A Case Study Saverio Giovacchini*

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January 2011 Journal of Global Analysis

The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Saverio Giovacchini*

In 2004 Hollywood produced three purportedly blockbuster epic films: Troy, King Arthur and Alexander. Many critics suggested a direct link between the 1950s “sword and sandal” epic and this new crop of movies. Similarities between the two cycles certainly exist but in this essay I want to emphasize a crucial difference between the contemporary, cosmopolitan, epic and the previous, more nation-bound, 1950s cycle. Rather than being in tune with key elements of American foreign policy, the new cycle of “sword and sandal” films offers a somber assessment of American imperial adventures. I shall contend, in fact, that the new crop of epic films had to choose between two generic conventions that are, at present, not compatible. On the one hand, epic films had traditionally been the bearers of the foreign policy vision of the country that produced them. On the other, their inflated budgets made them dependent on an international market. Deeply aware of a globalized and rising opposition to US foreign policy and of the fact that foreign box office now exceeds the domestic take of a blockbuster, it may be no wonder that the makers of these films chose to craft them into citizens of the world.

Keywords: Iraq War, Blockbuster cinema, American Foreign Policy, Anti-Americanism.

Saverio Giovacchini Associate Professor History Department University of Maryland College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA www.cesran.org e-mail: [email protected] Ph: 301 405 8406 Journal of Global Analysis, * Saverio Giovacchini is Associate Professor at the University of Maryland. He is currently the direc- Vol. 2, No. 1, 2011 tor of the Nathan and Jeanette Miller Center for Historical Studies at the University of Maryland. www.cesran.org Journal The Cosmopolitan Epics of of 2004: A Case Study Global Analysis

Hollywood cinema has often reproduced the self-conscious American fascination with empires noted by many cultural critics and historians.1 As is well known, many of the “sword and sandal” epics of the fifties dealt with empires, be it the Roman, Macedonian, or even the Egyptian kind. Closer to the present, the first few years of the 21st century have been a heady time for empire, which has been extensively dealt with both in American cinema and in the other media.2 In 2004, Hollywood produced three purportedly blockbuster epic films about empires: Troy, King Arthur and Alexander. Many critics then suggested a direct link between the 1950s “sword and sandal” epic and this crop of movies. In the aftermath of the box office onslaught of Gladiator, New York Times’s Herbert Muschamp wrote that the Gladiator kind of films are a throwback to the Eisenhower age of Normalcy of the 1950s.3 When Troy came out, Variety noted that the film shared “the same pros and cons as a standard-issue historical spectacle of the 50s: great production values, spectacular battles and some fine actors in grand roles on the one hand; hokey dialogue and insipid romance and dull interstitial downtime between set pieces on the other.”4 Similarities between the two cycles abound. Like the previous “sword and sandal” cycle, the early 21st century one was made of blockbusters commanding a vast array of resources and enormous budgets, all above the $100 million mark. The visual exhibitionism of the former cycle was meant to sway spectators away from their TV, just like the grandiosity of the sets of the latter cycle was meant to remind viewers of the advantages of taking in a film in a movie theater rather than in front of a TV or a computer screen. Like their 1950s predecessors, these films were also quite cavalier

1 Gore Vidal, Screening History, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992, p. 58. On classic Rome and Ameri- can political culture see, among the many examples, Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787, New York, Norton, 1969. On Rome and American cinema see especially Derek Elley, The Epic Film, New York, Routledge, 1984, which is a good introduction to the epic genre. See also Peter Bondanella, Imperial City, Roman Images in the Modern World, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina, Press, 1987 and Donald T. McGuire, Jr., Sandra R. Josbel, and Margaret Malamud (eds.), Imperial Projections: Ancient Rome in Modern Popular Culture, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, University Press, 2001. 2 See Michael Ignatieff “How to Keep Afghanistan from Falling Apart: The Case for a Committed American Imperial- ism” New York Times, 28 July, 2002, p. E1; John Ikenberry, “America’s Imperial Ambition” in Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No.5, 2002, p.44-60, Sebastian Mallaby, “The Reluctant Imperialist: Terrorism, Failed States, and the Case for American Empire”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 2, 2002, p.2-7; Max Boot, “The Case for the American Empire”, Weekly Standard, Vol. 7, No. 5, October 15 2001, p.27; Robert Kaplan, Warrior Politics, New York, Vintage, 2003. For a review of this literature see John Bellamy Foster, “The Rediscovery of Imperialism”, Monthly Review, Vol. 54, No.6, 2002, p. 1-16. 3 New York Times, 30 April 2000, p. 2.

