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A Prehistory of South America

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A Prehistory of South America Contents Preface: A Golden Age of South American Archaeology 00 Chapter 1 Archaeology in South America: A Brief Historical Overview 00 Exotic Curiosities and Cabinets of Wonder 00 Scientific Explorers, Antiquarians, and Fieldworkers 00 National Museums, National Identities, and Early Archaeologists 00 Max Uhle and Julio Tello, Pioneers in South American Archaeology 00 Twentieth-Century Archaeologies: Chronologies, Culture History, and Shifting Paradigms 00 Notes 00 Chapter 2 The Brave New World: Environmental Diversity in South America 00 Coastal Environments 00 Climatic Complexities 00 Climate Variations: Short-Term and Long-Term 00 Climate after the Last Glacial Maximum (post–26,000–19,000 BP) 00 Northern South America and the Caribbean 00 Central Andes 00 Amazonia 00 Southern Atlantic Coast 00 Patagonia 00 Summary: Regional Climate Change since the Last Glacial Maximum 00 Conclusion: Environmental Diversity in Space and Time 00 Notes 00 moore text.indd 7 5/2/14 2:18 PM viii Contents Chapter 3 The Last Ancient Homeland: The Peopling of South America 00 The “Clovis First” Hypothesis 00 Paleoindians in South America 00 Monte Verde, Chile: New Discoveries and Perspectives 00 A Broadly Populated Continent 00 More Paleoindians in Brazil 00 New Directions, New Controversies 00 Notes 00 Chapter 4 Archaic Adaptations 00 The Las Vegas Culture (10,000–6,000 BP) 00 San Jacinto I, Colombia: Intensive Plant Utilization in the Savanna 00 Orinoco River Valley, Venezuela: Foragers in the Tropical Rainforest 00 Rio Caquetá, Broad-Spectrum Foraging in the Colombian Amazon 00 Coastal Adaptations in the Atacama Desert 00 Sambaquis: Maritime Collectors and Shell Mounds on the Atlantic Coast 00 Camelid Hunters in the Pampas and the Andes 00 Conclusion: Diverse Adaptations in a Diverse Continent 00 Notes 00 Chapter 5 Origins and Consequences of Agriculture in South America 00 Key Terms and Methods 00 Places of Origins 00 From Foraging to Farming 00 Neolithic Revolution or Neolithic Evolution? 00 Divergent Agrosystems 00 Household Gardens 00 Shifting Agriculture 00 Raised Field Agriculture 00 Canal Irrigation 00 Conclusion: The Myth of the Pristine Landscape 00 Notes Chapter 6 Social Complexities: Part I 00 Divergent Formative Transitions in Ecuador and Northern Peru 00 Valdivia Culture 00 Santa Ana–La Florida, Southeastern Ecuador 00 moore text.indd 8 5/2/14 2:18 PM Contents ix Formative Transitions in Far Northern Peru 00 Formative Societies in Highland Ecuador 00 The Formatives of Amazonia 00 Monumental Earthworks in the Southwestern Amazon 00 The Formative of Coastal Uruguay 00 Conclusion 00 Notes 00 Chapter 7 Social Complexities: Part II 00 Formative Villages on the Coast of Peru 00 Huaca Prieta 00 La Paloma 00 Aspero 00 Huaynuná 00 Social Complexity and Early Urbanism: The Norte Chico and Caral 00 Complex Societies in the Casma Valley: Sechin Bajo, Cerro Sechin, and Sechin Alto 00 Hearths, Temples, and Pilgrimage Centers in the Central Andean High- lands 00 Ritual Chambers in the Central Andean Highlands 00 Kotosh 00 La Galgada 00 Chavín de Huántar: Pilgrimage Center in the Central Highlands 00 The Formative in the Titicaca Basin 00 Chiripa and Huatacoa: Sunken Courts and Stela 00 Conclusion 00 Notes 00 Chapter 8 Regional Florescences 00 Patagonia: Hunting and Gathering Variability in the Uttermost Part of the Earth 00 From the Pampas to the Paraná—Diversification and Intensification 00 Marajoara—Non-Agricultural Chiefdoms in the Amazon AD 300–1350 00 Agricultural Chiefdoms of the Western Llanos of Venezuela 00 Nasca: Ceremonial Centers and Ceramics on the South Coast of Peru 00 Conclusion 00 Notes 00 moore text.indd 9 5/2/14 2:18 PM x Contents Chapter 9 Age of States and Empires 00 The North Coast: Moche, Lambayeque, and Chimú 00 The Mochicas (ca. AD 200–850) 00 Lambayeque/Sicán (AD 750/800–1375) 00 The Chimú (ca. AD 900–1470) 00 The Central Andes: Wari Empire (AD 750–1000) 00 Lake Titicaca and Beyond: Tiwanaku (AD 400–1100) 00 Conclusion 00 Notes 00 Chapter 10 Twilight of Prehistory 00 The Amazons: Languages, Settlements, Ceramics, and Worldviews 00 Tupi-Guarani Expansions 00 The Arawak Diaspora from Northwestern Amazonia to the Antilles and the Upper Xingu 00 Central Brazil: Ring Villages and Macro-Gê Communities 00 Central Amazon Basin: Incised Pottery, Polychrome Pottery, and Palisade Villages 00 Polychrome Ceramic Complexes in Amazonia 00 Summary: The Amazons in Late Prehistory 00 Colombian Chiefdoms 00 Muisca Chiefdom 00 Tierradentro 00 San Agustin/Alto Magdalena 00 Tairona Chiefdoms of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 00 Ecuadorean Coastal Chiefdoms: Manta 00 Coastal Peruvian Kingdom: Chincha 00 Ychsma/Pachacamac—an Enduring Pilgrimage Center on the Coast of Peru 00 Conclusion 00 Notes 00 Chapter 11 Empire of the Four Quarters 00 Antecedents 00 Phases of Expansion 00 Cusco: City as Cosmos, City as Center 00 The Incas in the Provinces 00 The Edges of Empire 00 moore text.indd 10 5/2/14 2:18 PM Contents xi