissioned aa newnew marblemarble cenotaphcenotaph forfor Saladin'sSaladin's tomb,tomb, whichwhich todaytoday standsstands adjacentadjacent toto thethe medievalmedieval woodenwooden sarcophagussarcophagus (fig.(fig. 3.1).313.1).31This This cenotaphcenotaph countscounts amongamong thethe firstfirst historicalhistorical monumentsmonuments inin thethe OttomanOttoman Empire,Empire,as as wellwell asas thethe firstfirst memorialmemorial honoringhonoring SaladinSaladin inin thethe MiddleMiddle East.East.To Toemphasize emphasize itsits politicalpolitical meaning,meaning, thethe cenotaphcenotaph waswas exe­exe- cutedcuted ininthe the OttomanOttomanBaroque Baroquestyle. style. MuchMuch likelike westernwestern EuropeanEuropeanhistori­ histori- cism,cism, itit waswasconsidered considered aa markermarker ofofmodernity modernity atat thethe time.time. TheThe memorialmemorial datesdates toto thethe samesameyear year asasthe the OttomanOttomandefeat defeat inin thethe Russian-TurkishRussian-Turkishwar war andand thethe CongressCongressof of Berlin.Berlin. WithWiththis this cenotaph,cenotaph, 'Abd'Abd aI-Hamidal-Hamidwished wishedto to proclaimproclaim hishis imperialimperialpresence presence inin thethe SyrianSyrian provinceprovince andand connectconnect him­him- selfself withwith ai-sultanal-sultan al-ghazeal-ghazi32Z saladin,Saladin,the the defenderdefenderof of thethe faithfaith againstagainst thethe Crusaders.Crusaders.Saladin Saladinthus thus waswasvisually visuallyand and rhetoricallyrhetoricallyappropriated appropriated bybythe the OttomanOttoman sultansultan duringduring aamoment moment ofofpolitical political confrontation.confrontation.3333 LikeLikecontemporaneous contemporaneousEuropean Europeannational nationalmonuments monumentserected erected ininhonor honor ofof historicalhistorical heroes,heroes, thethe cenotaphcenotaph displaysdisplaysa a conflationconflation ofof religiousreligious andand patrioticpatriotic elements.elements. AAgolden goldenframed framed portraitportrait ofofSaladin Saladinstill still hangshangs aboveabovethe the entranceentrance withinwithinthe the tomb;tomb;it itprobably probablydates dates totothe the samesameperiod period andandbecame became importantimportant forforsubsequent subsequentvisual visualrepresentations representationsof ofthe the MuslimMuslimhero hero(fig. (fig. 3.23.2 andand plateplate 7).7).This Thisportrait portrait ofofa aturbaned turbaned SaladinSaladinis issigned signed bybythe the otherwiseotherwise unknownunknown artistartist 'Abd'Abd al-Wahhab.al-Wahhab.The The texttext belowbelowthe the imageimage praisespraises SaladinSaladin asasthe the rulerrulerof ofEgypt Egyptand andSyria Syria(aI-Sham) (al-Sham) butbut doesdoesnot not mentionmention thethe Crusades.Crusades. FromFrom thethe timetime ofofits its restorationrestoration onward,onward,the the turbaturba ofofSaladin Saladinin in DamascusDamascus receivedreceived markedlymarkedlymore moreattention attentionthan thanthat thatof ofBay Baybarsbars,,which which inin1296/1878 1296/1878 waswas transformedtransformed intointo aa library-openlibrary—open toto thethe publicpublic inin 1297/1880-with1297/1880—with bookcasesbookcasesstanding standing overover hishiscenotaph. cenotaph.3434 [nIn 18981898the the journeyjourney ofofthe the GermanGermankaiser kaiser WilhelmWilhelmn II(r. (r.1888-1918) 1888-1918) toto thethe MiddleMiddle EastEast attractedattracted greatergreater attentionattention toto thethe figurefigure ofofSaladin Saladinamong among OttomanOttoman politicalpoliticalcircles. circles.The Thekaiser kaiserlinked linkedhimself himselfwith with severalseveral historicalhistorical figures,figures, includingincluding thethe CrusaderCrusader emperoremperor FrederickFrederick BarbarossaBarbarossa (r.(r. 1155­1155- 90),3590),35 whowho waswas aa contemporarycontemporary ofof SaladinSaladinand and anan equallyequally noblenoble andand leg­leg- endaryendaryruler-hero ruler-hero whowhodied diedon onhis hisway wayto tothe the battlefieldsbattlefields ofofSyria. Syria.Wilhelm Wilhelm delivereddelivered aa famousfamousspeech speech onon thethe OttomanOttoman sultansultan asas wellwell asas aa eulogyeulogy ofof SaladinSaladinthat that waswassoon soontranslated translated intointo Arabic.Arabic.While While inin Damascus,Damascus,Wilhelm Wilhelm alsoalso dedicateddedicateda abrass brasslaurel laurelwreath wreath toto Saladin'sSaladin'stomb. tomb.3636The TheEgyptian Egyptianpoet poet AhmadAhmad ShawqiShawqi (1868-1932)(1868-1932) composedcomposed anan odeode (qasida)(qasidd) onon Wilhelm'sWilhelm'spraise praise ofof Saladin,Saladin, celebratingcelebrating thethe factfact thatthat thethe KaiserKaiser hadhad mademade thethe MiddleMiddle EastEast moremore awareawareof ofthe the gloriousglorioussultan sultan Saladin.Saladin.3737Henceforth, Henceforth,Saladin Saladinbecame became aa majormajor memorymemory figurefigurein in thethe MiddleMiddleEast, East,paving paving thethe waywayfor for furtherfurther uses.uses. [nIn earlyearly MarchMarch 1914,1914, twotwo OttomanOttoman airplanesairplanes flewflew fromfrom IstanbulIstanbul toto DamascusDamascuswith withseveral severalstopovers stopovers onontheir their waywayto toCairo Cairoin indemonstration demonstration ofof

MEMORYMEMORYAND ANDIDEOLOGY IDEOLOGY 6161 FIGURE 3.1. Cenotaph of Saladin, Damascus, commissioned by 'Abd al·Hamid II in 1878. Photograph by the author; November 2006.

modern Ottoman air power after the lost Balkan Wars (1912-13)." Coming from Beirut, the first plane and its pilots enjoyed a splendid reception in Damascus. After taking off from Damascus, however, the plane crashed east ofLake Tiberias. The young Turkish dictator Enver Pasha (1881-1922) ordered the bodies ofthe two pilots to be transferred by train to Damascus, where they were buried beside Saladin's tomb to connect their memory as martyrs (shahid) with that of the ghazi sultan of Islam. About a week later the second airplane arrived in Damascus. On its way to Cairo it, too, crashed-into the sea just off the coast ofJaffa. One pilot died, and he was also buried beside Saladin's tomb.l9 An obelisk memorial was erected atthe

crash site in the Golan,40 while a column monument was made in Istanbul. 41 The 1920 visit ofthe French high commissioner Henri Gourand (1867-1946) to the tomb of Saladin-and his often repeated sentence, "Saladin, nous voila" (Saladin, here we are)-became a trope in memories of Saladin in Syria, where they came to represent anti-imperialist resistance.42 In 1940 the Syrian national leader and resistance fighter against the French man­ date, 'Abd ai-Rahman Shahbandar (1880-1940), was also honored with burial beside Saladin's tomb.43

62 STEfAN HEIDEMANN FIGURE 3.2. Portrait ofSaladin in the tomb of Saladin, Damascus, presumably ca. 1878. Photograph by the author, November 2007.

Saladin's rising popularity also can be measured by the increasing number of theatrical plays and novels in Oriental languages that explore his deeds. 44 The first scholarly biography of Saladin was written in Arabic by Ahmad al-Biyali and published in Cairo in 1920.45 After World War l­ and more so during the French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon, as well as the British Mandate in Palestine-the figure of Saladin was employed as a political metaphor in the rhetoric of Arab resistance against impe­ rialism and Zionist expansion. The most memorable occasion for this

MEMORY AND IDEOLOGY 63 usagusagee ooff ththee SaladiSaladinn metaphometaphorr wawass durinduringg ththee HattiHattinn DaDayy rallrallyy thathatt wawass organizeorganizedd bbyy ththee IstiqlaIstiqlall PartPartyy iinn HaifHaifaa oonn AugusAugustt 28,193228, 1932.. SeveralSeveral thouthou­- sandsand peoplpeoplee attendedattended,, comincomingg fromfrom ththee DamascusDamascus provinceprovince,, Lebanon,Lebanon, PalestinePalestine,, anandd TransjordanTransjordan.. AAtt ththee rallyrally,, RashiRashidd RidRidaa (1865-1935(1865-1935)) delivereddelivered a historichistoric speech,speech, "Dhikra"Dhikra SalahSalah ai-Dinal-Din wa-ma'rakatwa-ma'rakat Hattin;'Hattin," condemningcondemning ththee ZionistsZionists'' expansionisexpansionistt policy.policy.4646 AfteAfterr Israel'Israel'ss foundatiofoundationn iinn 1948,1948, ththee victorvictoryy aatt HattiHattinn anandd ththee retakretak­- iningg ofof JerusaleJerusalemm becambecamee ththee dominandominantt themethemess iinn ththee politicapoliticall rhetorirhetoricc onon Saladin. AfteAfterr ththee unificatiounificationn ofof EgypEgyptt anandd SyriaSyria iinn 1959,1959, PresidenPresidentt JamaJamall 'Abd'Abd ai-Nasiral-Nasir (1918-70)(1918-70) becambecamee forfor a shortshort perioperiodd linkelinkedd ttoo Saladin.Saladin. TheThe apexapex ofof thithiss rhetorirhetoricc cacann bbee seenseen inin ththee EgyptiaEgyptiann filfilmm directordirector YousseYousseff Chahine'sChahine's (1926-2008)(1926-2008) al-Nasirai-Nasir Salah ai-Dinal-Din (1963).(1963). The movimoviee projectedprojected NasserisNasseristt secularsecular ideologideologyy andand ththee strugglestruggle forfor PalestinePalestine througthroughh ththee lenslens ofof ththee CrusadesCrusades andand ththee heroiheroicc exploitsexploits ofof Saladin.Saladin. ThThee filmfilm remainremainss a resoreso­- nannantt classicclassic iinn ththee MiddlMiddlee East East.. IInn EgyptiaEgyptiann propagandpropagandaa andand mediamedia,, how­how- everever,, ththee SaladinSaladin allusionallusion wawass notnot furtherfurther exploitedexploited oorr repeaterepeatedd duduee ttoo thethe socialistsocialist naturnaturee ofof ththee NasserisNasseristt ideology.47ideology.47