4 Variety, 10 May 2004, p. 46. Cosmopolitan Epics ofThe 2004: A Case Study

9 10 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of n erdcn hsoia knowledge. historical reproducing in embodied in Cold War legislation, such as the 1948 Smith-Mundt Act. 1948 Smith-Mundt the as such legislation, War Cold in embodied was that notion a America, selling of way a fact, in was, films these Selling empires. administrationEisenhower the of policy the of success relative the to testament a probably was abroad hostility universal with thefifties of epic embodied a profoundly American vision of foreign affairs. That this vision TheAmerican was not met or “American.” “Hollywood,” nation-bound more the and “cosmopolitan” terms the between tension productive a establish to want I offer a somber assessment of it. I name these 2004 films “cosmopolitan epic” because “sword and sandal” films that, rather than promoting the American agenda, seemed of to cycle new the of novelty relative the however,here,is emphasize to want I What global in its scope, benevolent in its intent, and benign in its effects.” inevitably as it that framed power U.S. a discourse of of production the “to weretied development of America’s own, more informal, imperial project. Thus, Hollywood epics condemned the policy exertions This of circles. European imperialismpolitical while Americancommenting in favorably onvogue the in that with tune in was which view, Melani McAlister has argued, the 1950s/1960s cycle embodied a distinct foreign policy with American foreign visionat thetime. well fit bureaucrats, Roman villainous their of accent Oxford the by revealed often imperialism, European of criticism outspoken fairly their as “American”insofarwere resonate negatively outside ofnot the USA. did crisis, Suez 1956 the during stance moderate a and Europe, Western to aid financial rights, civil domestic of matter the in campaign relations public aggressive an imperialism, European of stalwarts the of criticism moderate on policy,centering foreign Eisenhower’s of supremacy” “benevolent the that evidence is movies these of international success foreignThe of audiences. kindness the needed likeepics, the selling, however, tends to exclude complete coercion, and expensive blockbuster films, been a tradition of the “sword and sandal” film inside and outside Hollywood. outside and inside film sandal” and “sword the of tradition a been by historical informed hardly was film epic new the issues, 6 5 10 9 8 7 Interpretation of a Brief History”, TheJournalofAmerican History , NewYork Makdisi,Ussama Universityalso ‘Antiamericanism’ See “ 110-12. Press,p. 2004, Arab the in An World: Shoat, “A Conversation Andrew in Khalidi” Rashid with and Ross Kristin (eds.), Ross 1956 Suez New York, Simon and Schuster, 1983. For France see Maurice Vaïsse “Post Suez France” in Louis and Owen (eds.), Barnett, J. Richard see GermanyWest For tion to the Vietnam War” James Edward Miller “Ambivalent about America: Giorgio La Pira and the Catholic Left in Italy from Nato Ratifica- Owen (eds.), light ofpresent needs”seeMariaWyke, For an analysis of the Italian and American “sword and sandal” film and the way it “reformulated [the past] in the History, Oxford: Blackwell, 2004,p.16-30. Winkler,Martin See “GladiatorTraditionthe and Historical of Cinema”, (ed.), Winkler Martin crisis see Donald Neff, Donald see crisis iak, On “benevolent see supremacy” McAlister, On theSmith-Mundtactanditscultural missionsee Richard Pells, NotLike Us, Movies, or, “Santa Maria,ItHadSlippedMyMind” Wood, Michael Superflux” the “Shake Wood, Michael by essay famous the see aspect this On University ofCalifornia Press, 2001,p.46. McAlister, Melani Cold War and Civil Rights, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2001. On Eisenhower policy during the Suez , p. 335-346. For the perception of the U.S. in the non-Western world during the Suez Crisis see Ella see Crisis Suez the during non-Western world the in U.S. the of perception the For 335-346. p. , Suez 1956. The Crisis and Its Consequences, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1989. For the Italian case, see Epic Encounters. Culture, Media, and US Interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000 East, Middle the in Interests US and Media, Culture, Encounters. Epic Warriors at Suez, at Warriors The United States and the European Alliance since 1945 Projecting the Past, London,Routledge, 1997. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1981; William Roger Louis and Roger and Louis Roger William Schuster,1981; and Simon York, New The Alliance. America. Europe. Japan. Makers of the Postwar WorldPostwar the of Makers Japan. Europe. America. Alliance. The Epic Encounters 5 Centered on meditations on current political current on meditations on Centered 10 In 1955 Martinique intellectual Aimé Césaire 8 , New York, ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1975,p.165-188. the old and crumbling European crumbling and old the vis a vis , 43-83. On Eisenhower and civil rights see Mary Duz Vol. 89,No.2,2002,p.549. New York, BasicBooks, 1997,p.62. Ti hs long has This akribéia. , Oxford, Berg, 1999, p. 127-150. Anti-Americanism 7 The 1950s films Gladiatorand Film : 9 h at of act The America in the in America , NewYork, , Berkeley, , 6 As - , to craft theseepicmovies into citizens ofthe world. currentlyexceeds domesticthe take blockbuster, a of makers the chose films these of world popular opinion. It may be no wonder that, deeply aware that foreign box office to forced were films choose these between reflecting highly unpopular foreign policies or making concessions to of producers The epics. cosmopolitan the for possible not was strategy double This world. the over all money made had they supremacy, thatthe policy 1950s epics had been able to foreign meet both goals. Imbued with Eisenhower’s benevolent of Eisenhower’s popularity relative the to testament a is It budgets. enormous their offset tomarkets foreign tap to necessity their nationaland foreign policies to ofloyalty tradition movies’ epic the incompatible: become had between two conventions choose generic to had thatfilms cosmopolitan cropepic of In 2004, when the cosmopolitan epics came out, outright opposition to American to foreign opposition waspolicy rise. the on outright out, came epics cosmopolitan the when 2004, In USA. the apossible intentions of neo-imperialist the givenas thought,Césaire myopic choice, a -- liberator” country at that looking that were to used getting and with Europe” America “toward turning so “disgusted were activists anti-colonialist that worried oa lgos ht r, n un dpce a dsilnd cvlzd technologically civilized, disciplined, as adept, andinvincible. depicted turn, in are, that legions Roman to resistance tribes’ German barbaric the of portrait campy most a with begins and sturdy,Crowe),protagonist,the its (Russel general,Maximus as imperial honest,has, which Scott’s film, Ridley in military imperial the of portrait the celebratoryof nature the highlighting in right is W.PeterRose professor classics Commodus, Emperor the (Richard Aurelius Though Marcus Harris). emperor, good the and Phoenix), (Joacquin Commodus preferring instead project, to personalizeimperial evil and American, good, respectively,or inRoman, the corrupted emperor,the on judgment passing with unconcerned empires, America and European of fate the on meditation model, its tragic a into history with Roman translated which contrast1964), Mann, (Anthony Empire In Roman supremacy. military U.S. cocky and Shot in 1999 and released in 2000, abroad, aswell asdomestically. profitable just when the U.S. foreign policy in Vietnam became increasingly unpopular h sces f ily ct’ fl (8 mlin olr i te S and456million USA the worked in and out came “Gladiator genre. the revive to contributed surely worldwide)dollars million (187 film Scott’s Ridley of success The 12 11 15 14 13 Blackwell, 2004,p.150-72. as ColdWar ‘Epic’”inAlanNadel, “God’sNadel, WarTenAlan Cold Widescreen:The culturesee and the epics and Law1950s On Commandments Monthly Review Press, 2000,p.76-77. Aimé Césaire, Discourse on colonialism, trans. Joan Pinkham, with an introduction by Robin D.G. Kelley, New York, See Peter W. Rose “The Politics of Politics “The RoseW. Peter See 2005, p.204-08. Edward Jay Epstein, from abroad”, TheEconomist, 17February 2005,p.21. press.org/report/206/a-year-after-iraq-wa 2004. March 16 War” Iraqi the after Year A “ Centre Research Pew in data the example for See 11 It is, perhaps, no coincidence that the 1950s epic film cycle ceased to be to ceased cycle film epic 1950s the that coincidence no perhaps, is, It ee mr ta is rdcso, ae is ili ot of out villain its makes predecessor, its than more even Gladiator, The Big Picture. The New Logic of Money and Power in , Hollywood New York, Random House, 15

13 Containment Culture Contrary to Americanthe new1950s, the the of epics 12 ” in Martin M. Winkler (ed.), Winkler M. Martin in Gladiator” Gladiator reflects a pre 9.11 world of unquestioned (Accessed 12 January 2010). See also “Anti-Americanism: The view “Anti-Americanism: The also See 2010). January 12 (Accessed r , Durham,Duke University Press, 1995,p.90-116. 14 seemed, overall,seemed, Gladiator Gladiator. Film and History , and Film Gladiator. h Fl o the of Fall The http://people- Oxford, Journal of Global Journal of Analysis 11 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 12 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of being shot on the prodigiousgreatlifethe the Macedonian on of shot being films two but one not were there 2003, By set. gargantuanMoroccan a of sands the into and drawer the of out it Crowe’s propelled of vehicle success the until decade a for script Stone’s Oliver and Vidal Gore fact, saw it said ‘whoa! Maybe we should go back and make this kind of pictures.’” of kind this make and back go should we Maybe ‘whoa! said it who saw Hollywood in “Everybody explains. Intermedia of Borman Moritz well,” really predecessors. its 1950s to the of epics cosmopolitan exhibitionism 2004 of the closest visual the film this the make settings vast and cousin), warrior’s the into turned is Patroclus, but however, screens, American hit to films not epic was major the first of The 1941, works, preceding Petersen’s Like 9.11. American the on meditation sophisticated a movie, by David Benioff, whose novel, whose Benioff, David by golden boy for television. Macedonian the on miniseries a shoot to supposed was Gibson Mel all, it of top On Manfredi.Valerio by novel the on based script a and lead the in Caprio Di Leonardo own his for shooting in Morocco, Baz Luhrman was scouting locations in North Africa and Australia tla idsr ams imdaey ea t pudr ih ito oc, a.k.a. Fosco, Pietro with plunder to Pastrone,Giovanni began immediately almost industry the which heroes, Italian and tales of reservoir appealing an was War Trojan The camps. Hollywood and Italian into sharply divide progenitors that own its on builds film The Briseis (Rose Byrne). by city,walledkilled the of burning the during but Greece to return his upon die not does he screen.Thus, city,on the punished of mustbe and culprit the Agamemnonis In Petersen’sIn Greek classics. the earlier, Agamemnon allotted by – deathone early the than is, that an to him sending in scruples no has film depravity,man’sthe the Given dominion. his expand to pretext a as except Kruger), (Diane Helen of fate the in uninterested Iliad wily Odysseus (Sean Bean). Agamemnon (Brian Cox), the “shepherd of peoples” of the the talking,”concludes men old and dying men young is “Warhumanity. in, interest for,patience or no playershave main whose game power a is war that Troysuggests opposed to the poem, encompasses the entire ten-year span of the war. as film, Like the though even little fairly figure women films, Petersen’spreceding In in like power hierarchies. of theunderpinnings and bonding male on meditation 19 18 17 16 . The linearity of its story, its conservative sexual economy (Achilles’s lover, (Achilles’s economy sexual conservative its story, its of linearity The Troy. , is clearly the villain of the movie, bent on destroying a rival empire and obviously In the Line of Fire of Line the In Storia eilcinema See Paolo Cherchi Usai, 296-324. Hol lywood the Historical Epic” in of Barry Keith GrantA Phenomenology (ed.), Splendor’ and “Surge Sobchak, Vivian see film epic the of exhibitionism the On Ibid., 265-66. Stephen Lavington, OliverStoneVirgin, London, Books LTD., 2004 ,p.264. (1981), the account of a doomed mission by a German U-Boot in U-Boot German a by mission doomed a of account the (1981), Boot Das Alexander the Great, the Alexander , as opposed to Homer’s to opposed as Troy, 18