Creating Worlds 00 The End of Prehistory 00 Notes 00 Chapter 12 After Prehistory 00 Prehistory, History, and Archaeology in the Post-Columbian World 00 Archaeologies of Resistance 00 Unwritten Histories 00 The Past in the Present 00 Conclusion 00 Notes 00 Acknowledgments 00 Index 00 moore text.indd 11 5/2/14 2:18 PM Archaeology in South America A Brief Historical Overview 1 10.5876_9781607323334.c001 Let us come to the rational animals. We found the entire land inhabited by people completely naked, men as well as women, without at all covering their shame. They are sturdy and well-proportioned in body, white in complexion, with long black hair and little or no beard. I strove hard to understand their life and customs, since I ate and slept with them for twenty-seven days; and what I learned of them is the following. 1502 letter from Amerigo Vespucci to his patron, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici Current archaeological knowledge builds on several centuries of interest in the antiquities and monuments of South America, although interest moti- vated by very different goals and practices. The first European descriptions of South American objects and sites were the by-products of conquest. Soldiers accompanying Francisco Pizarro’s expeditions in 1532–33—such as Miguel de Estete and Pedro Pizarro—described the towns and monuments of na- tive kingdoms, in the process providing valuable accounts of the Inca Empire. The soldier-chronicler Pedro de Cieza, who arrived in America as a four- teen-year-old in the 1530s to seek the riches of the New World, was also an astute observer with an eye for detail, describing ancient road networks, fortresses, temples, and other native constructions between Colombia and Cusco. Catholic priests described the ritual artifacts and sites used by na- tive peoples, usually to replace native religion with Christianity. Father José de Arriaga’s 1621 The Extirpation of Idolatry in Peru was a descriptive guide- book to Andean religion, listing sacred places and artifacts so local Catholic priests could recognize and eliminate pagan beliefs. A more sympathetic and extraordinarily valuable document was prepared in the early 1600s by the bilingual mestizo author Guaman Poma de Ayala, who wrote a 1,400-page document, The First New Chronicle and Good Government, in which he argued that the Spanish conquest was unjust and the colonial system cruel, supple- menting his argument with hundreds of drawings illustrating Andean culture and Spanish inequities. In the early seventeenth century, Father Bernabe Cobo wrote detailed accounts of Inca religion and culture. Although none of these documents were focused on the scholarly study of South American cultures, they are valuable sources of information, particularly about the Incas. A theme that emerges from these accounts, particularly in the Andean region, was the recognition that—despite the achievements of the Inca Figure 1.1 A 1558 map of South America 2 Chapter 1: Archaeology in South America Empire—some sites were the creations of earlier peoples, often vaguely described as the huaris (Quechua for “ancestors” or “old ones.”) Some of these pre-Inca cul- tures had been recently assimilated by the Incas just before the Spanish conquest, and their names were still remembered. One of these cultures was the Chimú of the North Coast, who had been conquered by the Inca only a few decades before the Spaniards had conquered the Inca. Earlier cultures, however, were anonymous and unrecorded by Spanish chroniclers. Exotic Curiosities and Cabinets of Wonder The study of archaeological artifacts and sites had similarly indirect origins. Some objects were shipped from the New World to European monarchs as evidence of their loyal subjects’ conquests, although many artifacts made from precious met- als were melted into bullion without regard for aesthetics. As a by-product of Enlightenment concerns, formal collections of natural specimens and other curi- osities, so-called cabinets of wonder, were established across Europe, precursors to royal collections and museums (figure 1.2). In 1752 the Spanish natural historian and diplomat Antonio de Ulloa pro- posed establishing an Estudio y Gabinete de Historia Natural in Madrid that would house objects Ulloa and others had collected on their voyages. Not until 1771 did the Spanish king, Carlos III, establish the Real Gabinete de Historia Natural, issu- ing a decree to his global empire to collect and send objects of interest to Madrid. The collections included natural specimens, paintings, and other artworks, as well as antiquities. Opened in 1776 and looted by Napoleon’s forces in 1813, the Real Gabinete de Historia Natural was transformed into the Real Museo de Ciencias Naturales de Madrid, the institutional ancestor of the current Museo de America. The Spanish clergyman Baltazar Jaime Martinez de Companion, who served as bishop of Trujillo from 1778 to 1790 and whose diocese included the coast, highlands, and jungle regions of north-central Peru, prepared a remarkable nine-volume document known as Trujillo del Peru.
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