SaddamSaddam HusseinHussein asas SaladinSaladin ReincarnatedReincarnated BeyondBeyond EgyptEgypt,, SaladinSaladin alsoalso playeplayedd a rolrolee withiwithinn ththee visuavisuall rhetorirhetoricc ofof IraqIraqii nationalism,nationalism, which—beginninwhich-beginningg aroundaround 1968-mainly1968—mainly drewdrew onon ththee heritageheritage (turath) ofof ththee ancientancient OrientOrient toto connectconnect ththee BaatBaathh revolu­revolu- tiontion toto thethe millennia-oldmillennia-old historhistoryy ofof thethe country.48country.48 AfterAfter a finalfinal transitiontransition ofof powepowerr inin 1979,1979, SaddamSaddam HusseinHussein instigatedinstigated a monumentalmonumental personalitypersonality cult,cult, identifyingidentifying himselfhimself withwith variousvarious politicalpolitical rulersrulers ooff Iraq'Iraq'ss paspastt whowho werweree meaningfumeaningfull eithereither toto allall IraqisIraqis oror toto certaincertain religioureligiouss anandd ethnicethnic groups.groups. SaddamSaddam HusseinHussein embodiedembodied allall ofof them—nothem-nott onlyonly HammurabiHammurabi,, thethe wiswisee lawgiver,lawgiver, and Nebuchadnezzar,Nebuchadnezzar, the enslaverenslaver of the JewishJewish people,people, but alsoalso variouvariouss earlyearly IslamicIslamic caliphs,caliphs, suchsuch as 'Ali'Ali ibn Abi Talib,Talib, or ai-Mansur.al-Mansur. HeHe eveneven allowedallowed allusionsallusions linkinglinking himselfhimself ttoo thethe PropheProphett Muhammad.4499 TheThe emphasisemphasis onon ancientancient MesopotamiaMesopotamia asas "Semitic""Semitic" allowedallowed integratingintegrating IraqiIraqi nationalisnationalismm andand superioritysuperiority intointo a pan-Arabpan-Arab politicalpolitical discourse.soThediscourse.50 The depictiondepiction ofof SaddamSaddam HusseinHussein asas thethe incarnationincarnation ofof allall historichistoric IraqiIraqi rulersrulers was stagedstaged as a highlyhighly craftedcrafted ideologicalideological monologuemonologue directeddirected at the IraqIraqii peoplepeople oror groupsgroups inin orderorder toto uniteunite themthem undeunderr oneone nation,nation, whichwhich hhee him­him- selfself aimedaimed ttoo embody.embody. InIn ththee process,process, archaeologyarchaeology andand ththee display oflargelyof largely reconstructedreconstructed historichistoric sitessites servedserved toto bolster hihiss propaganda.propaganda. ItIt isis notnot clearclear whenwhen SaddamSaddam firstfirst begabegann toto incarnateincarnate Saladin.Saladin. HoweverHowever,, thethe formerformer IraqiIraqi presidentpresident waswas bornborn inin Tikrit,Tikrit, asas waswas Saladin.Saladin. Saddam'sSaddam's

6464 5TEFSTEFAANN HEIDEMANNHEIDEMANN adopteadoptedd birtbirthh yeayearr ooff 19371937 (instea(insteadd ooff hihiss actuaactuall birtbirthh yeayearr ooff 1939)1939) maymay havhavee beebeenn alterealteredd iinn ordeorderr ttoo provprovee thathatt hhee wawass borbornn exactlexactlyy eigheightt hun­hun- dredredd yearyearss afteafterr Saladin.5511 MoreoverMoreover,, ththee governoratgovernoratee nortnorthh ooff Baghdad,Baghdad, createdcreated iinn 1976,1976, wawass namenamedd afterafter ththee hero.5252 NeverthelessNevertheless,, untiuntill ththee latelate 1980s1980s SaladinSaladin playeplayedd onlyonly a minominorr rolrolee iinn Saddam'sSaddam's visuavisuall rhetoricrhetoric.. AfterAfter all,all, SaladinSaladin hahadd neveneverr beebeenn rulerulerr oofIraq,f Iraq, andand otheotherr figuresfigures werweree deemedeemedd farfar mormoree suitablesuitable forfor politicapoliticall embodiment.5533 FoForr confrontatioconfrontationn witwithh ththee JewisJewishh state,state, NebuchadnezzaNebuchadnezzarr serveservedd aass a sufficientlsufficientlyy stronstrongg nationanationall metaphor.5544 BetweeBetweenn 19801980 and 1988,1988, the politicapoliticall and militarmilitaryy confrontatioconfrontationn witwithh IranIran wawass paramountparamount,, andand accompanieaccompaniedd bbyy severaseverall otheotherr appropriatappropriatee memormemoryy figuresfigures,, bubutt nonott SaladinSaladin.. IInn 1987,1987, ththee yeayearr ooff ththee eight-hundredteight-hundredthh anniver-­anniver- sarysary ooff ththee takintakingg ooff JerusalemJerusalem,, IraqIraqii propagandpropagandaa slowlslowlyy puputt SaladiSaladinn intointo focusfocus andand camecame toto equatequatee SaddamSaddam HusseinHussein witwithh ththee herheroo ooff ththee CrusadeCrusaderr period.5555 The IraqiIraqi invasioinvasionn of KuwaitKuwait (1990-91),(1990-91), alongalong witwithh territorialterritorial retakingretaking bbyy AmericaAmericann andand alliedallied troopstroops,, changedchanged thethe politicalpolitical outlook ofof thethe entireentire regionregion.. AfteAfterr 1991,1991, adjustmentadjustmentss ofof statestate ideologideologyy ttoo thethe neneww politicapoliticall reali­reali- tietiess tendetendedd ttoo laclackk a definedefinedd focusfocus.. ResourceResourcess remaineremainedd sparsesparse aass well.5566 AA neneww stressstress onon medievamedievall AraArabb heritagheritagee emergeemergedd durinduringg ththee warwar,, aatt whicwhichh timtimee SaddamSaddam trietriedd ttoo raisraisee pan-Arapan-Arabb sympathiessympathies bbyy firinfiringg ScudScud missilemissiless towartowardd IsraelIsrael,, therebtherebyy connectinconnectingg hihiss wawarr witwithh ththee PalestiniaPalestiniann cause.5S77 FoForr ththee American-leAmerican-ledd invasioninvasion,, ththee tertermm "Crusade""Crusade" becambecamee currentcurrent oonn bothboth sidessides,, witwithh differendifferentt meaningsmeanings.. SaddamSaddam vieweviewedd IraqIraqii resistancresistancee againstagainst internationainternationall controlcontrol aass parpartt ooff ththee greategreaterr AraArabb strugglstrugglee ooEliberationf liberation fromfrom ththee ChristianChristian "Crusaders.""Crusaders." AAss a resultresult,, hhee instantlinstantlyy identifieidentifiedd himselhimselff witwithh Saladin.5588 ThThee anti-Israelianti-Israeli themthemee ofof ththee victorvictoryy ofof HattinHattin andand ththee liberationliberation ofof JerusaleJerusalemm picturepicturedd IraqiIraqi resistancresistancee asas parpartt ofof ththee samesame "Mother"Mother ooff alalll BattlesBattles"" (umm(umm al-ma'arik),a/-mararik), the GulfGulf WarWar,, whicwhichh he claimedclaimed to havhavee won.5599 The HattiHattinn themthemee alsoalso supportesupportedd Saddam-as-SaladinSaddam-as-Saladin asas claimingclaiming leadershileadershipp ooff ththee AraArabb worldworld.. TheThe IraqiIraqi stressstress onon Saladin andand JerusalemJerusalem thuthuss functionefunctionedd asas anan answeranswer ttoo similarsimilar propagandpropagandaa systemssystems instigated bbyy Iran.6600 TheThe visuavisuall artsarts formedformed parpartt ofof Saddam's propagandpropagandaa machine.machine. HHee com­com- missionemissionedd ththee so-calledso-called Qasr al-Salamai-Salam (The(The PalacePalace ofof Peace)Peace) betweebetweenn 19919955 anandd 1999.1999. FouFourr gigantigiganticc bronzbronzee bustbustss ofof himselfhimself,, eaceachh fourfour metermeterss highhigh anandd mountemountedd oonn loloww octagonaoctagonall plinthsplinths,, complementedcomplemented ththee splendosplendorr ofof a courtyarcourtyardd (Fig(Fig.. 3.3 and platplatee 9).9).6161 AlthougAlthoughh SaddaSaddamm wearwearss the uniforuniformm of a contemporarycontemporary militarymilitary commandercommander inin chief,chief, hishis strangestrange headgearheadgear seem­seem- inglyingly contradictcontradictss modermodernn attireattire.. ItIt recallrecallss a medievamedievall helmethelmet,, evokinevokingg thethe ageage ofof saladin,Saladin, bubutt itit alludesalludes inin facfactt toto anan architecturalarchitectural monumentmonument:: thethe DomDomee ofof ththee RocRockk iinJerusalem.n Jerusalem.6622

MEMORMEMORYY ANANDD IDEOLOGIDEOLOGYY 6565 FIGURE 3.3. Three offour busts depicting Saddam Hussein with the Dome of the Rock as a helmet, Baghdad, October 20, 2005. Photograph courtesy ofthe u.s. Department ofDefense, Jim Gordon no. DA-SD-06-07153.