Troy was directed by German filmmaker Wolfgang Petersen and scripted , Roma, Elleu, 2004,p.61-65. La Guerra di Troia di Guerra La Giovanni Pastrone, Firenze, La Nuova Italia, 1986 (1993), and (1993), 17 h 25 The slated to be produced by Dino De Laurentiis with Laurentiis De Dino by produced be to slated (2000), Storm Perfect The (1910). th gone Sie e’ homonymous Lee’s Spike grounded Hour, Film Genre Reader III, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2003, p. Iliad 19 had lain dormant for almost for dormant lain had Alexander Generally speaking, Italians tended to tended Italians speaking, Generally , which famously ends before the fall the before ends famously which , and Matteo Sanfilippo, comandante is a melancholic a is Troy . As StonewasAs . Historic Park: La Alexander Das Boot, Troy, 16 In - “glorious“Troy where destiny” willlive again of intheglory your progeny.” his about city, Aeneas foretells Cassandra the of collapse the After Achilles. and Ajax its “heroes do not distribute themselves neatly on either side of the impenetrable wall.”the of side either on neatly themselves distribute not do “heroes its match, this of rationale the endorsing But than match.”rather axis-of-evil vs “America the as context same the in situated be to was daily film’sLeftist festival French Cannes premiere, the After contemporarydiscourse. citations from verbatim like less, or more sound, lines at the beaches of the kingdom of Troy resonates deeply, while many of the characters’ the second half of 2003 and the invasion of Iraq, the arrival of the fearsome Greek fleet released, and shot was it which contextin againstthe Read building. empire and war The striking feature of the film is, in fact, the unrelenting andunmistakable critique of the great city. Helen and the humiliation of brother Menelaus just as a political opportunity to annex character, of a-moral, if abduction considersthe malefactorwho its Agamemnon and the Trojan walls. If Hector is the moral center of the film, Achilles is its most interesting, of sides both at look film makethe to Anglo-Saxonexamplestriving the closely more follows and tradition Italian headed bydevious the ignoresPetersen Agamemnon. wimpish and and Ulysses dictatorial strongly regime a Spartan and Troy of citizens” couple of lovers, caught between the benign capitalism characterizing the “industrious of screenwriterconservative ultra the Milius, John hand, other the On insurgents. Iraqi tosubmit foreign rulers”, wereto bound make among hit big a the film of bootleg the is the real hero who will go on defeating all the Greek the defeating all on go will who hero real the is Ferroni’s Aeneas In and Aeneas. culprits on arethe film, Helen for example, and Paris Trojans as light comedy light as and Greeks. Alexander Korda’s involved equally Trojans often which a story and attitude neutral more a had cinema Anglo-Saxon itself, Troy in investment mythological and ideological such no Having later the in as well as Pastrone’sfilm, in multi-year obligatory the after Italy in arrived and citadel walled the of fall the fled had who warrior,Aeneas, implications of because origins the Rome were traditionally back onetraced to Trojan nationalist in Troyrich on wasfocus city. The besieged the defendersof the on focus ol b ple fo Bb odads neve nts ih ere . uh circa 2003. February Bush W. George with notes interview Woodward’s Bob from pulled be could that -- commented ironically Belfuss John critic as – line seen,”a ever has world the 1961) and Giorgio Rivalta’s Giorgio and 1961) Troy of Horse Wooden Red Dawn (1984) who proudly supported the war in Iraq and recalled his ancestors’ 23 21 20 22 22 Thus, Agamemnon suggests that “We’ll attack them with the greatest force greatest the with them attack “We’ll that suggests Agamemnon Thus, Epic”, Boston Globe Gore” amid “Glory Belfuss, John “Well made lively and funny” commented My translation from theItalianHenceforth dialogue. alltranslations are mine. Philippe Azzouri Philippe Didier Péron, and “Troie, manicure, pasmanichéen”, Libération File, New York PublicLibrary, BillRose Collection. 1962), was recast in nationalist terms and re-focused partly, or completely, or partly, re-focused and terms nationalist in recast was 1962), 23 21 Belfuss also noted that lines like Hector’s “No son of Troy will everTroy will of son “No Hector’slike lines that noted also Belfuss and in 1956 Robert Wise made Paris and Helen into a star struck star a into Helen and Paris made Wise Robert 1956 in and , 28November 2004,p.D1. cos h Mdtraen Tu te tla story Italian the Thus Mediterranean. the across nostos 15 May 2004, p. E1. See also J. D. Connor. “The Anxious Connor.“The D. J. also See E1. p. 2004, May 15 Appeal, Commercial The Private Life of Helen of Troy (1927) recast the story Variety. La Guerra di Troia di Guerra La Variety, 14 December, 1927, n.p. rejected its Manichaeism for Manichaeism its rejectedTroy La leggenda di Enea ( di leggenda La ü noted that the film the that noted Libération including both including bermenschen by Giorgio Ferroni (The Ferroni Giorgio by , 14May 2005,p.1. Helen of Troy (1927) Clipping War of the of War 20 Journal of Global Journal of Analysis 13 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 14 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of now a Roman centurion of mixed Roman and Sarmathian origins who leads a company into the history of the last days of the Roman control of Britannia. The fabled leader is theories about untestedArthur, fairly Franzoni cast on the king away Building from the empire. myth of Camelot Roman and right the of corruption the on commentary a into film the made instead and Arthur,regarding memory celluloid of reservoir the of script conversation with its filmic the precedents, but this time cast around the scriptwriter eschewed had Franzoni verisimilitude. historical and fiction between territory of line thin the inhabit to tries film Fuqua’s ( hands ofMonty Python declare its death and, once dead, the myth could be transformed into farce by the deft Richard Wagner’s Malory’s Thomas famously most inspired that cycles, Arthur.storyof versionthe Parsifal of the and Arthurian the poems, LikeHomeric the tie it by a cable to our car’s bumperanddrag itupanddown Hollywood Boulevard.” screenwriter told [Homer’sto did assholes those whatbelieveyou “Can Homer. with done had Benioff Confederatewhat the Army,by in appalled deeds was Matthews, John legend, and history Arthurian on authority legitimate center of a enlists the film The at Fuqua. isalso empire about meditation bleak A them from prevent raping adefenseless woman. to troops own his against weapons his turned has he after just foes, his of become a world icon of freedom, Achilles dies in an unjust battle, killed by the weakestto lived and nigger”) me called ever Cong Viet (“No unjust deemed he war a fight to refused who Ali, to Troy. opposed against enterpriseAs military the join to him asks boxer: “the Trojans never harmed me,” Achilles tells Odysseus when the king of Ithaca And to make matters clearer, Benioff has Achilles“the light-footed” directly quote the defeatshe warriorsenormous byliterally likeflying butterfly a and stinging abee. like as Ali’sreplicates style directly fighting who face, white in Ali Muhammad a -- fighter supreme a foremost, and first is, He Agamemnon’splans. to subscribe derives from to refusal status his positive overall and tragic Achilles’s film, the In troops. Bush’s and cohorts Agamemnon’s between link visual more one creating thus icons, giant Hussein’s Saddam against marines U.S. by deployed manner the after Trojanstatues Troy,of city camerathe as lingers blood-thirstyon Greektopplingtroops and lassoing of outside ends film supremacy.”The “benevolent war for empire and implicitly denying the possibility of a 2005 reviving of Eisenhower’s Agamemnon’s notion that “empires are forged by is war” recasting the Trojan war as a Bresson’s Parsifal 26 25 24 cavalieri dellatavola rotonda Caserini Mario by cinema Italian the Mirroredin Reid, Howard Matthews, John Cited Lawrence in Weschler, “Valkyries over Iraq”, Harper’s, November 2005,p.73. Scythia toScythia Camelot 1904 and J. Stuart Blackton’s Stuart J. and 1904 aclt n Guinevere and Lancelot 25 and the skills of skills the and Arthur, the Dragon King, Dragon the Arthur, Harper’s “Me [sic] and my kid, we wanted to take a DVD of the thing, Parsifal King Arthur: Dark Age Warrior and Mythic Hero Mythic and Warrior Age Dark Arthur: King , New York, Garland,1994. Monty Python and theHolyGrail Monty Python (1882), had generated much footage since Edwin S. Porter’s . screenwriter David Franzoni to tell a revised a tell to Franzoni David screenwriter Gladiator 17) ol rvst h Atuin yhlg to mythology Arthurian the revisit could (1974) London, Headlines, 2001 Headlines, London, Lancelot and Elaine and Lancelot Parsifal (1912) and the Milano Film 1910 version of version1910 Film Milano the and (1912) no n lot explicit almost an into Gladiator The Iliad The and also C.S. Littleton and L.A. Malcor, L.A. and Littleton C.S. also and , New York, Gramercy Books, 2004. See also See 2004. Books, Gramercy York, New Iliad Morte d’ArthurMorte , Terry Gilliam,1975). (1911). ] with that film that with ] and inside the burning the inside and ig Arthur King 26 By 1974, Robert 1974, By (1469-70) and (1469-70) y Antoine by TroyThe ?” Re Artù e i e Artù Re From 24

