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The term is not used in the context of cultural areasnational identityor languagebecause while the majority of people in Latvia and Lithuania are Baltic peoplethe majority in Estonia are Finnic. The three countries do not form an official union, but engage in intergovernmental and parliamentary cooperation. All three are classified as high-income economies by the World Bank and maintain a very high Human Development Index. The term Baltic stems from the name of the Baltic Sea — a hydronym dating back to the 3rd century B. Erastothenes mentioned Baltia in Ancient Greek and earlier. This meaning is retained in modern Baltic languageswhere baltas in Lithuanian and balts in Latvian mean 'white'. The term Baltic states was, until the early 20th century, used in the context of countries neighbouring the Baltic Sea : Sweden and Denmark, sometimes also Germany and the Russian Empire. Throughout the 18th century to the 20th century, the Baltic states were part of the Russian Empire until the four countries gained independence in and near the end of World War I. Soviet rule ended when the three countries declared the occupation illegal and culminated with the restoration of independence to their pre-war status in when communism collapsed in Eastern Europe. In the 13th century pagan and Eastern Orthodox Baltic and Finnic peoples in the region became a target of the Northern Crusades. It was divided into four autonomous bishoprics and lands of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. Northern Estonia initially became a Danish dominionbut it was purchased by the Teutonic Order in the midth century. The majority of the crusaders A Concise History of the Baltic States clergy were German, and Baltic Germans remained influential in Estonia and most of Latvia until the first half of the 20th century: they formed the backbone of the A Concise History of the Baltic States gentry, and German served both as a lingua franca and for record-keeping. The Lithuanians were also targeted by the crusaders; however, they were able to resist and established the Kingdom of Lithuania in which later became Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It expanded to the east conquering former principalities of Kiev up to the Black sea. After the Union of Krewo inGrand Duchy of Lithuania created a dynastic union with Kingdom of Polandthey became ever more closely integrated and finally merged into the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth in After victory in the Battle of Grunwald inthe Polish—Lithuanian union became a major political and military power in the region. The Lithuanians were also targeted by the crusaders; however, they were able to defend the country from Livonian and Teutonic Orders and established the Kingdom of Lithuania in which later, after the death of King Mindaugas became Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Mindaugas was the first Lithuanian ruler who accepted Christianity. GDL became A Concise History of the Baltic States of the most influential powers in Northern and Eastern Europe in the 14th—16th century. In the Christianization of Lithuania occurred [15] - it signified the official adoption of Christianity by Lithuanians, the last pagan nation in Europe. After the victory of joint Polish - Lithuanian forces in the Battle of Grunwald inthe Polish—Lithuanian union became a major political and military power in the region. Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth existed up to and was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian Empirethe Kingdom of Prussiaand the Habsburg Monarchy. In Livonia was attacked by the Tsardom of Russia and the Livonian war broke out, lasting until The rulers of different A Concise History of the Baltic States within Livonia sought to ally with foreign powers, which resulted in Polish—Lithuanian, Swedish and Danish involvement. As a result, by the Livonian confederation had ceased to exist and its lands in modern Latvia and Southern Estonia became the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and the Duchy of Livoniawhich were vassals to the Polish—Lithuanian CommonwealthOsel island came under Danish rule and Northern Estonia became the Swedish Duchy of Estonia. In the aftermath of later conflicts of the 17th century, much of the Duchy of Livonia and Osel also came under Swedish control as Swedish Livonia. These newly acquired Swedish territories, as well as Ingria and Kexholm now the western part of the Leningrad Oblast of Russiabecame known as the Baltic Dominions. Parts of the Duchy of Livonia that remained in the Commonwealth became Inflanty Voivodeshipwhich contributed to the modern Latgale region of Eastern Latvia becoming culturally distinct from the rest of Latvia as the German nobility lost its influence and the region remained Catholic just like Poland-Lithuania, while the rest of Latvia and also Estonia became Lutheran. At the beginning of the 18th century the Swedish Empire was attacked by a coalition A Concise History of the Baltic States several European powers in the Great Northern War. Among these powers was Russia, seeking to restore its access to the Baltic Sea. During the course of the war it conquered