FIGURE 3.4. Statue of Saddam Hussein as Saladin in Tikrit, July 18,2003. Anonymous photograph. InIn FebruaryFebruary 2001,2001, SaddamSaddam announcedannounced thethe formationformation ofof "al-Quds"al-Quds Army,"Army," oneone ofof hishis manymany privateprivate armies,armies, withwith thethe propagandisticpropagandistic aimaim ofof liberatingliberating PalestinePalestine fromfrom IsraeliIsraeli rule.rule.6363 InIn 20012001a a muralmural inin BaghdadBaghdad depicteddepicted himhim leadingleading tankstanks intointo battlebattle againstagainst thethe newnew "Crusaders,""Crusaders," sideside byby sideside withwith Saladin.Saladin.6464 InIn TikritTikrit twotwo identicalidentical equestrianequestrian statuesstatues werewere createdcreated forfor thethe toptop ofof aa medieval-stylemedieval-style domeddomed presidentialpresidential palace.palace. TheThe statuesstatues depicteddepicted SaddamSaddam withwith aa drawndrawn swordsword andand pennants,pennants, guidingguiding fourfour missilesmissiles intointo battle-hisbattle—his accoutrementsaccoutrements blurringblurring thethe distinctiondistinction betweenbetween thethe medievalmedieval hero-rulerhero-ruler andand thethe twenty-first-centurytwenty-first-century one.one.6565 InIn anan interviewinterview inin MarchMarch 2003,2003, thethe IraqiIraqi sculptorsculptor AbdulAbdul JabarJabar stated:stated: "Saddam"Saddam andand SaladinSaladin areare thethe same.same. SaladinSaladin foughtfought thethe EuropeanEuropean invadersinvaders whowho camecame toto stealsteal Iraq'sIraq's trea­trea- sures.sures. AndAnd nownow thethe U.S.U.S.is is comingcoming toto stealsteal ourour oil."66oil."66 ImmediatelyImmediately afterafter Saddam'sSaddam's fall,fall, statuesstatues ofof SaladinSaladin asas wellwell asas thosethose ofof SaddamSaddam HusseinHusseinwere were pulledpulled downdown andand destroyeddestroyed {fig.(fig.3.4).67 3.4).67 AA newnew SaladinSaladin rhetoricrhetoric emergedemerged inin IraqIraq withwith thethe formationformation ofof thethe ShiiteShiite government.government. OOnn thethe oneone hand,hand, thethe newnew regimeregime erasederased namesnames ofof sitessites andand placesplaces inin Baghdad.Baghdad. ForFor example,example, aa SaladinSaladin statuestatue waswas renamedrenamed toto commemoratecommemorate aa compan­compan- ionion ofof tAli'Ali ibnibn AbiAbi Talib.Talib.6868 OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, thethe SunniSunni guerillaguerilla groupgroup ofof thethe Kata'ibKata'ib SalahSalah aI-Din,al-Din, thethe militarymilitary wingwing ofof thethe IslamicIslamic FrontFront forfor thethe IraqiIraqi ResistanceResistance (al-]abha(al-Jabha al-Islamiyyaal-Islamiyya lil-Muqawwimalil-Muqawwima al-al-Iraqiyya)—flraqiyya)-operatingoperating atat leastleast sincesince 2004-combined2004—combined sectariansectarian violenceviolence withwith aa modernmodern publicitypublicity campaigncampaign againstagainst ShiitesShiites andand AmericansAmericans inin thethe namename ofof theirtheir almostalmost pan­pan- IslamicIslamic eponym.eponym.A Anew new useuse ofof thethe IraqiIraqi memorymemory figurefigure SaladinSaladin hadhad evolved,evolved, thisthis timetime putput toto sectariansectarian use.use.6969

SaladinSaladin andand SyrianSyrian NationalismNationalism InIn Syria,Syria, thethe figurefigure ofof SaladinSaladin drawsdraws onon aa differentdifferent setset ofof memoriesmemories inin thethe visualvisual cultcult ofof rulership/orulership.70 However,However, asas CaroleCarole HillenbrandHillenbrand hashas pro­pro- posed,posed, thethe simplesimple equation-Saladin,equation—Saladin, conquerorconqueror ofof Jerusalem,Jerusalem, congruentcongruent withwith HafizHafiz al-Asadal-Asad Cr.(r. 1970-2000)1970-2000) inin hishis warwar effortsefforts againstagainst Israel-isIsrael—is notnot applicable.applicable.7171 TheThe personalitypersonality cultcult ofof HafizHafiz ai-Asal-Asadad,, thethe firstfirst presidentpresident ofof SyriaSyria toto instigateinstigate suchsuch aa rhetoricalrhetorical apparatus,apparatus, evolvedevolved slowlyslowly duringduring thethe mid-1970s.mid-1970s. ByBy thethe mid-1980s,mid-1980s, itit inflatedinflated enormouslyenormously duedue toto SovietSoviet advisersadvisers whowho werewere consultedconsulted forfor thethe publicpublic stagingstaging ofof al-Asad'sal-Asad's image,image, whichwhich camecame toto resembleresemble aa Soviet-styleSoviet-style personalitypersonality cult.cult.7272 InIn endlessendless permutationspermutations thethe imageimage ofof HafizHafiz al-Asad-praisedal-Asad—praised asas "our"our leaderleader forfor eternityeternity [qa'iduna[qa'iduna ilaila l-abad]"l-abad]"—-occupiedoccupied everyevery publicpublic space.space.

MEMORYMEMORY ANDAND IDEOLOGYIDEOLOGY 6767 StateState propagandapropaganda promotedpromoted al-Asad'sal-Asad's extraordinaryextraordinary abilitiesabilities asas aa pharmacist,pharmacist,teacher, teacher,doctor, doctor,lawyer, lawyer,and andso soforth; forth;the theruler rulermore morethan thanr~p­ rep- resentedresentedthe thepeople, people,he hewas was"the "the people."73people."73In In1984 1984the the firstfirststatue statueof ofHafiz Hafiz ai-Asal-Asaaddwas wasinaugurated inaugurated ininfront frontof ofthe the newnewnational national librarylibraryin inDamascus. Damascus. There,There,he heis isdepicted depictedwith withan anopen openbook-the book—theembodiment embodimentof oflearning learning andand erudition.erudition.7474From From1982 1982on, on,visual visualand andpolitical politicaldiscourses discoursesbecame becameincreas­ increas- inglyinglya astaged stageddialogue/ dialogue.755City Citycouncils, councils,trade tradeunions, unions,and andother othergroups groupsand and organizationsorganizations hadhadto todisplay displayimages imagesof ofal-Asad al-Asadwhile whileswearing swearinga a"binding "binding covenantcovenant ['ahd]"['ahd]" ororan an"oath "oath ofofallegiance allegiance [bay'a]."[boy'a]."These These monumentsmonuments areare foundfoundall allover overSyria. Syria.The Theneutral neutralfoil foil ofofai-As al-Asaaddimages-as images—asofficer, officer, states­states- man,man,and andfather fatherof ofthe thecountry-thereby country—therebyallowed allowedfor fortheir their widespreadwidespread useuse ininoaths oathsof ofallegiance allegianceby byChristians, Christiansjews,, JewsMuslims,, Muslimssocialists,, socialistsnationalists,, nationalists, andandothers. others. InInposters postersand andstatues, statues,al-Asad al-Asadremained remainedalways alwayshimself himselfand andso sois isnever never dresseddressed asasa ahistorical historical hero.hero.The Theconflict conflict withwith IsraelIsrael isisembodied embodied inin thethe imagesimagesof ofthe the TishrinTishrinWar. War.Having Havingseveral several PalestinianPalestinian refugeerefugee campscampsand and PalestinianPalestinianmilitia militialeaders leadersand andfighters fighterswithin withinthe thecountry, country,the theAsad Asadregime regime refrainedrefrainedfrom fromcommitting committingitself itselftoo toomuch muchto tothe thePalestinian Palestiniancause-by cause—byfar far andandlarge largeavoiding, avoiding,for forexample, example,a avisual visual"Dome "Domeof ofthe the Rock"Rock"theme. theme.In Incon­ con- trasttrastto tothe theIraqi Iraqipersonality personalitycult, cult,moreover, moreover,al-Asad al-Asadabstained abstained fromfrom monu­monu- mentality.76mentality.76But Buthis hisimage imagewas waseverywhere, everywhere, andand hishis secretsecret servicesservices mademade himhima aperpetually perpetually vigilantvigilantpresident. president. Consequently,Consequently,the the historicalhistorical themetheme isisalmost almost entirelyentirely absentabsent fromfrom SyrianSyrianvisual visualpolitical politicalrhetoric. rhetoric.7777However, However, therethereexist existexceptions exceptionsto tothis thisrule, rule,some someof ofwhich whichcontain contain overtovert referencesreferences totoSaladin. Saladin.7878 OneOneof ofthe the firstfirst publicallypublicallyavailable available imagesimages ofof SaladinSaladin inin SyriaSyria waswas printedprinted onon aabanknote banknote seriesseries firstfirst issuedissued inin 19771977(fig. (fig.3.5 3.5and and plateplate 8).798).79 TheTheimage imageof ofSaladin, Saladin,quite quiteobviously obviouslycopied copiedfrom from thethe latelateOttoman Ottomandepic­ depic- tiontion ininSaladin's Saladin'stomb tomb(see (see fig.fig.3.2), 3.2),was wasconflated conflatedwith with aaview viewof ofKrak Krak dede Chevalier,Chevalier,the the citadelcitadel ofofthe the KnightsKnightsHospitaller Hospitaller thatthat SaladinSaladinbesieged besieged inin vainvainin in1188. 1188.The TheMuslim Muslimhero hero isishere herejuxtaposed juxtaposed withwith oneone ofofthe the famousfamous historicalhistorical landmarkslandmarksin in SyriaSyriawithout without necessarilynecessarily implyingimplying anyany specificspecific politicalpoliticalmessage. message.8080 ByBythe the endendof ofthe the 1980s1980sa anew newSaladin Saladinrhetoric rhetoric emerged,emerged, ininlarge large partpart inspiredinspiredby bythe theregime's regime'seffort effort totorewrite rewrite nationalnational history.history.The TheBaath Baathparty party hadhadpursued pursuedsimilar similarprojects projects inin1965, 1965,between between 19751975and and 1977,1977,and and inin 1985.1985. InInJuly July 19871987a ascholarly scholarly symposiumsymposium waswas heldheld inin DamascusDamascusto to celebratecelebrate thethe eight-hundredtheight-hundredth anniversaryanniversary ofof Saladin'sSaladin's victoryvictory atat Hattin.Hattin. UlrikeUlrike Freitag,Freitag,who whoattended attended allallof ofthe the sessions,sessions, concludedconcluded thatthat thethe symposiumsymposium waswasclearly clearlyintended intended totolegitimize legitimizethe the regimeregime bybyconstructing constructing aahistorical historical

STEFAN HEIDEMANN 6868 STEfAN HEIDEMANN FIGURE 3.5. Twenty-five-pound Syrian banknote, 1978, first issued 1977.

line between Saladin, Jamal 'Abd aI-Nasir, and Hafiz al-Asad. 81 Already in the 1980s ai-Asad had complemented his office with a painting of Saladin and a reference to the Battle of Hattin. In 1991 a referendum confirmed al-Asad as president; a slogan on a widely distributed poster advertised al­ Asad's historical achievement: "Min Hattin ila Tishrin." The slogan refers to the decisive victory ofSaladin and draws a parallel to the October War of 1973, when Egypt and Syria had attacked Israel on Yom Kippur. After some initial military successes, the October war ended with the total defeat of the Arab armies and a disastrous continuing loss ofthe Golan Heights for Syria. Nevertheless, in the emphatic political self-praise ofEgypt and Syria, the war was declared a historical victory, similar to Saladin's successes at Hattin.82 As a result, the slogan was frequently used in Syrian propaganda until the late 1990s.83 The Saladin monument by the Syrian sculptor 'Abdallah al-Sayyid that stands in front of the citadel of Damascus is most likely the best-known modern monument in Syria (fig. 3.6 and plate 10).84 The restoration of the citadel ofDamascus as a national monument was begun in the middle of the 1980s, and by the end of that decade the last remaining military and police installations had been removed, the curtain walls and towers had been rebuilt, and archaeologists had begun to explore the citadel. In 1992 an equestrian statue ofsaladin, made of greenish painted fiberglass,

MEMORY AND IDEOLOGY 69 FIGURE 3.6. Statue of Saladin in Damascus, made by 'Abdallah al-Sayyid, 1992. Photograph by the author, August 2003. was installed as a complement to the citadel's gate, one hundred meters north of the entrance of the Suq al-Hamidiyya.85 The equestrian figure is surrounded by three armed warriors.86 Their shields depict the "eagle [al- 'aqab] of saladin," a heraldic device that is used in Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Palestine, and Yemen. The "eagle ofSaladin" itself is a modern invention, as Saladin never made use of a specific blazon.87 The horseman type is similar to Western equestrian monuments ofknights, though the dramatic posture inches closer to modern plastic toys. The Damascene monument depicts Saladin as a national hero, cor­ responding to the citadel behind him. The extra figures at the croup of the horse are two enchained Crusaders (fig. 3.7), representing the battle of Hattin and the loss of the Kingdom ofJerusalem. The one on the right side, with the crown at his feet, is King Guy de Lusignan (c. 1150-94), and the other figure is Reynald de Chatillon, who caused the fatal battle. Only at the base ofthe monument can an inscription be found, gilded since 2008, praising "Jerusalem's Liberation" in several languages (fig. 3.8).