head to heel in iron, to the bandit, to the to bandit, the to iron, in heel to head knight, covered the of notion immediatelyAgeassociatedthe to Middle barbaric a of er f akes i sil prtv hr. ie ay f h “ak g” films Bertelli age” theexamined, “dark of many Like here. operative still is darkness” of year “thousand the called has Bertelli Sergio of many historian Italian which depiction and cinematic tales, medieval the animates that metaphor Age” “Dark the fact, In Rome actuallyhadwithdrawn more thanhalfacentury earlier. Roman when of to 467 AD, date its setting inexplicably days by makes clear Britannia, of domination last the depicts supposedly which film, the that fact a Arthur, King in essence the of obviously history,is not Verisimilitude,Guinevere. theand King’s friend best between exchanged glances soulful, albeit of safe, a couple to sanitized is Gruffud) (Ioan Lancelot gloomy,charismatic, the and Arthur, queen, the between triangle famous the accurate,costume; hardlyskimpy, if a dons and arrows and bow wields Knightley) (Keira Guinevere queen young the Britons; Celtic-speaking the of fromDan goblet Brown’s the to fame accruing the given choice (striking Grail the mention final, heroic, stance which leads to an immortalizing death. script. The Dark Age mythology often relied on the notion that what ashis can reach Franzoni’spreoccupation of only the henot Yet is pleased. Age fatheron, Dark looks the body unfortunate first the stabs and grunts he 1938), Nevsky, in battle Eisenstein’s frozen lake S.M. famous cannibalizes that battle a (in demoted to third in command after losing his first skirmish with Artorius and his knights embodies, almost emotes, darkness. His son, Cynric (Til Schweiger), is no better. When Arthur history.” The result of this effort for verisimilitude is, according to the document attesting the“historical” legitimacyofthechart. the of edges lined and burned Europe,the completely of revealsanachronistica map [andunnamed] discovered Recently archaeological evidence sheds light Age. on his true identity.” Dark In the the following shot, the film called often period a in earlier years thousand a lived who hero real a from rose knights his and Arthur King of tale bybegins suggesting that Historians “[unnamed] agree that classical the century 15th takenis historicalmythmythologyfades,place of the film the its expertise. byAs The Round Table appears onlyasamodest prop ofalmost Shaker-like visualmodesty. the and disappears, Camelot Castus, Artorius Lucius Arthur,becomesRome. thus, by controlled territory the of borders farthest the police they as knights Sarmathian of ih imc f o hsoi ipiain, hn Akira Kurosawa’s think implications, historic not if filmic with of mixed ancestry; the knights, reduced in number to a mere seven (a number fraught commoner a now is King the mobility: social downward, radical, of case a is it – film on Sturges’s John Bunch transported to the Dark Ages,” commented the 29 28 27 is immerseda-historicalis in savagery. (StellanSkarsgård),Cedric Saxonthe king, SergioBertelli, Ibid. Boston, 19December Globe 2004,p. N16 27 ); Merlin has lost his magic and has become a local tribal chief tribal local a become has and magic his lost has Merlin Code); Vinci Da More precisely perhaps – given the wild historical inaccuracy of much of the King Arthur King The Magnificent Seven Magnificent The Corsari deltempo, Firenze, Ponte alle Grazie, 1994,p.137. is a “film of fiction-history which transmit[s] … the stereotype …the transmit[s] which fiction-history of “film a is ae relne ecnre (tik h Wild the (“think mercenaries free-lance are ) Raubritter .” Boston Globe 29 The early middle age of age middle early The King Arthur Boston Globe, “revisionist ee Samurais Seven 28 preceded ) redeemed by a does not even Alexander , as well and King Journal of Global Journal of Analysis 15 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 16 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of around thecreation ofaproto-socialist ethos.” Arthur [King self-destination… and injustice social of sense awakening an for swapped “chivalryis our people. land, Our for. destiny.” the one’s fight In choose to right we The what That’s freedom. that call would people “Some for. fighting be should they what him to explain to Lancelot tells Guinevere boundaries,” “No insurgents: Celtic the join knights his and Artorius him, to revealed Rome’s of reality the Once existence. abject subjects’ contemptible as the image of the Roman bureaucrat living in luxury in the midst of his as is do Cedric and savageharm’sCynric the in way,that sent nothing is Artoriusand that Marescotti) (Ivano Germanus Bishop Roman wily the of plotting the of because imperial their is It spectators’contempt. and the to Romans committed be to the film’s villains the feared,are bureaucracy be to guys bad the are Saxons the if Thus, Artorius sadlyremarks. exist,” not does that Rome a protect to world a wasted have “We church. Christian established conservative the with alliance perfidious a struck has that bureaucracy imperial Roman by eliminated been has Pelagianism that realize finally will He A.D.). A.D.) and 36 years after the Council of Ephesus’s condemnation of his doctrines (in 431 Rome’s official credo more than 50 years after Pelagius’s expulsion from Rome (in 418 is Pelagianismthat impression the under Inexplicably,is mission. Artoriusfact, this in to commitment Rome’s of evidence is circles power Rome’s on influence Pelagius’s and about, is Rome what is believes, Artorius Freedom, proto-liberalism. humanistic transformedis theology whose religiousa minority of member intovaguely a defined a thus birth ofthe Pelagianism, of follower a into British Artorius makes Franzoni sect, this the probable of founder than other evidence historical any from Parting Roman imperialproject. Thailand, and England are a major item of the film’sthe budget.of item million estimated major $150 a are England and Thailand, with especially but Troy contrastwith generic stark in Fuqua’sstands film sense, the this In cinema. from epic of exhibitionism cry a far settings, its of simplicity studied the by highlighted also is film the pervades that gloom The empire. Roman the of portrait for gloomy a create word a strong too is proto-socialism Perhaps have overemphasized homosexuality somewhat” in his depiction of the bisexual the of depiction his in somewhat” homosexuality overemphasized have may director “the the that stressed Fox, Lane Robin consultant film’s the including historians, though even striking, is lovers male his towards passion Farrell’sobvious Colin amendment, marriage anti-gay the of endorsement the included that agenda George of an re-election on the after Bush 2004 November W. of end the at Opening a marginality of of partake also sense they but office, box the at trajectory similar a share they do see, In other aspects, however, the contrary,the On civility. refinement, culture, of light the in immersed was it, succeeded what as 31 30 http://pro.imdb.com/title/tt0346491/boxoffic Michael Atkinson, VillageVoice The ] is actually the only action film of the summer whose narrative revolves whose summer the of film action only the actually is ] King Arthur King the dominant positions in American political debate. political American in positions dominant the vis a vis tells the story of a disillusionment, that of Artorius, with the Artorius,tellsstorydisillusionment,thatwith of thea of Alexander Alexander and , 13July2004,p.55. whose flamboyant sceneries filmed in Morocco, in filmed sceneries flamboyant whose e (Accessed 12 January 2010). (Accessed12January King Arthur Michael Atkinson noted that noted Atkinson Michael Voice Village 30