all of the Swedish provinces on the Eastern Baltic coast. This acquisition was legalized by the Treaty of Nystad in which the Baltic Dominions were ceded to Russia. After the Partitions of Poland which took place in the last quarter of the 18th century, the third Ostsee governorate was created, as the Courland Governorate presently a part of Latvia. This toponym stems from the Curoniansone of the Baltic [18] indigenous tribes. Following the annexation of Courland the two other governates were renamed to the Governorate of Livland and the Governorate of Estland. Russian replaced German as the language of administration e. In the late 19th century, nationalist sentiment grew in Estonia and in Latvia morphing into an aspiration to national statehood after the Russian Revolution. After the First World War the term "Baltic A Concise History of the Baltic States came to refer to countries by the Baltic Sea that had gained independence from Russia in its aftermath. As such it included not only former Baltic governorates, but also Latgale LatviaLithuania and Finland. Estonia had already obtained autonomy from tsarist Russia inbut was subsequently occupied by the German Empire; they fought an independence war against Soviet Russia and Baltic nobility before gaining true independence from to Latvia and Lithuanians followed a similar process, until the Latvian War of Independence and Lithuanian Wars of Independence were extinguished in During the interwar period these countries were sometimes referred to as limitrophe states between the two World Wars, from the French, indicating their collectively forming a rim along Bolshevik Russia's, later the Soviet Union's, western border. They were also part of what Clemenceau A Concise History of the Baltic States a strategic cordon sanitairethe entire territory from Finland in the north to Romania in A Concise History of the Baltic States south, standing between Western Europe and potential Bolshevik territorial ambitions. Some note that the events in Lithuania differed from its two more northerly neighbors, with Smetona having different motivations as well as securing power 8 years before any A Concise History of the Baltic States events in Latvia or Estonia took place. Despite considerable political turmoil in Finland no such events took place there. Finland did however get embroiled in a bloody civil warsomething that did not happen in the Baltics. In accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov—Ribbentrop Pact of that divided Europe into A Concise History of the Baltic States and Soviet spheres of influence, the Soviet Army entered eastern Poland in Septemberand then coerced Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania into mutual assistance treaties which granted them the right to establish military bases in these countries. In Junethe Red Army occupied all of the territory of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuaniaand installed new, pro-Soviet governments in all three countries. Following elections in which only pro-communist candidates were allowed to runthe newly elected parliaments of the three countries formally applied to join the Soviet Union in August and were incorporated into it as the EstonianLatvianand Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republics. Repressions, executions and mass deportations followed after that in the Baltics. Between andthe Soviet government deported more thanpeople from the Baltic to remote locations in the Soviet Union. In addition, at least 75, were sent to Gulags. The Soviet control of the Baltic states was interrupted by Nazi German invasion of this region in Initially, many Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians considered the Germans as liberators. The Baltic countries hoped for the restoration of independence, but instead the Germans established a civil administration, known as the Reichskommissariat Ostland. The German occupation lasted until late in Courlanduntil earlywhen the countries were reoccupied by the Red Army and Soviet rule was re- established, with the passive agreement of the United States and Britain see Yalta Conference and Potsdam Agreement. The forced collectivisation of agriculture began inand was completed after the mass deportation in March see Operation Priboi. Private farms were confiscated, and farmers were made to join the collective farms. In all three countries, Baltic partisansknown colloquially as the Forest BrothersLatvian national partisansand Lithuanian partisanswaged unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against the Soviet occupation for the next eight years in a bid to regain their nations' independence. The armed resistance of the anti-Soviet partisans lasted up to Although the armed resistance was defeated, the population remained anti-Soviet. Each was staffed initially by diplomats from A Concise History of the Baltic States last governments before USSR occupation. In the late s a massive campaign of civil resistance against Soviet rule, known as the Singing revolutionbegan. In the wake of this campaign Gorbachev's government had privately concluded that the departure of the Baltic republics had become "inevitable". Soviet Union recognized the independence of three