70 STEFAN HEIDEMANN FIGURE 3.7. Statue of Saladin in Damascus, 1992, with the figures ofReynald de ChatiHon and Guy de Lusignan. Photograph by the author, November 2005.

FIGURE 3.8. Statue ofSaladin in Damascus, 1992, with a detailed view of the inscription praising the libera­ tion of]erusalem. Photograph by the author, November 1995. DespitDespitee ththee referencereferencess ttoo HattiHattinn anandd JerusalemJerusalem,, thithiss monumenmonumentt lacklackss ththee typicatypicall markermarkerss ooff ththee personalitpersonalityy culcultt ooff al-Asaal-Asadd anandd ooff ththee Arab-MusliArab-Muslimm conflicconflictt witwithh Israel—namelIsrael-namelyy ththee emotionallemotionallyy resonanresonantt standarstandardd attribute,attribute, ththee DomDomee ooff ththee Rock8888—mos-mostt likellikelyy becausbecausee defeatedefeatedd ChristiaChristiann CrusaderCrusaderss araree unsuitablunsuitablee aass a symbosymboll foforr ththee ZionisZionistt statestate.. TherTheree iiss alsalsoo nnoo allusioallusionn ttoo ththee SyriaSyriann attributeattributess ooff ththee conflictconflict,, namelnamelyy ththee TishriTishrinn WaWarr oorr ththee GolaGolann occupationoccupation.. ThThee aspecaspectt ooff Jerusalem—thJerusalem-thee conflicconflictt witwithh Israel—recedeIsrael-recedess behinbehindd anotheanotherr usefuusefull meaninmeaningg anandd memorymemory:: SaladiSaladinn aass nationanationall herohero.. ThiThiss meaninmeaningg becomebecomess cleaclearr iinn ththee ususee ooff ththee monumenmonumentt iinn visuavisuall cultureculture.. ThThee imagimagee ooff ththee SaladiSaladinn monumenmonumentt wawass introduceintroducedd oonn two-hundred-pountwo-hundred-poundd banknotebanknotess iinn 1997.8899 ItItss readinreadingg iiss specifiespecifiedd bbyy ititss adjacenadjacentt imageimage,, namelnamelyy ththee nationanationall TomTombb ooff ththee UnknowUnknownn SoldieSoldierr (darih al-jundial-jundi al-majhul)J.whichal-majhul),.which occupieoccupiess ththee centracentrall registeregisterr (fig(fig.. 3.9)3.9).. ThThee desigdesignn ooff ththee banknotbanknotee concon­- nectnectss ththee memormemoryy ooff ththee nationanationall herheroo witwithh ththee memormemoryy ooff recentlrecentlyy fallefallenn nationanationall heroesheroes,, therebtherebyy emphasizinemphasizingg ththee historicahistoricall dimensiodimensionn ooff theitheirr sacsac­- rificerifice.. SincSincee ththee earlearlyy 19901990ss SaladiSaladinn hahass serveservedd iinn publipublicc rhetorirhetoricc aass aa symbosymboll ooff nationanationall unitunityy witwithh onlonlyy aa moderatmoderatee religioureligiouss undercurrentundercurrent.. WithiWithinn ththee socialistsocialist,, seculasecularr SyriaSyriann state—wherstate-wheree conservativconservativee IslaIslamm attractattractss increasinincreasingg attentioattentionn amonamongg ththee populace—Saladipopulace-Saladinn functionfunctionss aass aann IslamiIslamicc nationanationall symbolsymbol,, withouwithoutt representinrepresentingg modermodernn IslamisIslamistt discoursdiscoursee peperr sese.. SincSincee hihiss electioelectionn iinn 20002000,, PresidenPresidentt BashaBasharr al-Asaai-Asadd hahass recederecededd frofromm ththee excessivexcessivee personalitpersonalityy culcultt ooff hihiss fatherfather,, althougalthoughh hihiss propagandapropaganda,, designedesignedd bbyy LebanesLebanesee advertisinadvertisingg agenciesagencies,, remainremainss ubiquitousubiquitous.. TheThe visualvisual politicapoliticall rhetorirhetoricc turneturnedd increasinglincreasinglyy towartowardd nationanationall anandd onlonlyy cautiouslcautiouslyy towartowardd IslamiIslamicc themethemess startinstartingg iinn abouaboutt 2005.2005.9900 EveEvenn iinn ththee cascasee ooff ththee GolaGolann HeightsHeights,, campaigcampaignn posterposterss follofolloww mormoree ththee aestheticaestheticss ooff commerciacommerciall advertisementsadvertisements,, anandd thuthuss araree devoidevoidd ooff imageimagess ooff militarmilitaryy confrontation.9911 DespitDespitee thithiss moremore mutemutedd rhetoricrhetoric,, BashaBasharr al-Asad'al-Asad'ss firfirmm stancstancee iinn ththee dordor­- manmantt wawarr witwithh IsraeIsraell remainremainss a cornerstoncornerstonee ooff hihiss politicapoliticall legitimizationlegitimization.. IInn SyriaSyria,, SaladiSaladinn rhetorirhetoricc bloomebloomedd witwithh severaseverall televisiotelevisionn series.series.9922 IInn 20020055 ththee AustraliaAustraliann filfilmm directodirectorr RidleRidleyy ScotScottt releasereleasedd aa SaladiSaladinn epiepicc entitleentitledd KingdomKingdom ooff Heaven.Heaven.9393 IItt conveyeconveyedd exactlexactlyy ththee kinkindd ooff rhetorirhetoricc thathatt woulwouldd resonatresonatee iinn SyriaSyria.. ThThee depictiodepictionn ooff Saladisaladinn bbyy ththee populapopularr SyriaSyriann actoactorr GhassaGhassann MassouMassoudd (bor(bornn 19581958)) contributecontributedd mucmuchh ttoo ththee movie'movie'ss extraordinarextraordinaryy successuccesss iinn ththee MiddlMiddlee EastEast,, especiallespeciallyy iinn Syria.Syria.9944 OOnn MaMayy 66,2005,, 2005, ththee filfilmm debutedebutedd aatt ththee samsamee timtimee iinn ththee UniteUnitedd StateStatess anandd iinn Syria—Syria-aa noveltnoveltyy iinn filfilmm historyhistory.. AAtt ththee DamascuDamascuss premierpremieree ththee audiaudi­- encencee celebratecelebratedd ththee filfilmm enthusiastically.enthusiastically.9595 'Ab'Abdd al-NasiaI-Nasirr HasuHasu,, aa columniscolumnistt foforr ththee SyriaSyriann daildailyy a/-Thawraal-Thawra,, praisepraisedd ththee filfilmm foforr bringinbringingg justicjusticee ttoo ththee ArabsArabs,, ttoo IslamIslam,, anandd ttoo SalaSalahh al-DiaI-Dinn (Saladin)(Saladin).. HHee wawass surprisesurprisedd bbyy ththee posiposi--

7722 STEFASTEFANN HEIDEMANHEIDEMANNN fIGURE 3.9. Two-hundred-pound Syrian banknote, 1997.

tive portrayal ofsaladin, because he was unaware ofhow the Saladin figure had been romanticized in the West. 96 Ghassan Massoud explained in an interview that he found inspiration for his depiction of Saladin besides his recent reading largely in his school education and probably his con­ sumption of the recently broadcast television series.97 For him, Saladin "has been a role model for us since our youth."98 The politically correct, albeit romantic, Saladin of Ridley Scott thus collided with the resonant national Saladin of Syrian political rhetoric.99 This surprising congruence is remarkable because Saladin as memory figure was transferred to and revived in the Middle East more than 120 years earlier.

Conclusion

The current memory figure of Saladin is a product of Western and Middle Eastern imagination. [n the eighteenth century, European philology had recovered the historical Saladin but also novelized and romanticized him. He became the archetype ofthe noble and sage Muslim enemy-hero. In the Middle East, especially in Palestine, Saladin was never completely forgotten, although in the memory ofthe Middle East he was superseded by Sultan Baybars, a hero who fought Crusaders and infidels. Parallel to the invention of political traditions with historical references in Europe between 1870 and 1914, the memory figure ofSaladin was deemed useful