ig Arthur, King are similar. Not only, as we shall has been has civilizatrice mission but the film does film the but 31

best.” the better “to and beyond” seek “to goal single-minded his but indecision and hubris commander’s the not stressing by movie” “better a make to opportunity the missed and press, conservative the escape not could also heterosexuality.staunchIt and single-mindedness, directness, in as sexualized openly if especially leaders, on Stone’smeditation of gloom the sense, Stone has assembled, a place that is perhaps between perhaps is that place a assembled, has Stone remarked-upon then, flaws, much its of Regardless flashbacks. extensive on rely films both has and memory of Like seems appropriate butitkeeps theviewer alert,” someofthepress commented. only not policy foreignU.S. current of prism the through movie the “Viewing drawn. yet un-filmed Alexander script in an interview he gave about the just-released his remarked Stone about day” present the to up century every through right shifted Macedonian military genius. military Macedonian campaign of Alexander of Macedonia in the 4 the in Macedonia of Alexander of campaign Eastern disastrous Far ultimately and adventurous the and Hussein’sregime Saddam parallelGeorgebetweenW.Iraq,the Bush’s destroyingcontemporarywith obsession States” the to back oil the bring to East go son and father Bush were, they leftthe where resources … Alexander them. on civilization Macedonian the imposing without them respected and customs, their know towanted conquered, he countries the stayed in theatres,Italiandaily Stonetoldthe Italian hit film the far.As too pushed be easily can Alexander-G.W.nexus This Bush Like Nixon’s legacy, Alexander’s is widely debated and uncertain. which he attains only after the murder of his father), to achievement, and again to loss. Alexander is biding his time waiting for his father King Philip to concede him the throne Watergatepresident, script the for waswriting he as shot he which (1995) particular, in in and, decades two last the of course the in realized he biopics film, famous most his in antithesis between Sergeant Barnes (Tom Berenger) the and in Sergeant articulated Elias (Willemfirst Dafoe) was that project a leadership, of nature complex the analyze George W.George Bush. of first election beforethe Alexanderlong fascinated with been had director the that the Macedonian an improbable alter ego of the U.S. President, and it is also well known Alexanderwas, Americancertainlyan discourseatwith odds thatrediscovered had 36 35 34 33 32 37 38 , in fact, Stone casts the story of Alexander through the uncertain prism uncertain the through Alexander of story the casts Stone fact, in Nixon, 38 See the interview with Stone by Gavin Smith in Smith Gavin by Stone with interview the See See Lavington, Stone Oliver , p.260-64. La Repubblica, (Rome, Italy), 2005, p.44. 11January (Memphis,TN),25November Appeal The Commercial 2004,p.M1. New York Times,20 November 2004,p. 14. Silet, Stone Oliver Interviews, p.185.Originallyin Silet (ed.),OliverStone Interviews, Jackson, University Press ofMississippi, 2001,p.159-171. Washington Times 34 Stone’s emphasizes also film Alexander’s bisexuality 35 To be sure, the film seems part of Stone’s to project of long-standing part seems film Tothe sure, be , 16 January 2005,p.B8. , 16January has a classical three-act structure going from loss (as loss fromstructure going three-act classical a Alexanderhas (1986). Stone revisited this theme in several of the of several in theme this revisited Stone (1986). Platoon takes its place in the gallery of charactersthatof gallery the in Alexanderplace takesits 32 dutifully reported how Stone how reported dutifully Times Washington The Given Stone’s outspoken opposition to the invasion of invasion the to Stone’sopposition outspokenGiven that as opposed to Bush “AlexandertoRepublicaBush La opposed thatas Sight and Sound and Sight Cineaste th century B.C. was almost immediately almost was B.C. century , Vol. 22,No, 4,1997,p.38-42. , Vol. 6, No. 3, 1996, p. 6-9. Now in Charles L. P.L. Charles in Now 6-9. p. 1996, 3, No. Vol.6, , Alexanderthe Likeof . biopic the (1991) and (1991) JFK , a traita thatwouldmake 36 “His reputation has . In this In Nixon. Nixon. Nixon 33

37 Journal of Global Journal of

Analysis 17 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 18 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of season’sbiggestdisappointments.” only $34 million. $34 only leadership, and war. In a polarized American market, they somehow fell through the through fell somehow they market,American polarized war.a and In leadership, policy, foreign militarized on view (Agamemnon) egomaniac or (Alexander), manic heroes(Artorius),communicated deliveredtheir theydisillusioned speeches, When a scenes. uplifting or iconic lacked overall and long, were films these scenes, battle of market. With the partial exception of Given the somber mood of these films, these epics were a fairly unlikely bet in the U.S. estimated at more were than180milliondollars. which blockbuster, this of costs production the recoup to necessary those to close even not but sure, be to numbers respectable -- run domestic its of end the at of U.S. release. It grossed 125 dollarsmillion in one month, and a total of 133 millions Brad Pitt’s star status, opened strongly with a take of $46 million over its first weekend three cosmopolitan epics failed more or less miserably. its budget on the domestic market alone. recouped than more already had film comedy the month a after but 2004), Roth, family (Joe Kranks the of release Thanksgiving the accompanied Alexander, only go so far in helping a movie especially when its release, like that of however, reviews, good or Bad reviews. positive or mixed of 55% modest a collected notes positive for of Rottentomatoes.com, to According office. box domestic slim very a reviewsand bad of majority a collected films three All market. domestic US the on badly collapsed epics cosmopolitan The to net not more than $40 million in the U.S. the in million $40 than more not net to expectedwas and millions $30 only grossed had epic Stone’sOlivermillion 7th, $150 100 million dollar million 100 and Arthur’s King Bruckheimer. film was even more striking given the impressive batting average of his producer, Fuqua’s of Jerry failure The dollars. million 52 only grossed had film the 2004, October in RonBurgundy of Legend Man: Anchor both by bypassed and million $15 only grossing Reporter Times. 39 40 44 43 42 41 44 garnered 73 millions at the U.S. box office. See office. box U.S. the at millions 73 garnered See of 2004. June Reporter14 Hollywood , 2010). January thatbetter did them of All 172. 151. out views com/m/Tro New York 2005,p.E1. Times,11 January http://pro.imdb.com/title/tt0346491/boxoffic News Times/Global Financial Wire,7December 2004. New York Times,7 September, 2004,p. E1.