Baltic states on 6 September Troops were withdrawn from the region starting from Lithuania from August The last Russian troops were withdrawn from there in August The Baltic countries are located in Northern Europeall are parliamentary democracieswith unicameral parliaments elected by popular vote for four-year terms: Riigikogu in Estonia, Saeima in Latvia and Seimas in Lithuania. In Latvia and Estonia, the president is elected by parliament, while Lithuania has a semi-presidential system A Concise History of the Baltic States the president is elected by popular vote. Each of the three countries has declared itself to be the restoration of the sovereign nation that had existed from toemphasizing their contention that Soviet domination over the Baltic nations during the Cold War period had been an illegal occupation and annexation. The same legal interpretation is shared by the United States, the United Kingdom, and most other Western democracies, [ citation needed ] who held the forcible incorporation of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania into the Soviet Union to be illegal. At least formally, most Western democracies never considered the three Baltic states to be constituent parts of the Soviet Union. Australia was a brief exception to this support of Baltic independence: inthe Labor government of Australia did recognize Soviet dominion, but this decision was reversed by the next Australian Parliament. After the Baltic states had restored their independenceintegration with Western Europe became a major strategic goal. The Baltic states are currently the only former Soviet states to have joined either organization. During the Baltic struggle for independence —, a personal friendship developed between the at that time unrecognized Baltic ministers of foreign affairs and the Nordic ministers of foreign affairs. Between andthe BAFTA free trade agreement was established to help prepare the countries for their accession to the EU, rather than out of the Baltic states' desire to trade among themselves. The Baltic countries were more interested in gaining access to the rest of the European market. Currently, the governments of the Baltic states cooperate in multiple ways, including cooperation among presidents, A Concise History of the Baltic States speakers, heads of government, and foreign ministers. On 8 Novemberthe Baltic Assembly A Concise History of the Baltic States, which includes 15 to 20 MPs from each parliament, was established to facilitate inter-parliamentary cooperation. The Baltic Council of Ministers was established on 13 June to facilitate intergovernmental cooperation. Sincethere is coordination between the two organizations. Compared with other regional groupings in Europe, such as Nordic council or Visegrad FourBaltic cooperation is rather limited. Possible explanations include the short history of restored sovereignty and fear of losing it again, along with an orientation toward Nordic countries and Baltic-Nordic cooperation in The Nordic-Baltic Eight. Estonia especially has attempted to construct a Nordic identity for itself and denounced Baltic identity, despite still seeking to preserve close relationship with other countries in the region. All three countries are members of the New Hanseatic Leaguea group of Northern European countries in the EU formed to advocate a common fiscal position. Estonia Kersti Kaljulaid President A Concise History of the Baltic States Estonia. Latvia Egils Levits President of Latvia. Usually the concept of energy security is related to the uninterruptible supply, sufficient energy storage, advanced technological development of energy sector and environmental regulations. Even now being a part of the European Union, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are still considered as the most vulnerable EU member states in the energy sphere. Moreover, several routes of oil delivery also have been sustained from Soviet times: These are ports in Ventspils, Butinge and Tallinn. As a part of the EU fromBaltic states must comply with the EU's regulations in energy, environmental and security spheres. The calculations take into account not A Concise History of the Baltic States economic, but also technological and energy-related factors: Energy and carbon intensity of transport and households, trade balance of total energy, energy import dependency, diversification of energy mix, etc. They diversified their oil import suppliers due to shutdown of Druzhba gas pipeline in and increased the share of renewable sources in total energy production with the help of the EU policies. Estonia usually was the best performing country in terms of energy security, but new assessment shows that even though Estonia has the highest share of renewables in the energy production, its energy economy has A Concise History of the Baltic States still characterized by high rates of carbon intensity. Lithuania, in contrast, achieved the best results on carbon intensity of economy but its energy dependence level is still very high. Latvia performed the best according to all indicators. Especially, the high share of renewables were introduced to the energy production of Latvia, that can be explained by the state's geographical location A Concise History of the Baltic States favorable natural conditions. A Concise History of the Baltic States - Andrejs Plakans - Google книги