MEMORY AND IDEOLOGY 73 inin thethe MiddleMiddle East.East. InInthe the 1870s,1870s, withwiththe the modernizationmodernization effortseffortsof'Abd of 'Abdal­ al- Hamid,Hamid, thethe CrusadesCrusades andand SaladinSaladin werewere recalledrecalled intointo politicalpolitical rhetoric.rhetoric.In In 18781878 thethe sultansultan commissionedcommissioned aacenotaph cenotaph forforSaladin Saladinin inDamascus, Damascus,symbol-· symbol- izingizing OttomanOttoman modernitymodernity andand thethe sultansultan asasdefender defender ofofthe the faith.faith.In In1898 1898 thethe visitvisit ofof thethe GermanGerman kaiserkaiser WilhelmWilhelm IIIIto to thethe tombtomb ofofSaladin Saladin finallyfinally mademade thethe politicalpolitical publicpublic ofof thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire awareaware ofofthe the WesternWestern imageimage ofof SaladinSaladin whilewhile alsoalso bolsteringbolstering thethe politicalpolitical rhetoricrhetoric ofof 'Abd'Abd al­al- HamidHamid himself.himself. DuringDuring thethe MandateMandate periodperiod SaladinSaladin waswas rememberedremembered inin thethe politicalpolitical rhetoricrhetoric againstagainst WesternWestern militarymilitary imperialismimperialismin ingeneral general andand againstagainst ZionistZionistexpansion expansion inin particular.particular. AtAt thethe endend ofof thethe 1980s,1980s, SaladinSaladin rhetoricrhetoric resurfacedresurfaced ininIraq Iraqand and Syria.Syria. AfterAfter thethe GulfGulf WarWar thethe figurefigure ofof SaladinSaladin inin IraqIraq waswas conElated-inconflated—in aagro­ gro- tesquetesque manner-withmanner—with thethe monumentalmonumental andand excessiveexcessive personalitypersonality cultcult ofof SaddamSaddam Hussein.Hussein. InIn aa stagedstaged monologue,monologue, SaddamSaddam declareddeclared himselfhimself thethe incarnationincarnation ofof saladin,Saladin,who who hadhad resistedresisted andand emergedemerged triumphanttriumphant againstagainst "Crusaders.""Crusaders." TheThe combinationcombination ofofreferences references toto thethe DomeDomeof ofthe the Rock,Rock,which which marksmarks Saladin,Saladin, andand thethe conquestconquest ofofJerusalem, Jerusalem, attemptedattempted toto representrepresent SaddamSaddam asas aa herqhero forfor thethe Palestinian,Palestinian, pan-Islamic,pan-Islamic, andand pan-Arabpan-Arabcause. cause. TheThe politicalpolitical rhetoricrhetoric inin SyriaSyriawas wasdifferent. different.Starting Starting ininthe the mid-1970s,mid-1970s, SyriaSyria boastedboasted aa pronouncedpronounced Soviet-styleSoviet-style personalitypersonalitycult cultcentered centered ononpres­ pres- identident HafizHafiz al-Asad.al-Asad. TheThe cultcult waswas stagedstaged asas aa dialogue,dialogue, withwith responsiveresponsive oathsoaths ofof allegiance.allegiance. AtAt thethe endend ofofthe the 1980s,1980s, withwith thethe attemptattempt ofofthe the BaathBaath partyparty toto rewriterewrite nationalnational history,history, thethe figurefigure ofofSaladin Saladin movedmoved intointo thethe cen­cen- terter ofof nationalnational propagandapropaganda forfor aa shortshort time.time. TheThe militarymilitary achievementsachievements ofof al-Asadal-Asad werewere comparedcompared withwith thosethose ofof saladin,Saladin, "from"from HattinHattin toto Tishrin,"Tishrin," butbut hehe andand SaladinSaladin werewere notnot equatedequated inin aa bluntblunt manner.manner. TheThe PalestinianPalestinian andand IslamicIslamic cause,cause, whichwhich waswas alwaysalways symbolizedsymbolizedby by thethe DomeDome ofof thethe Rock,Rock, waswas carefullycarefully avoidedavoided inin SaladinSaladin imagesimages sponsoredsponsored byby thethe SyrianSyrian govern­govern- ment.ment. SaladinSaladin rhetoricrhetoric inin SyriaSyria tooktook aa distinctdistinct nationalnational turn,turn, independentindependent fromfrom thethe ubiquitousubiquitous personalitypersonality cult.cult. ThisThis readingreading foundfound itsits mostmost vis­vis- ibleible expressionexpression inin thethe SaladinSaladin monumentmonument ofof 19921992 inin frontfront ofof thethe citadelcitadel inin Damascus,Damascus, inin whichwhich SaladinSaladin isis depicteddepicted asas aa nationalnational hero.hero. AlthoughAlthough today'stoday's politicalpolitical rhetoricrhetoric ofof BasharBashar al-Asadal-Asad refrainsrefrains fromfrom historicalhistorical allu­allu- sions,sions, SaladinSaladin hashas remainedremained aa resonantresonant memorymemory figure:figure: thethe 20052005 moviemovie Kingdom ofof Heaven-withHeaven—with thethe popularpopular SyrianSyrian actoractor GhassanGhassan MassoudMassoud asas itsits chiefchief protagonist-transmittedprotagonist—transmitted exactlyexactly thatthat imageimage ofof SaladinSaladin asas aa nationalnational symbol.symbol. HistoryHistory learnedlearned throughthrough compulsorycompulsory schoolschool attendanceattendance hadhad mademade SaladinSaladin a resonantresonant nationalnational memorymemory figure,figure, andand thethe filmfilm promotedpromoted himhim asas such.such. AtAt thethe samesame time,time, Massoud'sMassoud's SyrianSyrian SaladinSaladin correspondscorresponds toto thethe

------7474 STEFANSTEFAN HEIDEMANNHEIDEMANN saladin emerging from the Western interpretation and its turn toward "political correctness."

NOTES 1. See, for example, the wooden statue of Saladin in combination with Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) and the jewish sage Rashi (1040-1105) located in Latroun Monastery, Israel, inaugurated in 2006. I am grateful to Yisca Harani for this information. 2. Mohjak, "al-Suriyyuna yarawna fi Nasri llahi Salaha I-Dini J-'asra l-haditha," posted july 2006 at Andareen.com. He reports on the Nasrallah hype in Damascus during the Lebanon War of 2006. The rhetoric ironically blanks out that Saladin fiercely suppressed Shiites. 3. The lectures are compiled in B. Lewis, History. For a similar approach see silberman, Between Past and Present. 4. Hobsbawm, "Inventing Tradition," 1-14; and Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions," 263-307. 5.]. Assmann, Das kulturelle Gedachtnis, and "Collective Memory and Cultural Identity." 6. Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions," 263; and Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination, 9-10, 14-15. 7. Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions," 263-64; and wedeen, Ambiguities ofDomination, 15. For the case of Iraq see Baram, "A Case of Imported Identity," 289-290, 293. 8. In 1901 the stele with Hammurabi's code of law was discovered in Susa, Iran, by the French archaeologist jacques jean-Marie de Morgan (1857-1924) and the Assyriologistjean-Vincent Scheil (1858-1940). It is now on display in the Musee du Louvre, Paris. 9. Before World War I, the Ishtar Gate of Babylon built by Nebuchadnezzar (r. ca. 60S-ca. 561 BeE) was discovered by Robert Koldewey (1855-1925) and the German Oriental Society. It is now on display in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. 10. B. Lewis, History; and Ende, "Kollektive Identitat und Geschichte in der islamischen welt der Gegenwart," 161. 11. Ende, "Wer ist ein Glaubensheld und wer ist ein Ketzer?" 70-94. 12. other countries that make specific use of the memory figure Saladin are France, Egypt, jordan, Palestine, and Israel. 13. Saladin built a memorial known as Qubbat al-Nasr (The Dome of Victory) at the site ofHattin, which soon fell into oblivion. See Kedar, "The Battle ofHattin Revisited," 190-207. 14. Riley-Smith, "Islam and the crusades in History and Imagination, 8 November 1898-11 September 2001;' 151-52, 160, supposes the almost complete oblivion of the Crusades in the Middle East after the end of the Crusades. 15. Ende, "Wer ist ein Glaubensheld und wer ist ein Ketzer?" 16. Works that devote almost twice as much space to Baybars as to Saladin include Mamluk chronicles of the fifteenth century, such as al-Maqrizi's and Ibn

MEMORY AND IDEOLOGY 75 ir .,.·,'

'Taghribirdi'sTaghribirdi'shistories, histories,and andEgyptian Egyptianchronicles chroniclesof ofthe thenineteenth nineteenthcentury, Centurysuch, suchas äs al-]abarti'sal-Jabarti's(d. (d1825-26). 1825-26)'Aja'ib 'Aja'ibal-athar, al-athar,and and'Ali 'AlMubarak'si Mubarak's(d. (d.1893) 1893)AI-Khitat Al-Khitatal-jadidaaljadida al-tawfiqiyya. Early Syrian chronicles of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, al-tawfiqiyya. Early Syrian chronicles of the thirteenth and. fourteenth centuries, suchsuchas äsworks worksby byIbn IbnWasil, Wasil,al-Yunini, al-Yunini,and andAbu Abul-Fida', 1-Fida',are aremore morein inthe theAyyubid Ayyubid traditiontraditionand andthus thusplace placegreater greateremphasis emphasison onSaladin. Saladin. 17.17Mujir. Mujirai-Din al-Dinal-'Ulaymi al-'Ulaymi(d. (d867/1462-63),. 867/1462-63),Kitab Kitabal-Uns al-UnsaljaW al-jalilbi- bi-tarikh tarikhal-Quds al-Quds wal-Khalilwal-Khalil(Cairo, (Cairo1866)., 1866).Gerber, GerberRemembering, Rememberingand andImagining ImaginingPalestine, Palestine,61-68. 61-68. 18.18Ende,. Ende,"Wer "Werist istein einGlaubensheld Glaubensheldund undwer werist istein einKetzer?" Ketzer?"and and"Kollektive "Kollektive IdentiUitIdentitätund undGeschichte Geschichtein inder derislamischen islamischenWelt Weltder derGegenwart"; Gegenwart"; Mohring,Möhring,"Der "Der andereandereIslam," Islam,"131-56, 131-56,'''Saladin, "'Saladin,der deredle edleHeide' HeideMythisierung' Mythisierungund undRealitiit," Realität,"160­ 160- 75,75and, andSaladin, Saladin,91-104; 91-104;Hillenbrand, HillenbrandThe, TheCrusades, Crusades,589-616, 589-616,and and"The "TheEvolution Evolutionof of thethe SaladinSaladinLegend Legendin inthe the West,"West,"497-510; 497-510;]ubb, Jubb,The TheLegend Legendof ofSaladin Saladinin inWestern Western LiteratureLiteratareand andHistoriography; Historiography;Richard, Richard,"Les "Lestransformations transformations dedel'image 1'imagede desaladin Saladin dansdansles lessources sourcesoccidentales," occidentales,"177-87; 177-87 Conermann,; Conermann,"Muslimische "MuslimischeRitter," Ritter,"221-72; 221-72; Edde.Edde.Saladin, Saladin,570-82. 570-82. 19.19.On Onthe the receptionreception ofofThe TheTalisman, Talisman,see seeLincoln, Lincoln,Walter WalterScott Scottand andModernity, Modernity, 105-108,116-17.105-108, 116-17. 20.20The. TheScott ScottMonument Monumentwas wasbuilt builtbetween between1840 1840and and1846. 1846.The TheSaladin Saladinstatue statue waswasprobably probablyproduced producedafter after1870, 1870in, inthe thesecond secondeffort effortto tofill fillthe theniches, niches,but butbefore before 1881,1881,when whenits itsdescription descriptionwas waspublished; publishedsee; seeColston, ColstonHistory, Historyof ofthethe ScottScottMonument, Monument, Edinburgh,Edinburgh,96, 96,102.102.The Thesculptor sculptorwas wasClark ClarkStanton Stanton(1832-94). (1832-94).Saladin Saladinis isrepresented represented withwitha ascimitar scimitarin inan aneffort effortto tobehead beheadReynald Reynaldde deChatillon, Chatillonwho, whois isnot notrepresented. represented. 21.21.Hobsbawm, Hobsbawm,"Inventing "InventingTradition," Tradition," 1-14;1-14; seesee alsoalso A.A.Assmann, Assmann,"Zur "Zur MediengeschichteMediengeschichtedes deskulturellen kulturellenGediichtnisses," Gedächtnisses,"54. 54. 22.22.Karpat, KarpatThe, ThePoliticization Politicizationof ofIslam. Islam. 23.23.Hanioglu, HaniogluA, ABrief BriefHistory Historyof ofthethe LateLateOttoman OttomanEmpire, Empire,125-27. 125-27. 24.24.Hobsbawm, Hobsbawm"Inventing, "InventingTradition," Tradition,6." 6. 25.25Karpat,. Karpat,The ThePoliticization Politicizationof ofIslam, Islam,144, 144,173173; ;and and Hanioglu,HaniogluA, ABrief BriefHistory Historyof ofthethe LateLateOttoman OttomanEmpire, Empire,129. 129In. In1899 1899the thefirst firstcomprehensive comprehensiveaccount accountof ofththeeCrusades Crusades ininArabic Arabicwas waspublished publishedin inEgypt; Egypt;this thiswork workrefers refersto to'Abd 'Abdal-Hamid's al-Hamid'scomplaint complaint aboutaboutthe theEuropean EuropeanCrusade Crusade(al-harb (al-harbai-salibi) al-salibi)against againstthe theOttoman OttomanEmpire Empirein inthe the formformof ofpolitics. politicsSee. SeeSayyid Sayyid'Ali 'Alial-Hariri, al-Hariri,AI-Akhbar Al-Akhbaral-saniya al-saniyafi fiI-hurub l-hurubal-salibiyya al-salibiyya (Cairo:(Cairo:1899),2; 1899), 2Ende,; Ende,"Wer "Werist istein einGlaubensheld Glaubensheldund undwer werist istein einKetzer?," Ketzer?,"81-82; 81-82; andandHillenbrand, Hillenbrand,The TheCrusades, Crusades,592. 592. 26.26Kreiser,. Kreiser"Ein, "EinFreiheitsdenkmal FreiheitsdenkmalfUr fürIstanbul," Istanbul,"296-314. 296-314. 27.27.Syria's Syria'sfirst firstmonument monument ininEuropean Europeanfashion fashionwas wasthe thecolumn columnconstructed constructed ininMarja MarjaSquare Squarein inDamascus Damascusin in1904/1905, 1904/1905, commemoratingcommemorating thethefirst firsttelegraph telegraph linelinebetween betweenIstanbul Istanbuland andMecca; Mecca;see seeS. SWeber,. Weber"Zeugnisse, "Zeugnissekulturellen kulturellenWandels," Wandels," 680,680,no. no.419, 419and, andDamascus, Damascus,2:255-56, 2:255-56,no. no.406. 406for. Forthe theculture cultureof ofmonuments monuments ininthe the OttomanOttomanEmpire, Empiresee, seealso alsoKreiser, Kreiser"War, "WarMemorials Memorialsand andCemeteries Cemeteriesin inTurkey," Turkey,"184. 184. 28.28.Karpat, Karpat,The ThePoliticization Politicizationof ofIslam, Islam,229-30; 229-30;and and Deringil,Deringil,The TheWell-Protected Well-Protected Domains,Domains,26-35. 26-35. 29.29.Hanioglu, Hanioglu,A ABrief BriefHistory Historyof ofthethe LateLateOttoman OttomanEmpire, Empire,142. 142. 30.30.Hudson, Hudson,Transforming Transforming Damascus,Damascus,17. 17. 31.31.S. S.Weber, Weber,"Zeugnisse "Zeugnissekulturellen kulturellenWandels," Wandels,"666, 666,no. no.396, 396,and and Damascus,Damascus, 1:242,420,2:241-42,1:242, 420, 2:241-42,no. no.388. 388.For Forthe thechange changein instyle stylein inDamascus Damascusin inthe thelate latenine­ nine- teenthteenthcentury, Century,see seeS. S.Weber, Weber"Ottoman, "OttomanDamascus Damascusof ofththee19th 19th Century,"Century,"731-40. 731-40.