as “the biggest disappointment” of the weekend. It finished third overall, third finished It weekend. the of disappointment” biggest “the as Troy’s box officesee occurs during a holiday season. Ninety-seven percent of negative reviewsnegative of percentNinety-seven season. holiday a during occurs www.rottentomatoes.com/m/alexande Troyand y, www.rottentomatoes.com/m/christmas_with_the_Krank 43 batting average was better: 114 out of 209. out 114 better: was average batting Troy ’s performance in the U.S. market was catastrophic. The catastrophic. was market U.S. the in Alexanderperformance’s King Arthur King

was conclusively termed “megaflop” by the by “megaflop” termed conclusively was Alexander King Arthur King received only 14% positive reviews. The percentage The reviews. positive 14% only receivedAlexander King Arthur King http://pro.imdb.com/title/tt0332452/boxoffic with 4 positive nods out of 112. By 7 January 2005, however, 2005, January 7 By 112. of out nods positive 4 Krankswith opened on July 7 July on opened had a cumulative box office take of 125.7 millions. For a general review For millions. of 125.7 cumulative boxoffice Troy a take had was better,was only and 32% so, slightly at only but , concluded , 41 Neither did worsedid Neither than Troy, r; (Adam McKay,run U.S.(Adam its of end Atthe 2004). e (Accessed 12 January 2010). (Accessed12January www.rottentomatoes.com/m/kingarthur, 39 http://pro.imdb.com.title/tt0388419/boxoffic which had Pitt’s buffed up body and its share Instead it was at the U.S. box office that all 40

42 The New YorkNew The Times, By January 28 January By th (Sam Raimi, 2004) and 2004) Raimi, (Sam II Man Spider and was saluted by the by saluted was and King Arthur King e Troy, banking on the appeal of s. (Accessed 12 January 2010). (Accessed12January has 25 positive or neutral re neutral or positive 25 Alexanderhas AlexanderByDecember . recorded 55 positive reviews out reviews positive 55 recorded th the film had grossed had film the hita wt the with Christmas “werethe among King Arthur www.rottentomatoes. e (All accessed 12 accessed (All Hollywood Hollywood New York New Kranks Troy and had - by the confrontation between the two countries over the invasion of Iraq. negatively been affected had which productions Hollywood of office box German the running all over the world. In August, fatetheir aided almostoverseas.cases, some compromise,in but not did failure American Their remarkable. more even USA the in failure their offset release. This makes the size of the success of these films ANSA, termed the film’s performance “exceptional.” performance film’s the termed ANSA, in “impress[ing] thegatekeepers offoreign, video, markets.” andotherancillary reportedwidely USA, tradethe in central press,turn-out a audience is element other distribution deals). Edward Epstein concludes in his “locomotive” for a as movie a use to studio the of ability exhibitorsexample,(forthe defines how movie usually negotiating with distributorshave foreign Hollywood a in will and studiobargaining a much power of performance theatrical domestic the moneyscollectedforresponsiblefrom domestic the refreshment Furthermore, sales. from home entertainment, television rights, revenues and promoting merchandizing -- and beside mouth being directly of word positive generating in element central the considered generally is multiplexes US in film Hollywood a of performance theatrical The market. American on the performance a weak of negative effect potentially the complex ofthis accountingitem and one isonly not now necessarily is thefilm largest. a of Yet one office can box theatrical by The no calculate. means to discount difficult and the ensuing collapse of the studio system the revenues of a movie are increasingly Economic analyses of the film industry show that after the 1948 “Paramount decision” that they survived thisdomestic failure. is important blockbuster. more Hollywood even is a what of constituency Yet natural the alienated -- press mainstreamU.S. in garneredthey thatreviews bad of slew the of case the in and, mood, length,somber tothrongwilling theatres exhibiting crack; their apparent adherence to the “sword and sandal” genre alienated the crowds the US domestic market. domestic US the from come had million $52 only which of worldwide, million $194 made had Castus Arthur that May 25 May n o Nvme when November of end in the USA, but Oliver Stone’s epic was more victorious as it began its offshore crusade Variety commented that “ Alexander 45 50 49 48 47 46 had returned more than its costs on the overseas market and so had so and marketoverseas the on costs its than more returned had Troy . Strikingly, by the end of October 2004, the tale of the reluctant hero Artoriusreluctant hero the of tale the 2004, October of end Strikingly,the . by See Epstein, See “Paramountstudiothe of end the and Case” system Cripps,see Thomas ANSA, 4 October 2004. http://pro.imdb.com/title/tt0349683/boxoffic ANSA, 24 May 2004. La Stampa, 25May 2004, p 32. Daily Variety , 19August 2004,p.21. Hopkins University Press, 1997,p.220. th King Arthur King , 2004, the film was ahead of all others all of ahead was film the 2004, , The Big Picture Big The beat even the juggernaut juggernaut the even beat 49 Alexander , p. 202. On the “locomotive” effect of the Hollywood hit see ibidem, p.103. On the On p.103. ibidem, see hit Hollywood the of effect “locomotive” the On 202. p. , In a case which inversely mirrored the U.S., on its Italian its on U.S., the mirrored inversely which case a In had seen distribution outside of the U.S., of outside distribution seen had may be fighting a losing battle for box office glory (Michael Moore, 2004) and their Moore,and Fahrenheit(Michael 2004) 9.11 Daily Variety noted how the film had bumped up e (Accessed 12 January 2010). (Accessed12January Alexanderpro-Gay, stancestogether -- with at the box office. box the at II Spiderman outside 47 and the main Italian news agency,news Italian main the and 48 By January 2005, it was clear was it 2005, January By the U.S. market, which largely The Big Picture Hollywood High Noon High Hollywood Troygroundthe hit that a strong , Baltimore:, Johns 46 In Italy, by 50 By the By 45 Daily