In prehistoric times Finno-Ugric tribes inhabited a long belt A Concise History of the Baltic States across northern Europe from the Urals through northern Scandinavia, reaching south to present-day Latvia. The predecessors of the modern Balts bordered them along a belt to the south, stretching west from a region…. It then began the conquest of the lands south of the Dvina but encountered strong resistance from their inhabitants, the Curonians Kurs and the Semigallians. Finland is mentioned together with Estonia in a list of Swedish provinces drawn up for the pope inapparently as a Swedish missionary area. The first crusade,…. In the Baltic republics, especially, many argued that they could run their economic affairs better than Moscow. Interethnic strife and conflict intensified and sometimes resulted in bloodshed. The conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, an Armenian-dominated enclave in Azerbaijan, was the most violent and bitter. The newly-elected A Concise History of the Baltic States Soviets could…. Brandenburg, and its capital Berlin, embraced reform inand in that same year ducal Saxony, until then…. At first the war went well, but the differing objectives of the Ukrainian and Muscovite allies soon revealed themselves. When Charles X of Sweden entered the fray against Poland, Alexis made peace, in ; he feared a strong Sweden as much as a…. The Baltic Germans were loyal subjects and provided admirable officers and officials; they were therefore allowed to preserve their German culture and to maintain their cultural and social domination over the Estonians and Latvians. The young Slavophile and landowning nobleman Yury…. The Germans of the Baltic provinces were deprived of their university, and their ancient secondary schools were Russified. The Latvians and Estonians did not object to action by the government against the Germans, whom they had reason to dislike as landowners and rich burghers, but the prospect of the…. While Westerners could scarcely expect to enlist the A Concise History of the Baltic States Army in their cause without giving something in return, they could not justify turning free peoples over to Stalinist tyranny. Second, the Poles, as always, refused to invite the Red…. Heavy pressure was now put on these latter three, and they were forced to accept Soviet garrisons under treaties signed in September and October. The treaties guaranteed that there would be no interference in their internal politics. Profiting quickly from its understanding with Germany, the U. Approached with similar demands. History of Baltic States Article. History of Baltic States Share Share. Facebook Twitter. Learn about this topic in these articles: major treatment. A Concise History of the Baltic States by Andrejs Plakans

To browse Academia. Skip to main content. Log In Sign Up. Download Free PDF. Markus Meckl. A Concise History of the Baltic States. Any subst ant ial or syst em at ic reproduct ion, redist ribut ion, reselling, loan, sub- licensing, syst em at ic supply, or dist ribut ion in any form t o anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warrant y express or im plied or m ake any represent at ion t hat t he cont ent s will be com plet e or accurat e or up t o dat e. The accuracy of any inst ruct ions, form ulae, and drug doses should be independent ly verified wit h prim ary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, act ions, claim s, proceedings, dem and, or cost s or dam ages what soever or howsoever caused arising direct ly or indirect ly A Concise History of the Baltic States connect ion wit h or arising out of t he use of t his m at erial. Plakans sees things differently: he explains that Russian speakers remain in the country A Concise History of the Baltic States. It does not occur to history of the three countries to a wider him that the same might be true of the Rus- public in the Concise Histories series pub- sian-speaking population in the Baltic States. The author Latvian, Estonian A Concise History of the Baltic States Lithuanian population. The contribution of minorities to the The prevailing concept of a nation in the cultural and political richness of the Baltic Baltic States based on ethnicity is more a her- States is just ignored. Of course one can itage from the Soviet-era than from Herder, argue whether or not Mark Rothko and Sir and if the author complains that this way of Isaiah Berlin need to be mentioned in a his- thinking did not disappear overnight, one tory of the Baltic States, but to omit figures wonders why there is a need to keep it alive such as the widely popular Latvian foreign with a book like this. Related Papers. By David J. Russians in post-Soviet Central Asia: more 'cold' than the others? Exploring ethnic identity under different sociopolitical settings. By Natalya Kosmarskaya. Hot and cold ethnicities in the Baltic states. By Anastassia Zabrodskaja and Martin Ehala. David J. Journal of Baltic Studies, By Violeta Davoliute. Download pdf. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? A Concise History of the Baltic States here to sign up.