7676 STEFANSTEFANHEIDEMANN HEIDEMANN 32. Saladin's title ai-sultan al-ghazi appears within the inscription on the cenotaph. 33. The first modern biography of Saladin in Turkish, written by the young ottoman historian Namik Kemal (1844-88), was published in 1872; see Ende, "Wer ist ein Glaubensheld und wer ist ein Ketzer?" 80. 34. As late as 1326/1908 the cenotaphs of Baybars and his son were restored; see S. weber, "Zeugnisse kulturellen Wandels," 495, no. 57, and Damascus. Ottoman Modernity and Urban Transformation, 2:137-38, no. 196. 35. The mythology of the Hohenstaufen was linked to the rebirth of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which the Hohenzollern believed they would fulfill. Only in the second instance, this mythology was connected with the Crusades. for example, the Kyffhauser monument in Thuringia, Germany, was built between 1890 and 1896 in the spot at which, according to folklore, the emperor Frederick would appear again to rejuvenate the empire. 36.Jaschinski, "Des Kaisers Reise in den Vorderen Orient 1898," 30-31; Hudson, Transforming Damascus, 107-108; and S. Weber, Damascus, 2:241-42, no. 388. 37. The qasida is reprinted in F. Ali, "Sauqi, der Furst der Dichter," 146. Ahmad Shawqi wrote in the pan-Islamicjournal al-Mu'ayyad about the effect ofthe speech: "what concerns us, the entirety of the Muslims, nine-tenths of us were without knowledge [about Saladin] until Wilhelm introduced us to him"; see Ende, "Wer ist ein Glaubensheld und wer ist ein Ketzer?" 84. 38. In August 1914 the Ottoman military owned eight airplanes, while the flight schools had another four. See Erickson, Ordered to Die, 228. 39. In Damascus the tombstone of the third Jaffa pilot gives the date as March 8,1330 (1914). For the Damascus receptions of all three pilots, see al-'Azm, Mudhakkirat Khalid al- 'Azm, 1:16-18. For the Jaffa crash see also Heikal, "Jaffa ... As It Was," 20. An Ottoman mural in a Damascus mansion commemorated the arrival of the airplane; see S. Weber, Damascus, 2:451-53. 40. A monument was built at the site, east of Lake Tiberias, today eight hun­ dred meters east of Kibbutz HaOn on the Israeli side of the Golan. It is a central obelisk with inscriptions, flanked by two eagles positioned on a globe. The tomb­ stones provide conflicting dates for the crash. Those on the HaOn monument state that the crash occurred on 3 Rabi' II, 1332 AH (March 1, 1914) or 14 Shubat 1329 Maliyya (February 27, 1914). The monument was inaugurated in May 1914. The two tombstones in Damascus, however, give March 3, 1330 Maliyya (1914) as the date of the crash (tarikh al-suqut). The tombs in Damascus were first restored in 1340 (1921-22). Schools were named after the leading pilot, Fethi Beg, as was, in 1934, a town in the southern Turkish province ofMugla. 41. Kreiser, "War Memorials and Cemeteries in Turkey," 184-85. 42. Ende, "Wer ist ein Glaubensheld und wer ist ein Ketzer?" 87. Also see Najdad Azour's film A Vision for Saladin (2005); and 'Abd aI-Nasir Hasu, "Salah al­ Din al-Ayyubi shakhsiyyat al-marhala bayna shashatay al-sinima wal-tilifiziyun," al-Thawra, August 9, 2005, http://thawra.alwehda.gov.sy/. 43. The fifth person buried in the courtyard was Yasin al-Hashimi (1894-1937), prime minister of Iraq, who in 1936 was deposed in a coup d'etat. He escaped to Syria, where he died two months later. His tombstone appears to have been made in the Asad period.