King Journal of Global Journal of Analysis 19 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 20 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of rq e i eeyhn wog ad e r nw aig h cneune [f our [of consequences the paying now are we and wrong, everything did we Iraq (“in Iraq of invasion the and Bush to opposition his on capitalize openly could Stone eaig o rq WD s rs t sat wr o pseso ofIraqioil. forpossession a war start to ruse a as WMD Iraqi to evidence relating shaky of use Bush’sW. George and Troy against war his begin to pretext a as Helena use to ploy Agamemnon’s between parallel direct a drew director The of shooting the thatpress German the to stressed Petersen Wolfgang Berlin, From “hook.” marketing a as out On the European markets, the somber views of these films could be effectively played Dutch EgmondFilmandTelevision. and KG) Produckitions 3. Co. & GmbH Film und Medien (International IMF German Bros. investment,Bros. Beside scenes. Warner battle powerful its (RodrigoMexicanPrieto)filmed DP a while Anthony parts supporting in (Aristotle) British Plummer Christopher Canadian and (Ptolemy) Hopkins and role title the in Farrell Collin Irish sported it though American speaking, Comparatively Kruger. Diane Bana, German Eric Australian and Gleeson, Brendan thespian Irish Bloom, Orlando Bean, Christie, Sean Julie O’Toole, Peter Cox, Brian actors British by led being were Malta and Petersen,MexicanIts Bulgarianhelm. atand its extras in built Mexicofightingsets on Pitt, Brad to Next cast. Europeanmarketable, opponents, their as Schweiger Til German and Marescotti, Ivano ItalianSkarsgård, Stellan Swedish and roles main the in Keira Knightley Gruffud, Ioan Owen, Clive stars British With film. a of points selling its intended audience through television ads the in true especially wheremarkets European was This films. these for point selling good a of was nature casts international their the First, USA. the in been had it than abroad easier was much epics cosmopolitan the of marketing the that however, ignored, Variety Daily did not. large scale films depicting historical struggles,” historical depicting films scale large to befuddling vaguely proved Arthur, King last weekend.”last internationally, just as internationally, just of producers multinational The interview in the German film magazine European appearances the actor openly criticized U.S. foreign policy -- especially in an his in yet Aniston, Jennifer from divorce his about speaking solely was Pitt Brad USA but notat allintheUSA. 55 54 53 52 51 lnacademic/? (AccessedFebruary 4, 2011). 2004 December 7 News, Daily Turkish Associated Press Worldstream –German, 20April2004. 2004. OnPetersen’s view seealsoANSA, 9May 2004. in Petersen with interviews the See Ibid. Daily Variety , 30November 2004,12. 51 The overseas success of the film, while repeating that of that repeating while film, the of success overseas The also received production money from British Intermedia Film, Intermedia British from money production received Troyalso did recently.”did Troy 54 given the financial impossibility for Hollywood to blanket to Hollywood for impossibility financial the given – overlapped with the beginning of the invasion of Iraq.invasionof the of Troybeginning the with overlapped General-Anzeiger (Bonn) General-Anzeiger “expect[ed] the film to do much better much do to film the “expect[ed] Alexander http://www.lexisnexis.com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/hottopics/ ig Arthur King Cinema 55 : “aud[ience]s overseas enjoy overseasVariety“aud[ience]s Daily : In the launching of launching the In – star recognition is often one of the main which was widely reported in Germany had a German director,WolfgangGerman a had Troy 52 anrd n mrsie ad quite and impressive, an garnered something that American audiences American that something , 13 May 2004, p. 33, and also and 33, p. 2004, May 13 , a oeal solidly overall was Alexander in Europe, in Alexander , 13 May,13 Welt, Die and Troy 53 n the In Natalia Aspesi called attention to the “many merits” of the film by the “bravo Stone” by the film the of merits” “many the attention to called Aspesi Natalia lxne ad on i “fascinating.” it found and Alexander and Bush between parallelism the see could he that Service, Newswire Spanish the Efe, Agencia to confided realizador” “polèmico November,the of end the earlier,at bow.” Spain led the way in market…. domestic the in run disappointing a after overseas ground lost recovering Stone’s and off, paid also It uoen nelcul circles. intellectual topicin European current avery imperialism,” cultural with “American concern ofhis his flop and film, theAmerican policy, foreign Bush’s to opposition his juxtaposed Stone daily Italian the interview to an In point. selling a become could critics by American dismissed been had film the that fact the and office box poor American concernsresurfaced that animate culturalthe betweendialogue Europe U.S..the and the critical discourse was kinder and gentler in Europe. In the debate about and Malaysia. and Croatia,Taiwan,Thailand, Russia, Finland, in Denmark, spot Sweden,top the claimed the that commented Variety Daily mistakes]”) pi’ yuh ic Soe s die a a io o Aeia anti-establishment.” American of icon an as admired is Stone since youth Spain’s Indeed Spain. in policy foreign that U.S.“exhib[itor]snoted and president American the of unpopularity andthe Administration Bush the to opposition long-standing Stone’s of reality the “with pride.”“with Bros to a $2 billion overseas gross as of this week.” this of as gross overseas billion $2 a to Bros million worldwide. In Italy,In worldwide. million domestic Similarly, total million. $34 its of times office box three almost – USA the outside million $88 spectacular a 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 60 L’ennemiaméricain La Repubblica, 11 January 2005, p. 44. On the debate about US cultural imperialism in Europe see Philippe Roger, Daily Variety 2005,p.6, and , 18January Daily Variety, 10December 2004,p. 72. Daily Variety, 6December 2004,p. 24. hottopics/lnacademic/? (AccessedFebruary 4,2011). 2005 January 11 Reporter.Com, Hollywood The Variety 2005,p.14. , 17January Agencia Efe, 24November 2004.Seealso LaStampa, 9November 2004,p.29. 2005. ANSA, 10 January La Repubblica 2005,p.44. , 11January Tyler May (eds.), Elaine and Wagnleitner Reinhold 1994; Carolina, North of University Hill, Chapel War , World Second the after Wagnleitner,Reinhold (ed.), Rob1993; Kroes “American Bender Thomas in ReceivingfromEnd” the View A CulturalEmpireImperialism. and Rydell, D.F.J. Bosscher, Americanization Andrew in Germany” Ross and Kristin Ross(eds.), Transformations. American in Culture Western New Japan, and Europe York, Berghahn,“Anti-Nolan, 2000; Mary (eds.), Poiger G. Uta and Fehrenbach Heide 2000; England, New of Press versity Alexander 56 Rethinking American History in a Global Age Global a in History American Rethinking n srs hs uoen rgn (emn ahr n Fec mother) French and father (German origins European his stress and 57 61 While also remarking that his work on work his that remarking also While Actually “epics like“epics Actually appears to be joining be to appears Here, There, and Everywhere.” The Foreign Politics of American Popular Culture Alexander charge with $6.9 million from 396 screens in a five-day , Paris, Seuil, 2002; Serge Regourd, Serge 2002; Seuil, Paris, , The Hollywood Reporter Hollywood The Cultural Transmissions and Receptions. American Mass Culture in Europe, Amsterdam, VU, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War. The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria in States United the of Mission Cultural War. Cold The the and Coca-Colonization tapped into an anti-Americanism rampant among rampant anti-Americanism an into tapped Alexander ’s opening was 38% ahead of ahead 38% was Alexander’sopening 64 In the prestigious cultural pages of pages cultural prestigious the In Variety 2005,p.14. , 17January debut had been “impressive” and had and “impressive” been had debut Alexander and the and Troy earned $133 million domestically and $364 and domestically million $133 earned Troy 58 This marketing strategy could easily rest on rest easily could strategy marketing This ig Arthur King http://www.lexisnexis.com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/ , Berkeley, University of California Press, 2002, p. 295-313; p. 2002, Press, California of Berkeley,University , (Online edition) remarked that “Oliver that remarked edition) (Online L’exception culturelle Last Samurai Last 62 , Anti-Americanism had begun a decade a begun Alexanderhad Stunningly, and Troy , Paris, PUF, 2002; Rob Kroes, R. W. R. Kroes, Rob PUF,2002; Paris, , helped power Warner power helped Transactions, Transactions, Transgressions, The Last Samurai Last The , p.125-143. took in took Alexander Gladiator. a Repubblica, La La RepubblicaLa , , Alexander, Hannover, Uni- 63 Even in 59 Global Journal of Analysis 21 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 22 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of evident at international film festivals and in Hollywood’s feature films.” feature Hollywood’s in and festivals film international at evident impetus anti-militarization and political increasingly “cinema’s American and policy foreign American of cartography” violent “new the between disconnect the noted Lambs, “impressive” anddeserves“to beseenanddiscussed.” (“impressionant”) because been unfair had critics American distribution. world successful a by avoided be only could which disaster” “commercial a film this make judged had critics American the that noted temps Le in the American administration’s American rationales. the in grounded events current of explanations proposing films to available necessarily not U.S. foreign policy was able to rely on transnational networks and audiences that were unexplained. The case of the cosmopolitan epic, however, reveals that the opposition to thoughtful analysis remains largely textual and the reasons why these films exist remain Kingdom a stand-in for modern day moderate Muslims. Saladin is a heroic, 12 heroic, a is Saladin moderatedaystand-in forMuslims. modern a Looking at a crop of 2007 films thatinclude films 2007 cropof ata Looking unjustly“clobbered” by American critics. co-existence, and the “perfect legs and thighs of Colin Farrell.”Colin of thighs and legs “perfect the and co-existence, peaceful and tolerance of project Alexander’s India, in scenes battle the were which Lietta Tornabuoni, remarked that cool as a long drink of water.” (Orlando Bloom), who is fighting Saladin (Syrian actor Ghassan Massoud) who was “as Ibelin of Balian hero, Christian bland fairly a center its at had crusades, Christian the budget films big need a global box productions, office. small than More States. United the in exclusively almost business likeBaghdad, in troopsAmerican young of foreign policy in Iraq like Laden’s version of history” by Cambridge University’s historian Jonathan Riley Smith, Bin --George “Osama termed Flamboyantly Csokas) Templarattire. and (Marton mail iron in Custer Armstrong deLusignan Guy bloodthirsty, crazed, off fighting Bull budgeted at $130 millions, was a catastrophe in the US market gathering only $47 only gathering market US the in catastrophe a was millions, $130 at budgeted uncomfortableat waythe portrayedfilm the ‘us’, crusaders[.]” the “we suggested, felt Fisk because, USA and however, UK did, the It in Fisk. Robertflop 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 peace.com/talkshop/peace/messages/647.html (Accessed4February 2011) “Watching Fisk, Robert Washington Post, 14 May 2005,p.B8. New York Times, much abroad. See Moore’s Michael 2004 October By Michael J. Shapiro, CinematicGeopolitics Le temps (Geneva, 2005,6. CH),5January La Stampa 2005,p.31. , 11January the filmsuggesting that “there issomething great insomething that failsbecause ofits own excesses.” Robertoreviewin byEscobar the also See 2005. January 10 on Ansa, the Italian News Service wrote that the battles in “Un sontuoso Kolossal gay per l’eroe guerriero visionario” In the Valley of Elah of Valley the In cpue te diain f ulm” codn toBritish according Muslims” of admiration the “captured 6May 2005,p. B1. www.pro.imdb.com/title/tt0361596/boxoffic 122010). e (AccessedJanary in Beirut” Beirut” in Heaven of Kingdom Voices of Iraq (2004) or even intelligent portraits of the pains , 70 Rendition The character of the Muslim commander was obviously had made $120 million in the U.S. but garnered almost as almost garnered but U.S. the in million $120 made had 9.11 Fahrenheit Alexander contained “some beautiful things,” among , New York, Routledge, 2009,p.37. Kingdom of Heaven , and , 65 The dean of Italianof critics, dean film The Gunner PalaceGunner Shooter 69 , Michael Shapiro has recently has Shapiro Michael Redacted, , June 4, 2005, 7. 2005, 4, June Independent, The Deceptively edited celebrations of U.S. of celebrations edited Deceptively Alexander are “not to be missed” (“imperdibili”). La Repubblica 11 January 2005, p. 45. Francesco Gallo, 23 January 2005, p. 18 which defendswhich 18 p. 2005, January 23 Ore 24 Sole Il , The Bourne Ultimatum, Bourne The harshly in order to order in harshly Alexander (2005), Ridley Scott’s film on (Michael Tucker, (Michael did 2004), s i fact, in is, Alexander 66 The Swiss critic of critic Swiss The 72 Indeed th century, Sitting http://www.voicesfor Independent’s 67 La StampaLa ’s 68