MEMORY AND IDEOLOGY 77 44.44.Among Amongthem them isisa aplay playby byJurji Jurji ZaydanZaydan (1861-1914):(1861-1914):Salah Salahai-Din al-DinAyyubi. Ayyubi. 45.45.See SeeEnde, Ende,"Wer "Wer istist eineinGlaubensheld Glaubensheld undund werwer istist einein Ketzer?"Ketzer?" 80.80. 46.46. Rida,Rida,"Dhikra "Dhikra SalahSalah aI-Dinal-Din wa-matrakatwa-ma'rakat Hattin,"Hattin," 593-606;593-606; Ende,Ende, "Wer"Wer istist einein GlaubensheldGlaubensheldund und werwer istist einein Ketzer?"Ketzer?" 86;86;Gerber, Gerber, RememberingRemembering andand ImaginingImagining Palestine,Palestine, 124-25;124-25; Matthews,Matthews, ConfrontingConfronting anan Empire,Empire, ConstructingConstructing aa Nation,Nation, 153;153; andand Peled,Peled,"Annals "Annalsof ofDoom," Doom,"167-68. 167-68. 4477.. Halim,Halim, "The"The SignsSigns ofof saladin,"Saladin," 78-94;78-94; Shafik,Shafik, ArabArab Cinema,Cinema, 169-70,169-70, andand PopularPopulärEgyptian Egyptian Cinema,Cinema,43-44, 43-44,esp. esp. 104-107.104-107.The The famousfamous authorsauthors NaguibNaguib Mahfouz,Mahfouz, 'Abd'Abd aI-Rahmanal-Rahmanal-Sharqawi, al-Sharqawi,and and YusufYusuf al-Siba'ial-Siba'i contributedcontributed toto thethe screenplay.screenplay. 48.48.Baram, Baram,"Territorial "Territorial NationalismNationalismin in thethe MiddleMiddle East,"East," 425-29.425-29. 49.49. SeeSee BaramBaram"A "ACase Case ofof ImportedImported Identity";Identity"; Bengio,Bengio, Saddam'sSaddam's World,World, 80-85;80-85; andand Long,Long,Saddam's SaddamsWar WarofWords,ofwords, 73-80.73-80. 50.50.Bengio, Bengio,Saddam's Saddam's World,World, 165-66,165-66,168168;; Davis,Davis,Memories Memories ofof State,State, 151,151,152,164152, 164­- 69,273.69, 273. 51.51.Bengio, Bengio,Saddam's Saddam'sWorld, World, 82.82. 52.52.On Onthe the introductionintroductionof ofancient ancient MesopotamianMesopotamian andand medievalmedieval IslamicIslamic namesnames intointo thethe administrativeadministrative mapmap ofof Iraq,Iraq, seesee Baram,Baram, "Territorial"Territorial NationalismNationalism inin thethe MiddleMiddleEast," East,"425. 425. 53.53.Reid, Reid,"The "The PostagePostage Stamp,"Stamp,"86. 86. 54.54. ForForan an earlyearly reference,reference, seesee Baram,Baram,"A "ACase Case ofof ImportedImported Identity,"Identity," 297,297,305. 305. ForFor SaddamSaddam Hussein'sHussein's pre-1991pre-1991 fixationfixation onon Nebuchadnezzar,Nebuchadnezzar, seesee aI-Khalil,al-Khalil, TheThe Monument,Monument, 68-77.68-77. 55.55.Bengio, Bengio,Saddam's Saddam's World,World, 82-83;82-83; andand Long,Long,Saddam's Saddam'sWar Warof of Words,Words, 76,106-10.76,106-10. 56.56.Davis, Davis,Memories Memories ofof 5State,tate, 221-69. 221-69. 57.57.See Seealso also Davis,Davis, "The"The MuseumMuseumand and thethe PoliticsPolitics ofof SocialSocial ControlControl inin Iraq,"Iraq," 95-96,95-96, whichwhichdoes does notnot listlist medievalmedievalIraq Iraqas äs aacentral central focusfocusof ofthe the IraqiIraqi museums.museums. 58.58.Bengio, Bengio,Saddam's Saddam's World,World, 83.83.The The ideologicalideological contextcontext ofof thethe wordword "Crusade""Crusade" forfor thethe AmericansAmericanswas wasthe the phrasephrase "morale"morale crusade"crusade" asäs anan emphaticemphatic expressionexpression ofof thethe war'swar's purpose.purpose. SeeSeeAtkinson, Atkinson,Crusade, Crusade, 4.4. 59.59.Davis, Davis,Memories Memories ofofthethe State,State, 228.228. 60.60.Gruber, Gruber,"Jerusalem "Jerusalem inin thethe VisualVisualPropaganda Propaganda ofofIran," Iran," 168-97.168-97. 61.61.At Atthe the endend ofof 20032003 thesethese bustsbusts werewere removedremoved forfor smelting;smelting; seesee Atwood,Atwood, "Looters"Lootersin inthe the Temple."Temple." 62.62. ForForan an analysisanalysis ofofearlier, earlier, almostalmost "vulgar""vulgär" monuments,monuments, seesee aI-Khalil,al-Khalil, TheThe Monument.Monument.Moreover, Moreover,in in1998 1998a apostage postage stampstampseries series waswasissued issued onon "Jerusalem"Jerusalem Day"Day" showing-fromshowing—from thethe rightrightto tothe the left,left, ininArabic Arabicreading readingorder-Saddam, order—Saddam, Saladin,Saladin,and and thethe DomeDome ofof thethe RockRock placedplaced aboveabove thethe IraqiIraqi flag.flag. InIn stampsstamps issuedissued inin 20022002 forfor JerusalemJerusalemDay, Day,Saddam Saddamappeared appeared inin frontfrontof ofththee DomeDomeof ofththee RockRock withwith aa suit,suit, hat,hat, andandgun. gun. 63.63.Cline, Cline,"Does "DoesSaddam SaddamThink Think He'sHe's aa Modern-DayModern-Day Saladin?";Saladin?"; andand woods,Woods, TheThe IraqiIraqiPerspectives Perspectives Report,Report, 48-51.48-51. 64.64.Appleby, Appleby"Jihad, "Jihad IsIsNot NotJust Just aa WordWordfor for War."War."Compare Compare aa similarsimilar oror identicalidentical picturepicture inin Hillenbrand,Hillenbrand, TheTheCrusades, Crusades, 595,595,plate plate 9.1.9.1. 65.65."Shadows "Shadows ofofTikrit: Tikrit: InsideInside thethe PresidentialPresidential PalacePalace withwith thethe USUSArmy Army 4th4th InfantryInfantry Division,Division, PhotographyPhotography byby PAPAMcKee McKee III"III"(site (site discontinued),discontinued), http://wwwhttp://www .shadowsoftikrit.com..shadowsoftikrit.com.Another Anotherunfinished unfinished bronzebronze equestrianequestrian statuestatueof ofSaddam, Saddam, alsoalso referringreferring toto SaladinSaladinin in itsits iconography,iconography, waswas discovereddiscovered inin thethe famousfamous foundryfoundry onon

7878 STEFANSTEFAN HEIDEMANNHEIDEMANN '. !i"

thethe 'Umar'Umar Shaykh StreetStreet inin BaghdadBaghdad.. ThThee reasoreasonn foforr ththee incomplete statestate ooff thethe statue,statue, howeverhowever,, wawass ththee deatdeathh ooff sculptorsculptor somesome yearyearss earlier.earlier. SeeSee HolmesHolmes,, "Di"Didd SaddamSaddam MimicMimic Saladin.";Saladin."; andand McGeoughMcGeough,, "A"A VisiVisitt ttoo a StreetStreet ooff ThousandThousand Saddams.Saddams."" 66.66. McGeough,McGeough, "A"A VisiVisitt ttoo a StreetStreet ooff a ThousandThousand Saddams."Saddams." SeeSee alsalsoo IssaIssa,, "Despite"Despite OilOil andand Greenery,Greenery, IraqIraq WasWas Still VeryVery Impoverished."Impoverished." 67.67. TheThe statuestatue inin TikritTikrit wawass destroyeddestroyed byby explosivesexplosives onjulyon July 18,18, 2003.2003. ItItss metametall waswas reusedreused toto castcast thethe U.SU.S.. 4th4th InfantryInfantry DivisionDivision memorialmemorial inin FortFort Hood,Hood, TexasTexas (http://www.shadowsoftikrit.com).(http://www.shadowsoftikrit.com). 68.68. A statuestatue ofof Saladin,Saladin, erectederected afterafter thethe 1990-911990-91 GulfGulf War,War, neanearr thethe sitesite ooff Baghdad'sBaghdad's ancientancient northernnorthern gate,gate, waswas renamedrenamed afterafter thethe ShiiteShiite saintsaint ai-Malikal-Malik al­al- Ashtar,Ashtar, a companioncompanion of'Aliof'Ali ibnihn AbiAbi Talib;Talib; seesee DagherDagher,, "Rewriting"Rewriting HistoryHistory inin Bronze."Bronze." 69.69. OnOn thisthis subject,subject, seesee IbrahimIbrahim ai-Marasal-Marashi'hi'ss contributioncontribution toto thisthis volume.volume. 70.70. forFor thethe generalgeneral differencesdifferences betweenbetween thethe personalitypersonality cultscults inin IraqIraq anandd Syria,Syria, seesee Wedeen,Wedeen, Ambiguities ofofDomination,Domination, esp.esp. 28-2928-29.. 71.71. SeeSee Hillenbrand,Hillenbrand, TheThe Crusades, 600600.. 72.72. OnOn thethe originorigin ofof al-Asad'sal-Asad's personalitypersonality cult,cult, seesee Wedeen,Wedeen, Ambiguities ooff Domination, 34-35.34-35. 73.73. AI-AsAl-Asaadd camecame fromfrom anan underprivilegedunderprivileged religioureligiouss minorityminority ofof suppressedsuppressed peasants,peasants, thethe Alawites,Alawites, andand transcendedtranscended thethe boundariesboundaries ofof ethnicethnic andand religiousreligious loyaltiesloyalties inin SyrianSyrian societysociety withwith thethe helphelp ofof thisthis cult.cult. Ibid.,Ibid., 39-40.39-40. 74.74. Ibid.,Ibid., 35.35. 75.75. Ibid.,Ibid., 20-21.20-21. 76.76. TheThe oversizedoversized goldengolden statuestatue ofof al-Asadal-Asad withwith a BedouinBedouin abaya inin al-Raqqaal-Raqqa (built(built betweenbetween 19851985 andand 1992,1992, ca.ca. 1010 metersmeters high)high) isis a provincialprovincial exceptionexception ttoo thethe nationalnational rule.rule. 77.77. ExceptionsExceptions areare foundfound inin numerousnumerous locallocal monumentsmonuments thatthat combinecombine his­his- toricaltorical andand touristictouristic monumentsmonuments withwith imagesimages ofof HafizHafiz al-Asadal-Asad andand hishis family.family. MosMostt datedate toto thethe 2000s.2000s. forFor example,example, atat thethe mainmain entranceentrance toto al-Raqqa,al-Raqqa, a monumentalmonumental muralmural mademade ofof underglazeunderglaze paintedpainted tilestiles showsshows BasharBashar al-Asadal-Asad withwith a turban,turban, refer­refer- ringring toto HarunHarun ai-Rashid,al-Rashid, andand sitting inin frontfront ofof thethe famousfamous medievalmedieval BaghdadBaghdad GateGate ofof al-Raqqa.al-Raqqa. AnAn identificationidentification ofof bothboth rulersrulers doesdoes bearbear littlelittle politicalpolitical significance.significance. ItIt isis designeddesigned byby local artistsartists atat thethe entranceentrance ofof thethe citycity toto expressexpress urbanurban pridepride inin locallocal archaeologicalarchaeological monumentsmonuments andand toto praisepraise thethe nation'snation's leader.leader. 78.78. TheThe medievalmedieval fortressfortress Saone,Saone, east ofof Lattakia,Lattakia, withwith thethe ArabicArabic namename Qal'atQa/fat Sahyun (Citadel(Citadel ofof Zion),Zion), waswas renamedrenamed Qal'atQal'at Salah aI-Dinal-Din (Citadel(Citadel ofof Saladin)Saladin) inin 1957,1957, afterafter thethe SuezSuez WarWar andand inin commemorationcommemoration ofof Saladin'sSaladin's seizureseizure ofof thethe fortressfortress inin 1188.1188. SeeSee Grandin,Grandin, "Introduction"Introduction toto thethe CitadelCitadel ofof SalahSalah aI-Din,"al-Din," 142.142. 79.79. SeeSee Djaroueh,Djaroueh, Mawsu'atMawsu'at aI-'umiata/-'um/at al-waraqiyya al-suriyya, 474,474, no.no. SYSY 167,167, forfor a SyrianSyrian twenty-five-poundtwenty-five-pound note.note. 80. The programprogram of illustrationIllustration of thisthis seriesseries of bankbanknotenotess comprisescomprises historicalhistorical landmarkslandmarks and,and, onon thethe backsbacks ofof thethe bills,bills, thethe achievementsachievements ofof socialismsocialism andand thethe state:state: workers,workers, peasants,peasants, ports,ports, dams,dams, andand thethe issuingissuing nationalnational bank.bank. 81.81. freitag,Freitag, "In"In SearchSearch ofof'Politica'Politicall Correctness,'"Correctness,'" 1-16,1-16, esp.esp. 10.10. SeeSee alsoalso Baram,Baram, "Territorial"Territorial NationalismNationalism inin thethe MiddleMiddle East,"East," 433-39.433-39. 82.82. ThisThis meaningmeaning ofof SaladinSaladin waswas conveyedconveyed inin thethe OctoberOctober WarWar Memorial.Memorial. ItIt lieslies onon thethe highwayhighway SittaSitta TishrinTishrin toto thethe north,north, andand isis difficultdifficult toto reach andand rarelyrarely visitedvisited exceptexcept byby schoolschool classes,classes, armyarmy cadets,cadets, andand militarymilitary detachments.detachments. TheThe panoramapanorama

MEMORYMEMORY ANDAND IDEOLOGYIDEOLOGY 7979 paintedpainted inin thethe mainmain rotundarotunda depictsdepicts thethe battlesbattles ofof thethe OctoberOctober War.War.Before Before enteringentering thethe panoramapanorama oneone encountersencounters aa circularcircular hallhall inin whichwhich SyrianSyrian victoriesvictories throughoutthroughout historyhistory areare depicteddepicted inin severalseveral paintings;paintings; oneone showsshows SaladinSaladin takingtaking ofof Jerusalem.Jerusalem. TheThe panoramapanorama waswas aa giftgift fromfrom thethe NorthNorth KoreanKoreangovernment. government. ItIt clearlyclearly followsfollows thethe visualvisual aestheticsaesthetics ofof Chinese/NorthChinese/North KoreanKorean propaganda.propaganda. TheThe People'sPeople's DemocraticDemocratic RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea alsoalso presentedpresented aa matchingmatching panoramapanorama toto thethe EgyptianEgyptian govern­govern- ment,ment, whichwhich was inauguratedinaugurated inin CairoCairo onon OctoberOctober 6,1989.6,1989. MostMost ofof thethe commemora­commemora- tivetive activitiesactivities ofof thethe OctoberOctober WarWar areare depicteddepicted here;here; seesee Meital,Meital, "Deliberately"Deliberately NoNott Empty."Empty." 83.83. InIn 19971997 thesethese postersposters stillstill werewere seenseen inin Aleppo.Aleppo. PersonalPersonal communicationcommunication byby PeterPeter Wien,Wien, UniversityUniversity ofof Maryland,Maryland, MarchMarch 15,15, 20062006.. 84.84. CaroleCarole Hillenbrand'sHillenbrand's suppositionsupposition thatthat SyriaSyria hashas nono traditiontradition ofof historicahistoricall statuesstatues (Hillenbrand,(Hillenbrand, The Crusades, 596)596) is not substantiatedsubstantiated inasmuchinasmuch asäs the statuestatue ofof ''AdnaAdnann al-Malkial-Malki (1913-55)(1913-55) inin Muhajirin,Muhajirin, Damascus,Damascus,is ishistorical. historical.Also, Also,in inAleppo's Aleppo's ChristianChristian quarter,quarter, numerousnumerous bronzebronze bustsbusts fromfrom thethe middlemiddle decadesdecades ofof th~the twentiethtwentieth centuryCentury commemoratecommemorate variousvarious historicalhistorical personalities.personalities. OtherOther statuesstatues oror bronzbronzee bustsbusts inin DamascusDamascus honorhonor suchsuch poets asäs Abu'l-Ma'arriAbu'l-Ma'arri (973-1057),(973-1057), whosewhose depictiondepiction isis locatedlocated closeclose toto thethe statuestatue ofof al-Malki.al-Malki. 85.85. InIn thethe firstfirst decadedecade ofof itsits existence,existence, thethe materialmaterial ofof thethe statuestatue decayeddecayed con­con- Siderably,siderably, withwith severalseveral cracks,cracks, fadingfading paint,paint, andand rustedrusted andand bentbent ironiron swords.swords. InIn 20072007 thethe statue underwentunderwent a superficialsuperficial restorationrestoration byby thethe GovernorateGovernorate ofof Damascus.Damascus. ItIt receivedreceived new,new, althoughalthough unfitting,unfitting, brightbright oliveolive green paint,paint, newnew swords,swords, andand gildedgilded inscriptions.inscriptions. TheThe paravenparaventt screenscreen waswas sponsored bbyy DHLDHL Company.Company. 86.86. Carole HillenbrandHillenbrand interpretsinterprets oneone ofof thethe attendingattending figurefiguress äass a Sufi,Sufi, anan IslamicIslamic mysticmystic,, anan ideaidea ththee sculptorsculptor conveyedconveyed ttoo herher;; seesee Hillenbrand,Hillenbrand,The TheCrusades, Crusades, 596-97,600.596-97,600. ThisThis idea,idea, however,however, waswas nonott realizedrealized.. AlAlll ofof ththee figuresfigures wearwear armorarmor andand weaponrweaponryy anandd areare apparentlapparentlyy MusliMuslimm warriors.warriors. IInn 20020033 a life-sizelife-size plasteplasterr modemodell ooff ththee statustatuee stilstilll stoodstood iinn ththee courtyardcourtyard ofof ththee citadel.citadel. 87.87. AAnn articlarticlee iinn ththee newspapenewspaperr al-Thawra declaredeclaredd hihimm al-'aqab afdal anwaanwa' al-al­ suqur (hawk)(hawk),, anandd distinguishedistinguishedd ththee birbirdd frofromm ththee EgyptiaEgyptiann nisr (eagle)(eagle),, whicwhichh wawass useusedd duringduring ththee UniteUnitedd AraArabb RepublicRepublic,, bubutt concedeconcedess thathatt SaladiSaladinn hahadd aann 'aqab oonn hihiss bannerbanner.. IInn ththee classicaclassicall languagelanguage,, 'aqab anandd nisr araree synonymousynonymouss foforr "eagle."eagle."" OOnn ththee subjectsubject,, seseee "al-'aqa"al-'aqabb shi'ashi'arr suriya,suriya,"" al-Thawraal-Thawra (Augus(Augustt 66,, 2007)2007),, http://thawrhttp://thawraa .alwehda.gov.sy.alwehda.gov.sy.. 88. OccasionallOccasionallyy BashaBasharr al-Asad,ai-Asad, SaladinSaladin,, and the DomDomee of the RocRockk can be founfoundd togethertogether,, sucsuchh äass iinn ththee courtyarcourtyardd ooff ththee handicrafthandicraftss markemarkett iinn ththee TekkiyaTekkiya,, DamascusDamascus,, abovabovee a shoshopp entranceentrance;; informatioinformationn (fal(falll 20052005)) courtescourtesyy ooff JosepJosephh AA.. GreenGreen,, HarvarHarvardd SemitiSemiticc MuseumMuseum.. ThiThiss kinkindd ooff imageimagess doedoess nonott belonbelongg ttoo ththee govgov­- ernment'ernment'ss propagandpropagandaa bubutt ttoo privatprivatee devotiodevotionn ttoo ththee PalestiniaPalestiniann causcausee anandd al-Asadai-Asad.. 8989.. DjarouehDjaroueh,, MawsuaMawsu'att al-'umlat al-waraqiyya al-suriyya, 532-533532-533,, nono.. SSYY 196196.. OOnn JulJulyy 2424,, 20102010,, a neneww serieseriess ooff banknotebanknotess (50,100(50, 100,, 202000 SPSP)) werweree issuedissued,, datedatedd 20092009.. ThesThesee araree almosalmostt devoidevoidd ooff ananyy partpartyy oorr nationanationall propagandapropaganda,, depictindepictingg famoufamouss SyriaSyriann archaeologicaarchaeologicall artifactsartifacts,, historicahistoricall monumentsmonuments,, ththee AsaAsadd librarylibrary,, anandd ththee buildinbuildingg ooff ththee issuinissuingg authorityauthority,, ththee CentraCentrall BankBank.. OnlOnlyy ththee statustatuee iinn fronfrontt ooff ththee librarylibrary,, showinshowingg al-Asaal-Asadd äass a scholarscholar,, oonn ththee bacbackk ooff ththee fifty-pounfifty-poundd notenote,, iiss a referencreferencee ttoo ththee civiliaciviliann sidsidee ooff ththee regimeregime.. ThThee banknotebanknotess werweree designedesignedd bbyy RoberRobertt KaiinaKalina,, designedesignerr ooff ththee Euro-banknotesEuro-banknotes,, andand printedprinted byby thethe OsterreichischeÖsterreichische

8800 STEFASTEfANN HEIDEMANHEIDEMANNN Banknoten- und Sicherheitsdruck GmbH. (http://banknotesworld.net/News/?x= entry:entry100812-125920). I am grateful to Essam Abou Fakher, Oldenburg, for ~re~~. . 90. Slogans such as "Suriya Allah hamiha" (Syria, may God protect her) could be seen in November 2007 at the entrance ofthe Suq al-Hamidiyya. 91. Posters depicting a marathon as a mass rally for the prisoners of war of Golan were seen August 25, 2005, in Damascus. Moreover, a dove on a Syrian flag as illuminated symbol of hope for the peaceful regaining of the mountain ridge was observed at the headquarters of the Syrian weekly al-]awlan in Damascus on November 6, 2007. 92. In the early 2000s, Saladin was very present in Syrian television. Beginning in 2001, thirty episodes of the series ai-Nasir Salah ai-Din al-Ayyubi, by the Syrian director Hatim 'Ali (b. 1962) and the writer Walid Sayf, were broadcast, illustrating Saladin's life based on Arabic sources. More experimental and provocative was the series by the Syrian producer and director Najdat Ismail Anzour, broadcast also in 2001: al-Bahth 'an Salah ai-Din (thirty episodes). It searched for the "Saladin of our time," exploring the concepts oftolerance, and of dialogue between religions and cultures before the background ofcontemporary Middle Eastern conflicts. In 2005 Anzour, together with the writer Hassan M. Yousef, produced an art house version of it called Ruya Ii-Salah ai-Din / A Vision for Saladin, in which the Syrian writer and the American writer PeterJoseph are engaged in an e-mail chat about the possible role ofSaladin in the contemporary problem-ridden Middle East. See Hasu, "Salah ai-Din al-Ayyubi shakhsiyyat al-marhala bayna shashatay al-sinima wal-tilifiziyun." 93. For previous Arab film adaptations of the Saladin topic see Shafik, Arab Cinema, 169-70. On the pre-release controversy on the film see Robb, Ridley Scott, 144-51, esp. 149. 94. Ghassan Massoud is a renowned Syrian actor and the author of several theater plays: (http://ghassanmasoud.com). He also portrayed aI-Qadi al-Fadil in the television series ai-Nasir Salah ai-Din in 2001. 95. I am grateful to Joshua Landis, who attended the premiere in Damascus, for this information. Personal communication, April 13, 2006. 96. Hasu, "Salah aI-Din al-Ayyubi shakhsiyyat al-marhala bayna shashatay al­ sinima wal-tilifiziyun." Although he admitted that the "West" discovered first the importance of Saladin, he considered the West's image of Saladin basically nega­ tive, in light of the confrontation between Muslims and Christians, and the lost Crusades. 97. On the role of Saladin in Syrian and Arab textbooks, and the emphasis on the "Arabs" as opponents of the Crusaders instead of the "Muslims" in Syrian textbooks, see Determann, "The Crusades in Arab School Textbooks," 208, 211. 98. Interview by Roumani, "A Modern Saladin Speaks His Mind." Additional interviews with Ghassan Masoud on his role as Saladin can be found in "A Dream Role: Ghassan Massoud on Salah ai-Din, Syrian Actor and Making It Big," and "Shakhsiyyat Salah aI-Din," http://ghassanmasoud.com/ar/. 99. Lincoln, Walter Scott and Modernity, 106, asserts a "clear influence" of The Talisman ort Ridley Scott's movie.

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