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“universal appeal.”“universal calls Izod John what movies these give to tried and movies their of reception foreign foreign markets the producers of the 1950s blockbusters were unlikely to disregard box office the of foreign jumped to 40% to reach percentage 53% in the early Sixties. Given the growing importance of the the Fifties the In markets. foreign of importance the clarity greatest with identify to began producers that 1950s the in fact in was It Spain, Mexico, Italy and France, Australia. Germany, For Hollywood Britain, global products the consequences Great of Japan, audiences: 8 national just from came office box foreign this of share lion’s the and markets non-U.S. from take entire its of 50% than more derived product global Hollywood the 2003, In option. convenient more of the indication clear a fairly Hollywood gave wall the on written figures The most. the please master to which choose to had film epic Atlantic, the the of sides both on act politicized a became movies American of consumption the which in moment a In and dabbleswithpolicyissues. achieve especially for a genre like the epic that often engages an international to context harder and harder was movies Hollywood of appeal” “universal this questioned, increasingly became vision and policy foreign American as invasion, Iraqi second the in this essay, making more than three times as much as the US box office, or $208 millions. office, box US the as much as times three than more making essay, this in with dealt have we films three the as exactly behaved however,it Abroad, millions. to give space to Indian characters and stress the necessity of human brotherhood. human of necessity the stress and characters Indian to space give to Indian one, Universal’s producers had radically modified the film’s narrative line trying massive the Benedeck’sespecially and audiences, non-American please Laslo to Eager (1954). Brigade of body textual the shaped had concerns economic how Already in 1955 former Office of War Information analyst Dorothy Jones had discovered office from 1950 to 1962 were “sword and sandal” epic films. epic sandal” and “sword were 1962 to box 1950 domestic from the office topped which movies twelve the of out six and 1956), Webb, D. vehicle, Presley’s 1956 ofElvis office domestic box the times Mille’s De B. Cecil audiences. American included films these of appeal” “universal the that remark to important is it yet, And the US. than larger were but included that audiences transnational of ear the had that films comfortable in Spain or in Rome as in Hollywood. in as Rome in or Spain comfortablein Campania or Rumanian Bessarabia respectively), educated in France or in Italy, and as Samuel Bronston (Anthony Mann, Huston, (John Laurentiis de Dino epics, 1950s the of producers 77 74 73 76 75 McAlister, Epic Encounters tiis, lavita eifilm Journal Western Europe andAmerica since 1945 tions” Currency Restric- and Quota Foreign than Unpredictable More Are Even Sensibilities “Foreign Jones, DorothyB. http://pro.imdb.com/title/tt0320661/boxoffic 122010). e (AccessedJanuary On Bronston see Mark Jankovich,Purest Knight “The of All, Nation, History and Representation in John Izod, andtheBox Hollywood Office 1895-1986 73

Films Films in Review Vol. 6. No. 9, 1955, p. 449-451. See also Thomas H. Guback, , Vol. 40, No. 1, 2000, p. 83. On de Laurentiis see Tullio Kezich andAlessandra Levantesi, 75 , Milan,Feltrinelli, 2001. Cosmopolitanism paid. Not by chance the most representative most the chance by Not paid. Cosmopolitanism , p.44. El Cid , Bloomington, IndianaUniversity Press, 1969,p.4. 1961) were Americans born abroad, (in Italian earned more than four than more earned TenCommandments , New York, ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1988,158. 76 Bronston or de Laurentiis craftedLaurentiis de or Bronston Love Me TenderMe Love The International Film Industry. 77 The Bible The But at the time of time the at But Dino. De Dino. Lauren- , 1966) and 1966) , El Cid (Robert Bengal ” Cinema 74 Global Journal of Analysis 23 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study 24 The Cosmopolitan Epics of 2004: A Case Study Analysis Global Journal of of 2004hadto positionthemselves ascitizens ofthe world. widespread and vocal. and widespread currentwith dissentAmericanforeign whom wasamong policy audiences German or Japanese, French, of sentiments the dismissing than serious less wasKansas ignoring creed and culture.” into one world the homogenizing dream of ultimately impossible ruthless, pursuinga and kingdoms withbloodshed capitulating of overrun headlong a tragic were conquests Alexander’slongevity. and turning foolhardiness) (or nerve geopolitical with brimming motivation, dubious Troyof campaignof siegea wasThe regime-changing. and nation-building of utopianism “tarnished as abroad, adventures U.S. saw epics 79 78 , 1May Times Financial 2004,p.34. 21. mist, 2 January 2003, p. 16. And “Anti-Americanism: The view from abroad” display.php3?AnalysisID=10 Pew Research Spread Centerof Anti-Americanism” “The January 24, 2005 2004. 16, p. 204. Pertinent data on “US Favorability are Rating” in Pew Research Centre “ A Year after the IraqiWar” March the relative weight of these national audiences on the box office of aHollywood film see Epstein, For 2011). 4, February http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/07/business/worldbusiness/07movie.htm(Accessed l 7 August 2006,p.C1. See Laura M. Holson, “More than Ever, Hollywood Studios Are Relying on the Foreign Box Office” (cesd aur 1 21) Se also See 2010). 12 January (Accessed http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=206) 79 At the cost of compromising their American citizenship, the epics 78 In the words of London’s of words the In (Accessed on January 12, 2010). 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Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, Johns Baltimore: Imperial ,